[1] Some bibliographers prefer to use double strokes to avoid
confusion with the old-fashioned long commas. Others use a single
stroke to indicate the space between two lines and increase the
number of strokes where the space left is wider than this.
[2] It may be noted that some confusion is caused in descriptions of
books by the word "sheet," which should be restricted to the original
sheet of paper which by folding becomes folio, quarto, &c., being
applied also to the double-leaf of four pages. A word specially
appropriated to this is greatly needed, and as gatherings of two,
three, four, &c., of such double-leaves are known technically as
duernions, ternions, quaternions, &c., the double-leaf itself might
well be called a "unit."
[3] Here specify the page measured.
BIBLIOMANCY (from the Gr. [Greek: biblion], a book, and [Greek:
manteia], prophecy), a form of divination (q.v.) by means of the Bible
or other books. The method employed is to open the Bible haphazard and
be guided by the first verse which catches the eye. Among the Greeks and
Romans the practice was known under the name of _sortes Homericae_ or
_sortes Virgilianae_, the books consulted being those of Homer or
Virgil.
BIBRACTE, an ancient Gaulish town, the modern Mont Beuvray, near Autun
in France. Here, on a hilltop 2500 ft. above sea-level, excavation has
revealed a vast area of 330 acres, girt with a stone and wood rampart 3
m. long, and containing the remains of dwelling-houses, a temple of
Bibractis, and the workshops of iron and bronze workers and enamellers.
It was the capital of the Aedui in the time of Julius Caesar. Later on
Augustus removed the inhabitants to his new town Augustodunum (Autun),
to destroy the free native traditions. Another far more obscure town in
Gaul, near Reims, also bore the name.
See Bulliot, _Fouilles de Beuvray_; Dechelette, _Oppidum de Bibracte_;
also references s.v. AEDUI.
BIBULUS, a surname of the Roman gens Calpurnia. The best-known of those
who bore it was Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, consul with Julius Caesar, 59
B.C. He was the candidate put forward by the aristocratical party in
opposition to L. Lucceius, who was of the party of Caesar; and bribery
was freely used, with the approval of even the rigid Cato (Suetonius,
_Caesar_, 9), to secure his election. But he proved no match for his
able colleague. He made an attempt to oppose the agrarian law introduced
by Caesar for distributing the lands of Campania, but was overpowered
and even personally ill-treated by the mob. After making vain complaints
in the senate, he shut himself up in his own house during the remaining
eight months of his consulship, taking no part in public business beyond
fulminating edicts against Caesar's proceedings, which only provoked an
attack upon his house by a mob of Caesar's partisans. His conduct gave
rise to the jest, that Julius and Caesar were consuls during that year.
When the relations of Caesar and Pompey became strained, Bibulus
supported Pompey (Plutarch, _Cato Minor_, 41) and joined in proposing
his election as sole consul (52 B.C.). Next year he went to Syria as
proconsul and claimed credit for a victory gained by one of his officers
over the Parthians, before his own arrival in the province. After the
expiration of his term of office, Pompey gave him command of his fleet
in the Ionian Sea. He proved himself utterly incapable; his chief
exploit was the burning of thirty transports on their return from Epirus
whither they had succeeded in conveying Caesar and some troops from
Brundusium. He died soon afterwards (48) of fatigue and mortification
(Caesar, _Bell. Civ._ iii. 5-18; Dio Cassius xli. 48). Although not a
man of great importance, Bibulus showed great persistency as the enemy
of Caesar. Cicero says of him that he was no orator, but a careful
writer. By his wife Porcia, daughter of Cato, afterwards married to
Brutus, he had three sons. The two eldest were murdered in Egypt by some
of the soldiery of Gabinius; the youngest, Lucius Calpurnius Bibulus,
fought on the side of the republic at the battle of Philippi, but
surrendered to Antony soon afterwards, and was by him appointed to the
command of his fleet. He died (about 32) while governor of Syria under
Augustus. He wrote a short memoir of his step-father Brutus, which was
used by Plutarch (Appian, _B.C._ iv. 136; Plutarch, _Brutus_, 13. 23).
BICE (from Fr. _bis_, a word of doubtful origin, meaning dark-coloured),
a term erroneously applied in English to particular shades of green or
blue pigments from the French terms _vert bis_ and _azur bis_, dark
green or blue. These colours are generally prepared from basic copper
carbonates, but sometimes from ultramarine and other pigments.
BICESTER, a market town in the Woodstock parliamentary division of
Oxfordshire, England, 12 m. N.N.E. of Oxford by a branch of the London &
North-Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3023. It lies near
the northern edge of the flat open plain of Ot Moor, in a pastoral
country. The church of St Eadburg, the virgin of Aylesbury, is
cruciform, with a western tower, and contains examples of Norman and
each succeeding style. There is, moreover, in the nave a single rude
angular arch considered to be Saxon. Incorporated with a farm-house,
scanty Perpendicular remains are seen of an Augustinian priory founded
at the close of the 12th century. Bicester has considerable agricultural
trade and a brewing industry. It is a favourite hunting centre.
The termination _cester_, commonly indicating Roman origin, does not do
so here, and is perhaps copied from Alchester and Chesterton, 2 m. west
of Bicester, where there is a small Roman site, probably a wayside
village, at the meeting of roads from the south (Dorchester), west,
north-east and east.
Bicester (Berncestre, Burencestre, Bissiter), according to the Domesday
survey, was held by Robert d'Oily. In 1182 Gilbert Basset founded here
an Augustinian priory, which from that date until its dissolution in
1538 became the centre of the industrial life and development of the
town. In 1253 William Longspey obtained a grant of a fair at the feast
of St Edburg, and a Friday market is mentioned in the 14th century.
Richard II. granted a Monday market and a fair at the feast of St James
the Apostle, and in 1440 an additional market was granted to be held in
that part of the town called Bury-End, from this date known as
Market-End. Bicester never possessed any manufactures of importance, but
the fairs and markets were much frequented, and in the 16th century the
cattle market was especially famous.
See J.C. Blomfield, _History of the Deanery of Bicester_ (London,
1882-1894); John Dunkin, _History of Bicester_ (London, 1816).
BICHAT, MARIE FRANCOIS XAVIER (1771-1802), French anatomist and
physiologist, was born at Thoirette (Jura) on the 14th of November 1771.
His father, a physician, was his first instructor. He entered the
college of Nantua, and afterwards studied at Lyons. In mathematics and
the physical sciences he made rapid progress, but ultimately devoted
himself to the study of anatomy and surgery, under the guidance of M.A.
Petit (1766-1811), chief surgeon to the Hotel Dieu at Lyons. The
revolutionary disturbances compelled him to fly from Lyons and take
refuge in Paris in 1793. He there became a pupil of P.J. Desault, who
was so strongly impressed with his genius that he took him into his
house and treated him as his adopted son. For two years he actively
participated in all the labours of Desault, prosecuting at the same time
his own researches in anatomy and physiology. The sudden death of
Desault in 1795 was a severe blow to Bichat. His first care was to
acquit himself of the obligations he owed his benefactor, by
contributing to the support of his widow and her son, and by conducting
to a close the fourth volume of Desault's _Journal de Chirurgie_, to
which he added a biographical memoir of its author. His next object was
to reunite and digest in one body the surgical doctrines which Desault
had published in various periodical works. Of these he composed _Oeuvres
chirurgicales de Desault, ou tableau de sa doctrine, et de sa pratique
dans le traitement des maladies externes_ (1798-1799), a work in which,
although he professes only to set forth the ideas of another, he
develops them with the clearness of one who is a master of the subject.
In 1797 he began a course of anatomical demonstrations, and his success
encouraged him to extend the plan of his lectures, and boldly to
announce a course of operative surgery. In the following year, 1798, he
gave in addition a separate course of physiology. A dangerous attack of
haemoptysis interrupted his labours for a time; but the danger was no
sooner past than he plunged into new engagements with the same ardour as
before. He had now scope in his physiological lectures for a fuller
exposition of his original views on the animal economy, which excited
much attention in the medical schools at Paris. Sketches of these
doctrines were given by him in three papers contained in the Memoirs of
the Societe Medicale d'Emulation, which he founded in 1796, and they
were afterwards more fully developed in his _Traite sur les membranes_
(1800). His next publication was the _Recherches physiologiques sur la
vie et sur la mort_ (1800), and it was quickly followed by his _Anatomie
generale_ (1801), the work which contains the fruits of his most
profound and original researches. He began another work, under the title
_Anatomie descriptive_ (1801-1803), in which the organs were arranged
according to his peculiar classification of their functions, but lived
to publish only the first two volumes. It was completed on the same plan
by his pupils, M.F.R. Buisson (1776-1805) and P.J. Roux (1780-1854).
Before Bichat had attained the age of eight-and-twenty he was appointed
physician to the Hotel Dieu, a situation which opened an immense field
to his ardent spirit of inquiry. In the investigation of diseases he
pursued the same method of observation and experiment which had
characterized his researches in physiology. He learned their history by
studying them at the bedside of his patients, and by accurate dissection
of their bodies after death. He engaged in a series of examinations,
with a view to ascertain the changes induced in the various organs by
disease, and in less than six months he had opened above six hundred
bodies. He was anxious also to determine with more precision than had
been attempted before, the effects of remedial agents, and instituted
with this view a series of direct experiments which yielded a vast store
of valuable material. Towards the end of his life he was also engaged on
a new classification of diseases. A fall from a staircase at the Hotel
Dieu resulted in a fever, and, exhausted by his excessive labours and by
constantly breathing the tainted air of the dissecting-room, he died on
the 22nd of July 1802. His bust, together with that of Desault, was
placed in the Hotel Dieu by order of Napoleon.
BICHROMATES AND CHROMATES. Chromium trioxide dissolves readily in water,
and the solution is supposed to contain chromic acid, H2CrO4; the salts
of this acid are known as the chromates. In addition to these normal
salts, others exist, namely bichromates, trichromates, &c., which may be
regarded as combinations of one molecular proportion of the normal salt
with one or more molecular proportions of chromium trioxide. The series
will thus possess the following general formulae:--
M2CrO4 M2Cr2O7 M2Cr3O10 &c. (M = one atom of a
normal chromate bichromate trichromate monovalent metal.)
_Chromates._--The alkaline chromates are usually obtained by fusion of
a chromium compound with an alkaline carbonate and an oxidizing agent,
such for example as potassium nitrate or chlorate. The native
chrome-ironstone (Cr2O3.FeO) may be used in this way as a source of
such compounds, being fused in a reverberatory furnace, along with
soda-ash and lime, the oxidizing agent in this case being atmospheric
oxygen. They may also be prepared by oxidizing chromium salts (in
alkaline solution) with hydrogen peroxide, chlorine, bleaching powder,
potassium permanganate and manganese dioxide. The majority of the
chromates are yellow in colour, and many of them are isomorphous with
the corresponding sulphates. The alkaline chromates are soluble in
water, those of most other metals being insoluble. By the addition of
mineral acids, they are converted rapidly into bichromates. They are
easily reduced in acid solution by sulphuretted hydrogen, and also by
sulphur dioxide to chromium salts. The chromates are stable towards
heat; they are poisonous, and may be recognized by the yellow
precipitates they give with soluble barium and lead salts.
Potassium chromate, K2CrO4, may be prepared by neutralizing a solution
of potassium bichromate with potassium carbonate or with caustic
potash. It crystallizes in yellow rhombic prisms, and is readily
soluble in water, the solution having a bitter taste and an alkaline
reaction. When heated in a current of sulphuretted hydrogen, or carbon
bisulphide, it yields a mixture of chromium sesquioxide and sulphide.
When heated with sulphur it yields chromium sesquioxide. Sodium
chromate, Na2CrO4.10(H2O), forms pale yellow crystals isomorphous with
hydrated sodium sulphate, Na2SO4.10(H2O). It is deliquescent, and
melts at 23 deg. C. (M. Berthelot). By evaporation of its aqueous solution
at temperatures above 30 deg. C. it may be obtained in the anhydrous
condition. Lead chromate, PbCrO4, occurs native as the mineral
crocoisite, and may be obtained as an amorphous pale yellow solid by
precipitating a soluble lead salt by an alkaline chromate. It is used
as a pigment under the name "chrome yellow." When digested for some
time with a caustic alkali it is converted into a basic salt,
PbCrO4.PbO, a pigment known as "chrome red." It melts readily, and on
cooling resolidifies to a brown mass, which at moderately high
temperatures gives off oxygen and leaves a residue of a basic lead
salt; for this reason fused lead chromate is sometimes made use of in
the analysis of organic compounds. Silver chromate, Ag2CrO4 is a dark
red amorphous powder obtained when silver nitrate is precipitated by
an alkaline chromate. It is decomposed by the addition of caustic
alkalis, forming silver oxide and an alkaline chromate.
_Bichromates._--The bichromates are usually of a red or reddish-brown
colour, those of the alkali metals being readily soluble in water.
They are readily decomposed by heat, leaving a residue of the normal
chromate and chromium sesquioxide, and liberating oxygen; ammonium
bichromate, however, is completely decomposed into chromium
sesquioxide, water and nitrogen. Sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphur
dioxide reduce them in acid solution to the condition of chromium
salts.
Potassium bichromate, K2Cr2O7, is obtained by fusing chrome ironstone
with soda ash and lime (see above), the calcium chromate formed in the
process being decomposed by a hot solution of potassium sulphate.
After the calcium sulphate has settled, the potassium chromate
solution is converted into bichromate by the action of sulphuric acid,
and the salt is allowed to crystallize. It forms large triclinic
prisms of specific gravity 2.6-2.7, which are moderately soluble in
cold water and readily soluble in hot water. The solution is strongly
acid in reaction and is very poisonous. Potassium bichromate finds
extensive application in organic chemistry as an oxidizing agent,
being used for this purpose in dilute sulphuric acid solution, K2Cr2O7
+ 4H2SO4 = KaSO4 + Cr2(SO4)3 + 4H2O + 3O. On the addition of
concentrated sulphuric acid to a cold saturated solution of the salt,
red crystals of chromium trioxide, CrO3, separate (see CHROMIUM),
whilst when warmed with concentrated hydrochloric acid and a little
water, potassium chlorochromate is produced. When heated with
phosphorus trichloride in a sealed tube to 160 deg. C., potassium
chlorochromate, phosphorus oxychloride, potassium chloride, and a
complex chromium oxide (possibly Cr3O6) are produced (A. Michaelis,
_Jour. prak. Chem._, 1871, ii. 4, p. 452). Potassium bichromate finds
application in photography, in calico-printing and in the preparation
of bichromate cells. Sodium bichromate, Na2Cr2O7.2{H2O}, may be
obtained by the addition of the requisite quantity of chromium
trioxide to a solution of sodium chromate. It crystallizes in
hyacinth-red prisms, which are very hygroscopic and melt at 320 deg. C.
_Trichromates._--The trichromates are obtained by the addition of
nitric acid (of specific gravity about 1.2) to solutions of the
bichromates. They form rhombic crystals of a red or brown red or brown
red colour and are readily decomposed by warm water, with formation of
the bichromate.
_Perchromic Acid._--By the addition of hydrogen peroxide to a solution
of chromic acid, a fine blue coloration due to a perchromic acid is
produced which is readily absorbed by shaking out with ether. The
following formulae have been assigned to the compound:--H2O2.CrO3 (H.
Moissan, _Comptes rendus_, 1883, 97, p. 96); H2O2.2HCrO4 (M.
Berthelot, _Comptes rendus_, 1889, 108, p. 25); Cr2O7.xH2O (L.C.A.
Barreswil, _Ann. chim. et phys._, 1847 [3], 20, p. 364), and
CrO6.3{H2O} (T. Fairley, _Chem. News_, 1876, 33, p. 237). The more
recent investigations of H.G. Byers and E.E. Reed (_Amer. Chem.
Jour._, 1904, 32, p. 503) show that if metallic potassium be added to
an ethereal solution of the blue compound at -20 deg. C., hydrogen is
liberated and a purple black precipitate of the perchromate, of
composition KCrO4 or K2Cl2O8, is produced; this compound is very
unstable, and readily decomposes into oxygen and potassium bichromate.
Similar sodium, ammonium, lithium, magnesium, calcium, barium and zinc
salts have been obtained. It is shown that the blue solution most
probably contains the acid of composition, H2Cr2O8, whilst in the
presence of an excess of hydrogen peroxide more highly oxidized
products probably exist.
BICKER (connected by Skeat with _bike_, to thrust or strike), an Old
English word (traced from the 13th century) implying conflict or
disputation. A poetical use, from the noise, is seen in Tennyson's
_Brook_, "to bicker down the valley."
BICKERSTAFFE, ISAAC (c. 1735-c. 1812), English dramatist, was born in
Ireland about 1735. At the age of eleven he was appointed a page to Lord
Chesterfield, then lord lieutenant of Ireland, and subsequently held a
commission in the Marines, but was dismissed the service under
discreditable circumstances. He was the author of a large number of
plays and burlesque farces interspersed with songs, produced between
1760 and 1771. The best-known are _Maid of the Mill_ (founded on
Richardson's _Pamela_), _The Padlock, He Would if he Could, Love in a
Village, The Hypocrite_ and _The Captive_. In 1772 Bickerstaffe,
suspected of a capital offence, fled to the continent. The exact date of
his death is unknown, but he is stated to have been still living in
abject misery in 1812.
A full account of his dramatic productions is given in _Biographia
Dramatica_, edited by Stephen Jones (1812).
BICKERSTETH, EDWARD (1786-1850), English evangelical divine, brother of
Henry, Baron Langdale, master of the rolls (1836-1851), and uncle of
Robert Bickersteth, bishop of Ripon (1857-1884), was born at Kirkby
Lonsdale, and practised as a solicitor at Norwich from 1812 to 1815. In
1816 he took orders, and was made one of the secretaries of the Church
Missionary Society. On receiving the living of Watton, Hertfordshire, in
1830, he resigned his secretaryship, but continued to lecture and
preach, both for the Church Missionary Society and the Society for the
Conversion of the Jews. His works include _A Scripture Help_ (London,
1816), which has been translated into many European languages, and
_Christian Psalmody_ (London, 1833), a collection of over 700 hymns,
which forms the basis of the _Hymnal Companion_ (London, 1870), compiled
by his son, E.H. Bickersteth, bishop of Exeter (1885-1890). He was
active in promoting the Evangelical Alliance of 1845, strongly opposed
the Tractarian Movement, and was one of the founders of the Irish Church
Missions, and Parker, Societies.
EDWARD BICKERSTETH (1814-1892), dean of Lichfield, was his nephew, and
EDWARD BICKERSTETH (1850-1897), bishop of South Tokyo, his grandson.
BICYCLE (from prefix _bi_ = twice, and [Greek: kyklos] a circle, wheel).
The modern bicycle, as developed from the old velocipede (see CYCLING),
consists essentially of two wheels placed one behind the other and
mounted on a frame which carries a saddle for the rider. Between the
wheels is a crank-axle which the rider drives by means of the cranks and
pedals, and its motion is transmitted to the rear or driving wheel
either by a chain which passes over two chain wheels, one fixed on the
crank-axle and the other on the hub of the rear wheel, or, in the
chainless bicycle, by a tubular shaft and two pairs of bevel-wheels. The
rear wheel is usually so arranged that it can turn, when the bicycle is
running by its own momentum, independently of the chain and pedals
("free-wheel"), and a variable speed gear is often provided so that the
rider may at will alter the ratio between the rate of revolution of the
crank-axle and the driving wheel. The front, or steering wheel, is
mounted in a fork having its two upper ends brazed into the "crown," to
which also the lower end of the steering tube is brazed. The steering
tube is mounted by ball bearings in the socket tube, which forms the
forward portion of the rear-frame.
The highest quality of materials and the most accurate workmanship are
required to produce a first-class bicycle. Steel of 75 to 100 tons per
sq. in. tensile strength is used in chains, spokes, &c. In balls and
ball-races, hardness without brittleness, and homogeneity are of primary
importance. Broken balls, or even traces of wear in bearings, are now
seldom heard of in a first-class bicycle. The process of case-hardening,
whereby an extremely hard outer skin is combined with a tough interior,
has been brought to a high degree of perfection, and is applied to many
parts of the bicycle, particularly chains, free-wheels and toothed-wheel
variable speed gears. Interchangeability of parts is secured by working
to the smallest possible limits of error of workmanship.
[Illustration: Fig 1.]
_Frames._--Fig. 1 represents a road-racer. A full roadster would have
the handles a little higher relatively to the saddle, and would be
provided with mud-guards, free-wheel and sometimes a gear-case and
variable speed gear. Fig. 2 shows a lady's bicycle with gear-case and
dress-guard. The rear frame of the "diamond" type (fig. 1) is
subjected to very small stresses due to vertical load. The front fork
and steering post are subject to bending moment due to the reaction
from the ground in the direction _dcb_. A slight amount of elasticity
in the front fork adds considerably to the comfort in riding over
rough roads. When the brake is applied lightly to the front wheel, the
reaction from the ground falls more closely along the axis of the
front fork, and the bending moment at the crown is diminished. If the
front brake is applied harder the reaction from the ground at d may
pass through the crown, in which case the bending moment at the crown
is zero. Still harder application of the brake causes a bending moment
in the opposite direction. In fig. 1 the axes of the top and bottom
tubes of the rear frame are produced to meet at _a_. If the reaction
from the ground is in the direction _da_, the top and bottom tubes are
subjected to pure compressive and tensile stresses respectively. When
no brake pressure is applied a bending moment due to the overhang _ab_
is superimposed on these tubes. Thus a short socket head with top tube
sloping downwards towards the head gives a stronger frame than a
horizontal top tube. The steering axis _ef_ is arranged so as to cut
the ground at _f_, a little in front of the point of contact _d_ of
the wheel with the ground, giving a slight castor action, and making
steering possible without use of the handle-bar. The rake of the
steering head (that is the angle between _ef_ and _bd_) and the set of
the fork (that is the displacement of the wheel centre _c_ from the
axis _ef_) may be varied within tolerably large limits without much
affecting the easy steering properties of the bicycle. The transverse
stresses on the rear frame due to the action of pedalling are more
severe than those due to the vertical load. The pedal pressure is
applied at a considerable distance from the central plane of the
bicycle, and the pedal pin, cranks and crank-axle are subjected to a
bending moment which is transmitted by the ball bearings to the frame.
The down-tube from the seat lug to the crank-bracket and the bottom
tube from the foot of the steering socket tube to the crank-bracket
are made fairly stout to resist this bending moment. Further, the pull
of the chain causes a transverse bending moment in the plane of the
chain-stays, which must be stiff enough under heavy pedal pressure.
[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
The tubular portions of the frame are made of weldless cold-drawn
steel tube. The junctions or lugs are usually of malleable cast iron,
bored to fit the outside of the tube, the final union being effected
by brazing. In very light bicycles the tubes are kept thin, 22 or 24
W.G. (.028 in. or .022 in. thickness) at the middle, and are
strengthened at the ends by internal liners. Or butt-ended tubes are
employed, the tubes being drawn thicker at the ends than in the
middle. The steering post and fork sides especially should be thus
strengthened at their junction with the crown. Some of the best makers
use sheet steel stampings instead of cast lugs, greater lightness and
strength being secured, and in some cases the sheet steel lugs are
inside the tubes, so that the joints are all flush on the outside. The
front fork blades are best made of sheet steel stamped to shape and
with the edges brazed together to form a hollow tube. The sheet steel
that can be thus employed has a much higher elastic limit than a
weldless steel tube.
[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
_Bearings._--Ball bearings are universally used. Each row of balls
runs between two ball-races of hardened steel, one on the stationary
member, the other on the rotating member. The outer is called the
"cup," and the inner the "cone." One of the four ball-races is
adjustable axially so that the bearing may run without any shake. The
ball-races are often made of separate pieces of steel, but the
crank-axle usually has the cones formed integral with it, the
necessary hardness being obtained by case-hardening. According as the
two cups face outwards or inwards the bearing is said to have outward
or inward cups, and according as the adjustable ball race is the cone
or cup, the bearing is said to be cone-adjusting or cup-adjusting.
Fig. 3 shows a ball-bearing hub with outward cups. The hub-shell H is
turned out of mild steel, and the cups C are forced into the ends of
the hub-shell and soldered thereto. A thin washer W is then spun into
the end, for the purpose of retaining oil, and a thin internal tube T
unites the two cups, and guides the oil fed in at the middle of the
hub to the balls. The projecting flanges S are for the attachment of
the tangent spokes used to build the hub into the wheel. The spindle A
has the two cones screwed on it, one C1 against a shoulder, the other
C2 adjustable. The spindle ends are passed through the back-fork ends
and are there adjusted in position by the chain-tension adjusters.
After adjustment the nuts N clamp the spindle securely between the
fork-ends. The chain-wheel or free-wheel clutch is screwed on the end
of the hub-shell, with a right-hand thread. The chain being at the
right-hand side of the bicycle (as the rider is seated) the driving
pull of the chain tends to screw the chain-wheel tight against the
shoulder. A locking-ring R with a left-hand thread, screwed tight
against the chain-wheel, prevents the latter from being unscrewed by
back-pedalling. With a free-wheel clutch screwed on the hub, the
locking-ring may be omitted.
[Illustration: FIG. 4. ]
Fig. 4 shows one end of the cup-adjusting hub, with inward bearings.
The cones are formed of one piece with the spindles, and the adjusting
cup C is screwed in the end of the hub shell, and locked in position
by the screwed locking-ring R. The figure also illustrates a divided
spindle for facilitating the removal of the tire for repair when
required without disturbing the wheel, bearings, chain or gear-case.
The chain side of the hub-spindle, not shown in the figure, is secured
to the frame in the usual way; on the left side the spindle S projects
very little beyond the adjusting cup. A distance washer W is placed
between the end of the spindle S and the fork-end F. A detachable
screw-pin, or the footstep, P, passes through the chain-adjusting
draw-bolt B, the fork-end F, and the distance washer W, and is screwed
into the end of the spindle S, the hexagon head of the detachable pin
drawing all the parts securely together. On unscrewing the detachable
pin, the distance washer W drops out of place, leaving a clear space
for removing the tire without disturbing any other part.
The inward-cups bearing retains more oil than the other form. The
pressure on a ball being normal to the surface of contact with the
ball race, and each ball touching two ball races, the two points of
contact must be in line with the centre of the ball. All the lines of
pressure on the balls of a row meet at a point _f_ on the axis of the
spindle. The distance between the two points _f_ (fig. 5) may be
called the virtual length of the bearing. Other things being equal,
the outward-cups bearing has a greater virtual length than the
inward-cups bearing. In hubs and pedals where the actual distance
between the two rows of balls is sufficient, this point is of little
importance. At the crank-axle bearing, however, where the pedal
pressure which produces pressure on the axle bearings is applied at a
considerable overhang beyond the ball-races, the greater virtual
length of the outward-cups is an advantage.
[Illustration: FIG. 5.]
Fig. 5 shows diagrammatically the usual form of crank-axle bearing
which has inward-cups and is cup-adjusting. The end of the bracket is
split and the cup after adjustment is clamped in position by the
clamping screw S. The usual mode of fastening the cranks to the axle
is by round cotters C with a flat surface at a slight angle to the
axis, thus forming a wedge, which is driven in tight. The small end of
the cotter projects through the crank, and is screwed and held in
place by a nut. The chain-wheel at the crank-axle is usually
detachably fastened to the right-hand crank.
The Rudge-Whitworth crank-bracket has outward cups and is
cup-adjusting. The cranks are cotterless. Fig. 6 is a sectional view.
The left crank and axle are forged in one piece. The fastening of the
right crank and chain-wheel is by multiple grooves and teeth, this
fastening being better mechanically than the cotter type.
[Illustration: FIG. 6. ]
_Pedals._--The pedal consists of a pedal body, on which the foot of
the rider rests, mounted by ball-bearings on a pedal-pin, which is
secured to the end of the crank and turns with it. The pedal body is
made in many forms, but usually the bearing-cups are contained in a
tube from the ends of which project plates, carrying rubber blocks, or
serrated plates (rat-trap pedals), on which the foot of the rider
rests. Cone adjustment is most used. The fastening of the pedal pin to
the crank is best effected by screwing it up against a shoulder, the
right and left crank eyes being tapped with right and left hand screws
respectively. With this arrangement, if the pedal pin screw is a slack
fit in the crank eye, the pressure on the pedal tends to screw it up
against the shoulder.
_Wheels._--Bicycle and tricycle wheels are made on the "suspension"
principle, the spokes being of high-tenacity steel wire, screwed up to
a certain initial tension, thus putting a circumferential compression
on the rim. In the "artillery" wheel, the wooden spokes are in
compression, and the rim is under tension. The rims, which are made to
a section suitable for pneumatic tires (see TIRE), may be of sheet
steel or aluminium alloy rolled to the required section, either
without joint or jointed by brazing or riveting. Wood rims are used on
racing bicycles, but in England are not popular for roadster bicycles.
Holes are drilled at or near the central plane of the rim for the
spoke nipples, which have shoulders resting on the outer surface of
the rim and shanks projecting through the rim towards the hub. The
spoke ends are screwed to fit the nipples. The shank of the nipple has
a square cut on its outside surface by which it can be screwed up. The
spoke flanges on the hub are placed far apart and the spread of the
spokes gives the wheel lateral stability. Tangential rigidity under
driving and braking is obtained by fastening the spokes to the hub
tangentially (figs. 1 and 2). The hub fastening of the spoke is simply
obtained by forming a hook and head on the spoke end, and passing it
through a hole in the hub flange. The best spokes are butted at the
ends, i.e. made of larger diameter than at the middle, to allow for
screwing at one end and the hook bend at the other.
[Illustration: FIG. 7.]
_Chains._--There are two widely used types of chains. The "block"
chain (fig. 7) consists of a series of central blocks connected by
side plates. The "roller" chain (fig. 8) consists of a series of
outside and inside links. The outside link A is made up of two steel
side plates P united by two shouldered rivets R. The inside link B
consists of two side plates P united by two tubular pieces T, which
form bushes for the rivets R and pivots for the rollers L. The rivets,
bushes and rollers are case-hardened.
[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
Roller chains for cycles are made in two pitches, 1/2 in. and 5/8 in.,
and in widths from 1/8 in. to 1/4 in. between the side plates of the
inside links. The weight of 4 ft. length (96 links) of a 1/2 in. pitch
1/8 in. wide roller chain is about 121/4 oz., and its breaking load is
about 2000 lb. In a block chain the ends of the blocks engage with the
teeth of the chain-wheels, and the same surfaces continually coming
into contact, the wear may become excessive, especially when exposed
to mud and grit. In the roller chain the outer surfaces of the rollers
engage with the teeth of the chain-wheels, and during the engagement
and disengagement may roll slightly on the tubular rivets. The surface
of contact of the roller and tubular rivet is not directly exposed to
the dust and grit from the road. The rollers therefore serve the
double purpose of (1) transferring the relative motion of the parts to
a pair of surfaces under better conditions as regards lubrication, and
(2) presenting a new part of the outside surface of the roller for the
next engagement with the chain-wheel. The durability of roller chains
is thus much greater than that of block chains, under the usual
conditions of cycling.
[Illustration: FIG. 9.]
_Chain-wheels._--The pitch line of the chain-wheel is polygonal (fig.
9), _a, b, c, d_ being centres of adjacent joints of the chain when
lying in contact with the wheel. The path of the joint _a_ of the
chain, relative to the chain-wheel as it enters on to and leaves the
chain-wheel, is evidently the curve _a3 a2 a a'1 a'2_ made up of a
series of circular arcs having centres _d, c, b, b', c'_,
respectively. Similarly for the path of the adjacent joint _b_. The
fullest possible form of the tooth is that between the two parallel
curves, of radii less by an amount equal to the radius of the roller,
as indicated in fig. 9. But since it is neither necessary nor
desirable that the roller should roll along the whole length of the
tooth, the radii of curvature of the tooth outline may be less than
shown in fig. 9. A good arrangement of tooth form is shown in fig. 10.
[Illustration: FIG. 10.]
Owing to the polygonal pitch surfaces of the chain-wheels a chain does
not transmit motion with constant speed-ratio of the shafts. The
variation of speed-ratio in a chain with links of equal pitch is
approximately inversely proportional to the square of the number of
teeth in the smaller chain-wheel, as shown in the table annexed, in
which the percentage variation is--
maximum speed-ratio - minimum speed-ratio
----------------------------------------- x 100.
average speed-ratio
+----------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
| Number of teeth on hub | | | | | | | | |
| chain-wheel | 10 | 12 | 14 | 16 | 18 | 20 | 24 | 28 |
+----------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
| Percentage Variation | 5.1 | 3.5 | 2.7 | 2.1 | 1.6 | 1.3 | 0.9 | 0.7 |
+----------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
The rollers as they come in contact with the chain-wheel strike it
with a speed proportional to the angular speed of the chain-wheel and
to the pitch of the chain, causing a certain amount of noise.
_Chain Adjustment._--To keep the chain running at correct tension, it
is necessary to have some adjustment of the distance between the
crank-axle and hub. This is obtained either by an eccentric adjustment
at the crank-bracket, an eccentric adjustment at the hub-spindle or by
draw-bolts at the fork-ends, the last method being most common.
_Gear-case._--The modern roller chain by makers of repute is so
durable that the necessity for a gear-case is not so great as when
chains were of inferior quality. But if the bicycle is to require the
minimum amount of care and attention a gear-case should be fitted. The
Sunbeam gear-case is built into the frame and is oil-retaining, and
the chain, chain-wheels, free-wheel and two-speed gear are continually
lubricated by an oil-bath. A detachable gear-case is not usually
oil-retaining, but serves to exclude grit and mud from the chain.
_Gear and Crank-length._--The "gear" of a bicycle is given by the
formula Dn1/n2 where D is the diameter of the driving wheel in inches,
n1 and n2 the numbers of teeth on the crank-axle and hub chain-wheels
respectively. At each revolution of the crank-axle, the bicycle is
moved forward a distance equal to the circumference of the circle of
diameter equal to the gear. Thus with a 28 in. diameter driving-wheel,
18 teeth on the hub chain-wheel, 45 teeth on the crank-axle
chain-wheel, the bicycle is geared to 70 in. The usual crank-length is
61/2 to 7 in. Cranks of 71/2, 8 and 9 in. length can be had, but require a
bicycle frame of special design. The gear should be roughly
proportional to the crank-length. The gear 10 times the crank-length
is a good proportion for an average rider.
_Free-wheels._--A free-wheel clutch transmits the drive in one
direction only, allowing the pedals to remain at rest at the will of
the rider, while the bicycle runs on. With a free-wheel, chain
breakages are reduced or nearly eliminated, as should the chain get
accidentally caught the free-wheel comes into play. There are three
principal types of free-wheel clutches--roller, ratchet and friction
cone. The roller type was the earliest in use, but has fallen into
disfavour. A sectional view of a ball-bearing ratchet free-wheel, with
outer cover removed, is shown in fig. 11. The ring on which the three
pawls and springs are carried is screwed on the end of the hub; the
chain-wheel is combined with an inner ratchet wheel and is mounted by
two rows of ball bearings on the pawl ring. The friction cone type of
free-wheel clutch is usually combined with a brake inside the hub,
the whole combination being termed a coaster hub. Fig. 12 shows a
sectional view of the Eadie two-speed coaster, in which the free-wheel
clutch and brake are combined with a two-speed gear. The free-wheel
clutch action is as follows: A forward pressure of the pedals turns
the externally threaded driving cone H in the internally threaded cone
F, the latter being thus forced to the right into engagement with the
cup J which is screwed to the hub-shell, thus forming a friction
driving clutch. The pedals being held stationary the driving cone H is
stationary, and the hub running on the ball bearings G, the cone F
travels towards the left until released from the cup J, when it also
remains at rest. In this type of free-wheel clutch it is essential
that there be little or no friction between the screwed surfaces of H
and F, else on beginning to pedal, the cone F may remain stationary
relative to the driving cone H, and no engagement between F and J may
take place. If F be prevented from turning faster than the hub-shell,
as is sometimes done by a light spring between the two, the engagement
of the friction clutch must take place as soon as the pedals tend to
move faster than the speed corresponding to that of the hub-shell.
[Illustration: FIG. 11.]
[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Eadie Two-speed Coaster Hub]
_Brakes_ of many types are used, differing in the place and mode of
application. The tire brake has fallen into disuse, rim brakes and
internal hub brakes being usual. The retarding force that can be
applied by a brake is limited by the possibility of skidding the
wheel. In riding at uniform speed, without acceleration, the greater
part of the load is on the rear-wheel; but as soon as the brake is
applied to cause retardation the wheel load distribution is altered,
more load being thrown on the front wheel. Thus the most powerful
brake is one applied to the front wheel. On the other hand, a
front-wheel brake often sets up an unpleasant vibration of the front
fork. On a greasy road too powerful pressure on the front-wheel brake
may cause a side-slip with no chance of recovery; while with the
back-wheel brake recovery is possible. The Bowden system of
transmission, which is largely used for cycle brake work, consists of
a steel stranded cable inside a flexible tube formed by a closely
wound spiral of steel wire, the cable being practically inextensible
and the spiral tube practically incompressible; if the ends of the
latter be fastened it forms a guide tube for the cable, any movement
given to one end of the cable being transmitted to the other end. The
spiral tube may be led round any corners, but the frictional
resistance of the cable inside the spiral tube increases with the
total angle of curvature of the guide tube; the laws of friction of a
rope passing over a drum apply. In fitting the Bowden system the total
curvature should therefore be kept as small as possible. With a
back-pedalling rim brake the cycle cannot be wheeled backwards unless
a special device is used to throw the operating clutch out of action.
A back-pedalling brake is most conveniently applied inside the hub, as
in the coaster hub. In the Eadie two-speed coaster (fig. 12) the
braking action is obtained by the expansion of the steel band I
against a phosphor bronze ring L carried by the rotating hub-shell.
The steel band I is mounted on a disk with a projecting arm, the end
of which is clipped to the frame tube. The expansion of the steel band
is effected by the movement of the lever K fixed to the cone E. On
moving the pedals backward the screw drive-ring H forces the cone nut
F with which it engages to the left into contact with the cone E. The
backward movement of the pedals being continued sets up the required
movement of the lever K, and applies the brake.
_Variable Speed Gears._--The effort required to propel a bicycle
varies greatly, according to the conditions of road surface, gradient
up or down hill, wind against or behind. To meet these variable
conditions, a variable speed-gear is an advantage. The action of the
human motor is, however, so entirely different from that of a
mechanical motor that it is easy, without practical experience, to
over-estimate the value of a variable speed gear. Probably from 50 in.
to 80 in. represents the greatest useful range of gear for an average
rider. With a gear lower than 50 in., the speed of climbing a steep
gradient is so slow that balancing difficulties begin, and it is
better to walk up. With 80 in. gear and 7 in. cranks, the speed of
pedalling, even at 25 miles an hour, is not irksome, provided the
conditions are favourable. For those who have not cultivated the art
of quick pedalling the useful range of gear under favourable
conditions may be extended to say 90 in. or 100 in. The gear-ratio of
a two-speed gear is the ratio of the high to the low gear. The most
suitable gear-ratio for any rider will depend upon his personal
physique and the nature of the country in which he rides. For a
middle-aged rider of average physique a gear-ratio of 125:100 is
suitable, for those of weaker physique the gear-ratio may with
advantage be greater, say 137.5:100; while for road racing it may be
smaller, say 117:100. With a three-speed gear the low and high gears
should be chosen respectively below and above the single gear which
suits the rider, the middle gear being about the same as the rider's
usual single gear.
All the variable speed gears at present made consist of toothed wheel
mechanism either at the hub or crank-bracket, and nearly all are based
on the same epicyclic train of toothed wheels. At one speed there is
no relative motion of the toothed wheels, the whole mechanism
revolving as one solid piece; this is called the "normal" speed. At
the other speed one part of the mechanism is held stationary and the
driven part revolves faster or slower than the driver, according as
the gearing is up or down. In some two-speed gears the normal is the
high speed, in others the low. In expressing the gear-ratio, the
normal speed will be denoted by 100. At the normal gear there is of
course no additional friction. The type of two-speed gear used
practically settles whether the normal gear is at high or low speed;
but it seems best, other things being equal, to have the low speed the
normal gear, as then the conditions are worst. If the high speed is at
normal gear, then at low speed the chain gears up and the two-speed
gear gears down; which is, to say the least, a roundabout
transmission.
[Illustration: FIG 13: Sunbeam Two-Speed Gear.]
Fig. 13 is a sectional view of the Sunbeam two-speed gear which is
arranged at the crank-axle, and clearly shows the relative disposition
of the toothed wheel mechanism common to nearly all cycle speed gears.
The chain-wheel is fixed to the annular wheel A; the planet carrier C
is fixed to the crank; and when the sun-wheel D is held stationary,
the chain-wheel is driven faster than the cranks. When the sun-wheel D
is released, the planet carrier C drives the annular wheel A by the
ratchet free-wheel clutch; the part thus revolves as a solid piece,
and gives the normal or low speed. The gear-ratio is 133.3:100.
[Illustration: FIG 14:]
Fig. 14 is a sectional view of the "Hub" two-speed gear, the
chain-wheel or free-wheel clutch being omitted. In this the annular
wheel is the driver, and the planet carrier is part of the hub-shell.
When the central pinion is held stationary the hub is driven at a less
speed than the chain-wheel; the gear-ratio is 100:76.2.
In the Fagan two-speed gear, shown combined with the Eadie coaster hub
in fig. 12, the sun-wheel B can be moved laterally by the striking
gear, so as to engage with the chain-wheel centre C, giving normal
gear, or with an internally toothed wheel A fixed to the spindle. The
chain-wheel centre C carries the annular wheel, and the four planet
pinions D are mounted on the driving cone H. Thus the gear gives a
reduction of speed, the gear-ratio being 100:75. The Sturmey-Archer
three-speed hub (fig. 15) has gear-ratios 125:100:80. In the high gear
position the epicyclic toothed wheels are to the extreme left
position. The chain-wheel is mounted by a free-wheel on a drive-ring,
with which the ends of the spindles of the planet wheels engage at
high gear. The sun-wheel, not shown in the figure, is held stationary,
and the annular wheel engages with a ring screwed to the hub-shell, by
means of keys engaging in notches. The hub is thus driven at a higher
speed than the chain-wheel. For normal gear, the striking gear draws
the internal mechanism of the hub towards a central position,
compressing a spring, disengaging the sun-wheel and locking the
drive-ring hub and annular wheel together. At low gear, the internal
mechanism is drawn to the right-hand side, where the planet carrier
engages with the end plate of the hub by means of claw-clutches. The
annular wheel is still engaged with the drive-ring, and the sun-wheel
is again locked to the spindle. The hub is thus driven at a lower
speed.
[Illustration: Fig. 15.]
_Tandem Bicycles._--The weight of a roadster tandem is about the same
as, or a trifle less than, that of two single roadster bicycles, but
the frictional resistance of the mechanism, the rolling resistance of
the tires, and the air resistance at a given speed are much less than
twice the values for a single bicycle. Consequently, much higher
speeds are attained on the level, and free-wheeling down hill is much
faster. On the other hand for riding up hill on a moderate gradient,
the effort required is about the same as on a single, while on very
steep gradients the tandem is at a slight disadvantage. For the full
enjoyment of tandem riding, therefore, a two-speed gear is a
necessity, while a three-speed gear is better. In the Raleigh tandem
(fig. 16) the frame design is such that it can be ridden by two
ladies, and the strength and rigidity is sufficient for two
heavyweight riders. The steering and control of the brakes is done by
the front rider. Connected steering is employed in some tandems,
allowing the rear rider to steer if necessary. For two expert tandem
riders, connected steering is slightly more pleasurable than fixed
handle grips for the rear rider, but on the other hand, divided
control may lead to disaster at a critical moment. Most passengers on
a tandem with connected steering unconsciously give the steering a
bias in one direction or the other, putting a nervous strain on the
steersman which becomes almost intolerable towards the end of a long
ride.
[Illustration: FIG. 16.]
_Motor Bicycles._--Fig. 17 shows a touring motor bicycle, fitted with
luggage carrier and stand, the latter for supporting the bicycle while
at rest. The average speed of a motor bicycle being much greater than
that of a pedal bicycle the stresses on the frame due to moving over
rough roads are greater. This necessitates greater strength and weight
in all parts--frame, wheels and tires. To take this increased weight
up steep gradients requires increased engine power. The weight of a
touring motor bicycle may be from 150 to 200 lb. The drive is usually
by a V belt of leather, or of canvas and rubber, the angle of the V
being 28 deg.. The engine speed at maximum power is from 1500 to 2000
revolutions a minute, and the belt gears down in a ratio varying
between 1/3 and 1/6 according to the cylinder capacity of the engine.
The possibility of the belt slipping slightly is conducive to
smoothness of drive; chain-driving, except in combination with a
slipping clutch, is too harsh. The principal defect of the belt drive
is that the belt stretches, and on coming to a steep hill may have to
be tightened before the bicycle can be driven up. The control of the
speed and power of the engine is effected by the throttle, extra air
valve and spark advance, the levers for which are all placed within
convenient reach of the driver. As the engine is almost invariably
air-cooled, the skilful manipulation of these three levers is
essential for satisfactory results. On a good level road when the
engine may be working at a small fraction of its maximum power, the
proportion of air mixed with the petrol vapour from the carburettor
may be great, giving a "weak" mixture, yet one rich enough to be
ignited in the cylinder. The throttle valve may be fully open and the
spark advanced for high speed; the throttle partially closed and spark
retarded for slow speed. Under these conditions the engine will run
for an indefinite period without overheating. Up a steep gradient, the
mixture may have to be made "richer" by partial closing of the extra
air opening, and as more heat is evolved, the cylinder walls may
become overheated, unless the engine power is sufficient to keep the
bicycle moving through the air at a good speed. As the engine cannot
run steadily at low speed, pedalling is resorted to for starting and
for riding slowly through traffic. For this purpose, an "exhaust valve
lifter" is usually fitted, by means of which the exhaust can be kept
permanently open, in order to relieve the resistance to pedalling
which the compression stroke would otherwise offer.
[Illustration: FIG. 17.]
The nominal rating of the horse-power of a motor cycle engine is
rather vague and indefinite. A 3-H.P. engine may have a cylinder of
76-80 mm. diameter and 76-80 mm. stroke. Twin-cylinder engines, with
one crank, are largely used, and some excellent 4-cylinder motor
bicycles are made with bevel gear transmission. The chief advantage of
the multicylinder engine is the smoother drive obtained.
A "trailer" with two wheels for carrying a passenger can be attached
to a motor bicycle, but the element of risk is increased. A side-car,
with one additional wheel, forms a safer passenger carrier.
(A. Sp.)
BIDA, a town and administrative district in the British protectorate of
Northern Nigeria. Bida town, situated in 9 deg. 5' N., 6 deg. E., 25 m. N. by E.
of Muraji on the Niger, is the capital of the province of Nupe. It was
founded in 1859 when Fula rule was established in Nupe, is walled and of
considerable size. In 1909 it was connected by railway with Baro, 40 m.
S.S.E., the river terminus of the Northern Nigeria railway. The
inhabitants, mostly Hausa, carry on an extensive trade and are
especially noted for their embossed brass and copper work. The Bida
goblets, in which brass and copper are beautifully blended, are of
extremely elegant design. The town also boasts a glass factory. The
preparation of indigo and the dyeing of cloths are other flourishing
industries. The streets are planted with huge shade-trees, so that as
Bida is approached it looks like a forest.
In 1897 there was a two-days' fight outside the walls of Bida between
the forces of the emir of Nupe and those of the Royal Niger Company,
ending in the defeat of the Fula army (mostly cavalry). The victory was
not followed at the time by a British occupation, and the defeated king
returned after the withdrawal of the company's troops and re-established
himself upon the throne. In 1900 he allied himself with other hostile
chiefs and adopted an openly antagonistic attitude to the British
government. In 1901 it became necessary for British troops to march on
Bida. The emir fled, without fighting, to Kano. Another emir was
appointed in his place, and the province of Nupe was placed under
British administrative control. Since that date the town has been
peaceful and very prosperous. A mission school has been established, and
is attended by the sons of the emir and of the principal chiefs, who are
desirous of learning to read and write English. The administrative
district of Bida includes the town and is the western division of the
province of Nupe (q.v.). (See also NIGERIA: _History_.)
BIDDEFORD, a city of York county, Maine, U.S.A., on the Saco river,
opposite Saco, and on the Atlantic Ocean, 15 m. S.W. of Portland. Pop.
(1890) 14,443; (1900) 16,145, of whom 7,149 were foreign-born (mostly
French Canadians); (census, 1910) 17,079. Biddeford is served by the
Boston & Maine railway, and is connected by electric lines with Portland
and with Old Orchard Beach, a popular summer resort north of the Saco
river. The climate and the scenery in and about Biddeford attract summer
visitors and there are two resorts, Biddeford Pool and Fortune Rocks
within the municipal limits; but the city is chiefly a manufacturing
centre (third in rank among the cities of the state in 1905)--good
water-power being furnished by the river--and cotton goods, foundry and
machine shop products and lumber are the principal products, the first
being by far the most important. The value of the factory products
increased from $5,472,254 in 1900 to $6,948,722 in 1905, or 27%. There
are large quarries of granite of excellent quality. A permanent
settlement was established on both sides of the river about 1630 under
the leadership of Richard Vines (1585-1651) and was named Saco. In 1718
the present name was adopted. In 1762 that portion of Biddeford which
lay east of the river was incorporated as the town of Pepperellborough,
for which name Saco was substituted in 1805. Biddeford was incorporated
as a city in 1855.
BIDDER, GEORGE PARKER (1806-1878), English engineer, was born at Moreton
Hampstead, in Devonshire, on the 14th of June 1806. From a very early
age he manifested an extraordinary natural aptitude for calculation,
which induced his father, who was a stone-mason, to exhibit him as a
"calculating boy." In this way his talent was turned to profitable
account, but his general education was in danger of being completely
neglected. Interest, however, was taken in him by some of those who
happened to witness his performances, among them being Sir John
Herschel, and it was arranged that he should be sent to school in
Camberwell. There he did not remain long, being removed by his father,
who wished to exhibit him again, but he was saved from this misfortune
and enabled to attend classes at Edinburgh University, largely through
the kindness of Sir Henry Jardine, to whom he subsequently showed his
gratitude by founding a "Jardine Bursary" at the university. On leaving
college in 1824 he received a post in the ordnance survey, but gradually
drifted into engineering work. In 1834 Robert Stephenson, whose
acquaintance he had made in Edinburgh, offered him an appointment on the
London & Birmingham railway, and in the succeeding year or two he began
to assist George Stephenson in his parliamentary work, which at that
time included schemes for railways between London and Brighton and
between Manchester and Rugby via the Potteries. In this way he was
introduced to engineering and parliamentary practice at a period of
great activity which saw the establishment of the main features and
principles that have since governed English railway construction. He is
said to have been the best witness that ever entered a committee-room.
He was quick to discover and take advantage of the weak points in an
opponent's case, and his powers of mental calculation frequently stood
him in good stead, as when, for example, an apparently casual glance at
the plans of a railway enabled him to point out errors in the
engineering data that were sufficient to secure rejection of the scheme
to which he was opposed. In consequence there was scarcely an
engineering proposal of any importance brought before parliament in
connexion with which his services were not secured by one party or the
other.
On the constructive side of his profession he was also busily occupied.
In 1837 he was engaged with R. Stephenson in building the Blackwall
railway, and it was he who designed the peculiar method of disconnecting
a carriage at each station while the rest of the train went on without
stopping, which was employed in the early days of that line when it was
worked by means of a cable. Another series of railways with which he had
much to do were those in the eastern counties which afterwards became
the Great Eastern system. He also advised on the construction of the
Belgian railways; with R. Stephenson he made the first railway in
Norway, from Christiania to Eidsvold; he was engineer-in-chief of the
Danish railways; and he was largely concerned with railways in India,
where he strongly and successfully opposed break of gauge on
through-routes. But though he sometimes spoke of himself as a mere
"railway-engineer," he was in reality very much more; there was indeed
no branch of engineering in which he did not take an interest, as was
shown by the assiduity with which for half a century he attended the
weekly meetings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, of which he was
elected president in 1860. He was one of the first to recognize the
value of the electric telegraph. That invention was in its infancy when,
in 1837, jointly with R. Stephenson he recommended its introduction on a
portion of the London & Birmingham and on the Blackwall lines, while
three years later he advised that it should be adopted to facilitate the
working of the single line between Norwich and Yarmouth. He was also one
of the founders of the Electric Telegraph Company, which enabled the
public generally to enjoy the benefits of telegraphic communication. In
hydraulic engineering, he was the designer of the Victoria Docks
(London), being responsible not only for their construction, but also
for what was regarded by some people at the time as the foolish idea of
utilizing the Essex marshes for dock accommodation on a large scale. His
advice was frequently sought by the government on points both of naval
and military engineering. He died at Dartmouth on the 28th of September
1878.
His son, GEORGE PARKER BIDDER, Junr. (1836-1896), who inherited much of
his father's calculating power, was a successful parliamentary counsel
and an authority on cryptography.
BIDDERY, or BIDRI (an Indian word, from Bedar or Bidar, a town in the
Nizam's Dominions), an alloy of copper, lead, tin and zinc used in
making various articles and ornaments which are inlaid with gold and
silver.
BIDDING-PRAYER (O. Eng. _biddan_, to pray, cf. Ger. _beten_), the
formula of prayer or exhortation to prayer said in England before the
sermon in cathedrals, at university sermons, in the Inns of Court and
elsewhere on special occasions. Such formulae are found in the ancient
Greek liturgies, e.g. that of St Chrysostom, in the Gallican liturgy,
and in the pre-Reformation liturgies of England. The form varies, but in
all the characteristic feature is that the minister tells the people
what to pray for. Thus in England in the 16th century it took the form
of a direction to the people what to remember in "bidding their beads."
In course of time the word "bid" in the sense of "pray" became obsolete
and was confused with "bid" in the sense of "command" (from O. Eng.
_beodan_, to offer, present, and hence to announce, or command; cf. Ger.
_bieten_, to offer, _gebieten_, to command), and the bidding-prayer has
come practically to mean the exhortation itself. A form of exhortation
which "preachers and ministers shall move the people to join with them
in prayer" is given in the 55th canon of the Church of England (1603).
BIDDLE, JOHN (1615-1662), frequently called the father of English
Unitarianism, was born on the 14th of January 1615, at Wotton-under-Edge,
in Gloucestershire. He was educated at the grammar school of his native
town and at Magdalen Hall, Oxford. He graduated B.A. in 1638 and
proceeded M.A. in 1641, and was then appointed to the mastership of the
free school in the city of Gloucester, where "he was much esteemed for
his diligence in his profession, serenity of manners and sanctity of
life." He also diligently prosecuted theological studies, and the results
he arrived at were of such a nature as to draw down upon him the
reprobation of the civic authorities. A treacherous friend obtained the
manuscript of his _Twelve Arguments drawn out of Scripture, wherein the
commonly received opinion touching the deity of the Holy Spirit is
clearly and fully refuted_; and in December 1645 he was summoned before
the parliamentary committee then sitting at Gloucester. By them he was
committed to prison, though he was at the time labouring under a
dangerous fever. He was released on bail after a short imprisonment, but
was in July 1647 called before parliament, which desired to inquire into
his views. After tedious proceedings, during which Sir Henry Vane
befriended him, Biddle was committed to custody and his _Twelve
Arguments_, which he had now published, was ordered by parliament to be
seized and burned by the hangman. Notwithstanding this and the ordinance
of the 2nd of May 1648, visiting denial of the doctrine of the Trinity
with death, Biddle issued two tracts, one a _Confession of Faith touching
the Holy Trinity_, and the other _The Testimonies of Irenaeus, &c.,
concerning the one God and the Persons of the Trinity_ (1648). These were
suppressed by government, and the Westminster assembly of divines eagerly
pressed for the passing of an act by which heretics like Biddle could be
put to death. This, however, was resisted by the army, and by many of the
Independent parliamentarians; and after the death of the king, Biddle was
allowed to reside in Staffordshire under surveillance. He engaged in
preaching and in literary work, particularly an edition of the
Septuagint, published by Roger Daniel. In February 1652 the general act
of oblivion gave him complete freedom, and his adherents soon began to
meet regularly for worship on Sundays. They were called Biddellians, or
Socinians, or Unitarians, the name which has now become associated with
their opinions. Biddle was not left long in peace. He translated some
Socinian books, among others the _Life of Socinus_, and published two
catechisms which excited a fury of indignation. He was summoned before
the parliament in December 1654 and imprisoned. The dissolution of that
body again set him at liberty for a short time, but he was presently
brought up for some expressions used by him in a discussion with John
Griffin, an illiterate Baptist pastor, who invoked the law against his
superior opponent. He was put upon trial, and was only rescued by
Cromwell, who sent him (October 1655) out of the way to one of the Scilly
Islands, allowed him 100 crowns a year, and in 1658, on the solicitation
of many friends, released him. For a few years he lived and taught
quietly in the country, but returning to London he was in June 1662 again
arrested, and fined L100. As he was unable to pay this sum, he was at
once committed to prison, where fever, caused by the pestilential
atmosphere, carried him off on the 22nd of September 1662.
BIDDLE, NICHOLAS (1786-1844), American financier, was born in
Philadelphia on the 8th of January 1786. He was the nephew of a naval
officer, Captain Nicholas Biddle (1750-1778), who lost his life while
fighting on the American side, during the War of American Independence.
After almost finishing the prescribed course at the university of
Pennsylvania, the boy went to Princeton, where he graduated with high
honours in 1801. During 1804-1807 he was the secretary, first of John
Armstrong, minister to France, and then of James Monroe, minister to
Great Britain. After his return to America he practised law for several
years in Philadelphia, was an associate editor of Dennie's _Portfolio_,
to which he contributed both prose and verse, and, with much literary
skill, prepared for the press from the explorers' own journals a
_History of the Expedition under the Command of Captains Lewis and
Clark_ (1814). He was a prominent member of the Pennsylvania House of
Representatives in 1810-1811 and of the Senate in 1814-1817, and in 1819
became, by President Monroe's appointment, one of the five government
directors of the Bank of the United States. In 1823 he replaced Langdon
Cheves as its president. In general he followed a conservative policy
and showed marked ability in the management of the bank, but during
President Andrew Jackson's warfare upon that institution, his character
and his policy were violently assailed by the president and his
followers. The bank's national charter lapsed in 1836, but it was
immediately chartered by Pennsylvania as the "Bank of the United States,
of Pennsylvania"; and Biddle remained president until 1839, two years
before the bank failed. As president of the board of trustees appointed
for the purpose, he took a prominent part in the establishment of Girard
College, in accordance with the will of Stephen Girard (q.v.). He died
in Philadelphia on the 27th of February 1844.
His son, CHARLES JOHN BIDDLE (1819-1873), served in the Mexican War as a
captain of infantry, earning the brevet of major at Chapultepec;
practised law in Philadelphia; was a representative in Congress in
1861-1863; was long editor-in-chief of the Philadelphia _Age_; and
published "The Case of Major Andre, with a Review of the Statement of
it in Lord Mahon's History of England," in the _Memoirs of the
Historical Society of Pennsylvania_ (1858).
The best account of Nicholas Biddle's administration of the bank may
be found in an excellent work, by Ralph C.H. Catterall, _The Second
Bank of the United States_ (Chicago, 1903).
BIDEFORD, a seaport, market town and municipal borough in the Barnstaple
parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, 81/4 m. S.W. of Barnstaple.
Pop. (1901) 8754. It is served by the London & South-Western and the
Bideford, Westward Ho & Appledore railways. It is picturesquely situated
on two hills rising from the banks of the river Torridge, 3 m. above its
junction with the estuary of the Taw. Many of the houses are built with
timber framework in Elizabethan style, and the two parts of the town are
united by a bridge of 24 arches, originally erected in the 14th century,
when the revenue of certain lands was set apart for its upkeep. The
church of St Mary, with the exception of the tower, is a modern
reconstruction. A stone chancel screen and a Norman font are also
preserved. Industries include the manufacture of earthenware, leather
goods, sails, ropes and linen, and ironfounding. The small harbour has
about 17 ft. of water at high tide, but is dry at low tide. Anthracite
and a coarse potter's clay are found near the town. The borough is under
a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 3398 acres.