[white potato].[92] Upon short lateral rootlets, amongst the mass of
fibrous roots of the arrowhead, firm corms develop, pinkish-white and
bulb-shaped, but solid and composed of a sweetish, starchy texture.
These are the choice Indian potatoes. These corms break away from
the root mass very easily so that the utmost care is necessary in
digging to get them _in situ_. Muskrats are very fond of them, as are
beavers, and sometimes store up large covered caches, which the Indian
recognizes and appropriates. They will also dig for them, if they
cannot be more easily obtained. While they are chiefly prized for food,
they are also taken to be a remedy for indigestion among the Pillager
Ojibwe.
ANACARDIACEAE (SUMAC FAMILY)
=Smooth Sumac= (_Rhus glabra_ L.) “bakwaˈ nak” [binding tree].
According to Jack Doud and other Flambeau Ojibwe all parts of the
Smooth Sumac are suitable for medicine, the root bark, trunk bark,
twig bark, leaves, flowers and fruit. The root bark tea is used as
a hemostatic. Trunk and twig innerbark are used in combination with
other medicine for their astringent qualities. Blossoms are sometimes
steeped for sore eyes, leaves are used in poultices, and the fruit is
considered a throat cleanser as well as being the basis of a beverage.
Eclectic practitioners, or the old time herbalists, used the berries of
_Rhus glabra_ because of the malic acid in the skin, claiming it to be
a good gargle in acute throat inflammation.
=Staghorn Sumac= (_Rhus typhina_ L.) “bakwanaˈ tîg” [binding tree].[93]
The Staghorn Sumac was absent from the Flambeau Ojibwe territory, but
plentiful around Leech Lake, Minnesota, while the Smooth Sumac was not
found near Leech Lake. The Pillager Ojibwe only used the root as a
medicine to stop a hemorrhage. They suggested that they had heard of it
being used in medicinal combinations but did not know how to make or
use them.
=Poison Ivy= (_Rhus toxicodendron_ L.) “anîmîkiˈbûg” [cloud], shown in
plate 68, fig. 1. Mukwean (Bearskin), Flambeau medicine man, called
this a poison to the skin and said that the Ojibwe have no distinctive
name for it. John Peper, one of the Bear Island Pillager Indians, gave
us the Indian name and said that no one now alive there knew how to use
it. Since Kepeosatok, Meskwaki medicine man, at Tama, Iowa, used it in
a certain manner for poulticing some kinds of swellings, the writer
thinks this may be the use to which John Peper referred.
APOCYNACEAE (DOGBANE FAMILY)
=Spreading Dogbane= (_Apocynum androsaemifolium_ L.) “wesaˈ wûckwûn”
[nearly blue flowers] or “magosîñeˈ cnakwûk” [needle-like].[94]
Bearskin, Flambeau medicine man, said that the stalk and root of this
plant are steeped to make a tea for women to drink. It keeps the
kidneys free during pregnancy. Other Flambeau Ojibwe agreed with the
use but cited the second name as more correct for it. Under the Ojibwe
name of “mîdewîdjiˈbîk” [medicine lodge root], the Pillager Ojibwe
declared it to be one of the sacred roots that is eaten during the
medicine lodge ceremony. They use it also for throat trouble. When one
has a coated tongue and is afflicted with headache, the root is also
used. In the case of headache, the root is placed upon live coals and
the incense is inhaled.
AQUIFOLIACEAE (HOLLY FAMILY)
=Winterberry= (_Ilex verticillata_ [L.] Gray), “aweˈnîsibûg”
[wintergreen leaf], and “anîmûˈcîmînûn” [dog berry]. The bark of this
native holly is medicine among the Flambeau Ojibwe, but the use could
not be discovered, other than that it might be used for diarrhea.
Winterberry has been employed by eclectic practitioners as a tonic
and astringent. It has been substituted for quinine in the treatment
of periodical fevers, and also used in the treatment of diarrhea. The
eclectic practitioner has also used it in treating malignant ulcers and
chronic skin eruptions.
=Mountain Holly= (_Nemopanthus mucronata_ [L.] Trel.), “mîckimînûˈ
nîmîc” [red berry tree], shown in plate 65, fig. 2. This bush is very
common around the reservation of the Flambeau Ojibwe and the berries
are used as medicine, but the writer was unable to discover for what
disease or how used. There is no record of its use among the whites.
ARACEAE (ARUM FAMILY)
=Sweet Flag= (_Acorus calamus_ L.) “naˈ bûgûck” [something flat]. The
root of Sweet Flag is a quick acting physic, supposed to act in half
a day. Bearskin cautioned the writer that no more than one and a half
inches was to be used, as more would make one ill, and even this much
is quite harsh. The Pillager Ojibwe recognize the Sweet Flag under the
name “weˈke”, which is the same word used by another tribe for the
Yellow Water-lily, and by another for the Blue Flag. John Peper said
that the root was used for curing a cold in the throat or for curing a
cramp in the stomach. In earlier days, among the whites, slices were
candied to create a more popular form of medication. It was formerly
used among the white men as a tonic for dyspepsia and for correcting
flatulent colic. It was also supposed to be beneficial as a mild
stimulant in typhoid cases.
=Indian Turnip= (_Arisaema triphyllum_ [L.] Schott.), “cacaˈ
gomîn.”[95] The root of Indian Turnip was said by John Peper, Bear
Island Ojibwe, to be used in treating sore eyes, but he did not know
how to use it. One wonders if the calcium oxalate crystals so firefull
to the mouth lining were equally so to the delicate membranes of the
eye.
Small doses of the partially dried root have been used by the white man
in the treatment of chronic bronchitis, asthma, flatulent colic and
rheumatism, certainly widely different maladies. The juice of the fresh
corm in lard has been used by the white man as a local application to
cure ringworm.
ARALIACEAE (GINSENG FAMILY)
=Wild Sarsaparilla= (_Aralia nudicaulis_ L.) “bebamabiˈ k” [root runs
far through the ground]. The Flambeau Ojibwe recognize the root of this
plant as a strong medicine, but do not steep it to make tea. The fresh
root is pounded and applied as a poultice to bring a boil to a head or
to cure a carbuncle. Among the Pillager Ojibwe, the writer found two
names applied to this, one of which he thinks to be a case of mistaken
identification by the informant. “O kadak” [wild carrot] is more likely
to refer to _Aralia racemosa_ though no specimens were found there.
They used it under this name as a special squaw remedy for blood
purification during pregnancy. The root was pounded in a mortar, then
boiled in hot water. Under their name “waboˈ s ûskwe” [rabbit] the root
was prepared the same way and the tea was used to cure a cough.
Among the white men, this root has the same properties and uses as the
Indian Spikenard (_Aralia racemosa_); namely, stimulant, diaphoretic,
and alterative.
=Ginseng= (_Panax quinquefolium_ L.) “_jîssêˈns._” Evidently the word
they used was an attempt to pronounce the white man’s term for it. The
writer was unable to discover any medical use made of it by the Ojibwe,
though they gathered it assiduously for sale to the traders. Their
method of gathering was a thoughtful one. Although they undoubtedly
recognized it in any stage of growth, they only gathered the root
when the red berries were mature, but before they were ready to drop.
Into the hole from whence the root came, they would thrust the whole
fruiting top, and carefully firm the soil upon it. Knowing the location
well, they would revisit the place in three to five years and find more
roots than they harvested in the first instance.
According to our pharmacopoeia, the medicinal value of ginseng is
almost nothing, but there is a great market for it in China, where it
is worshipped as a sort of fetish, and is acclaimed as a panacea for
sexual impotency, nervousness, vomiting and dyspepsia. The more nearly
the root approximates the human torso, the more valuable it is to the
Chinese. Thus one root in a six hundred-pound bale may be worth many
times the entire remainder of the bale, and when ten dollars a pound is
the price, one can realize the extreme value of such a piece.
ARISTOLOCHIACEAE (BIRTHWORT FAMILY)
=Wild Ginger= (_Asarum canadense_ L. var. _acuminatum_ Ashe.) “nameˈ
pîn” [sturgeon potato].[96] The Pillager Ojibwe called this a potato
for sick people. They are supposed to chew the root, and then they can
eat anything they desire.
The white man calls this Canada Snakeroot in his dispensatories,
considering it a feeble remedy with tonic, aromatic and diuretic
properties. Cases of convalescent acute febrile infections are
sometimes given the extract of wild ginger root.
ASCLEPIADACEAE (MILKWEED FAMILY)
=Common Milkweed= (_Asclepias syriaca_ L.) “caboˈ sîkûn” [milk]
or “înîniˈwûnj” [Indian plant], according to Flambeau Ojibwe.[97]
Although the Pillager Ojibwe used this chiefly for food, the root
was also used as a female remedy, but for what phase of illness, we
were not able to discover. Eclectic practitioners have used the roots
as counter-irritants or internally as stomachics, carminatives, or
anti-spasmodics of the stimulating class.
BALSAMINACEAE (TOUCH-ME-NOT FAMILY)
=Spotted Touch-me-not= (_Impatiens biflora_ Walt.) “wesaˈ wûs
gaˈskonêk” [yellow light]. Bearskin, Flambeau medicine man said that
the fresh juice of this plant rubbed on the head would cure a headache.
The leaves are steeped for a medicinal tea, but the ailment was
undiscovered.
The herbage of this plant, under the name Wild Celadine, has been
largely employed by homoeopathic physicians and eclectics. The chemical
constituents are not known though the leaves apparently contain tannin.
The medicinal value is questionable, though fresh applications of the
juice appear to relieve skin irritations of various kinds, especially
that of Poison Ivy.
BERBERIDACEAE (BARBERRY FAMILY)
=Blue Cohosh= (_Caulophyllum thalictroides_ [L.] Michx). “ociˈ
gîmîc”.[98] The Pillager Ojibwe use the root for female troubles
especially for cramps in the stomach during painful menstruation. The
fine roots are also boiled to make a tea for emetic purposes. White
people seldom use it. Eclectics have used it in the treatment of
hysteria and uterine diseases. They have claimed that it will prevent
abortion, by causing uterine contraction when uterine inertia is
present.
BETULACEAE (BIRCH FAMILY)
=Speckled Alder= (_Alnus incana_ [L.] Moench.) “wadoˈ bîn” [root to
sew a canoe]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the root for its hemostatic
qualities. When one passes blood in his stools, the root tea will act
as an astringent and coagulant.
The white man has also used alder bark for its mild astringent
properties. The eclectic practitioner in the United States and Canada
employed it in a powdered condition for dusting upon chafed body
surfaces.
=Paper Birch= (_Betula alba_ [L.] var. _papyrifera_ [Marsh.] Spach.)
“wîgwas”. From “wîgwas” comes the word “wigwam” or house, because birch
bark was used in covering the house, furnishing a waterproof roof.
The root of the Paper Birch was used in medicines as a seasoner. Its
sweetish, aromatic, wintergreen flavor disguised less pleasant doses.
The root bark and maple sugar cooked together made a soothing syrup to
alleviate cramps in the stomach. The white man has employed only the
leaves medicinally as a diuretic.
=Low Birch= (_Betula pumila_ L. var. _glandulifera_ Regel.) “bîneˈ
mîcins” [partridge tips]. Among the Pillager Ojibwe, the Low Birch
is a valued source of medicine. Although it is plentiful around the
Flambeau Reservation, none of them seemed to consider it medicine,
although their name agreed, “bîneˈ mîc”, without the diminutive. The
Pillager Ojibwe use the tiny cones upon a plate of coals as an incense
to cure catarrh. No doubt the resinous covering of the twigs and cones
in this variety causes the aromatic incense. Also a tea made from the
cones is drunk by women in their menses. Such tea is also accounted
strengthening when the patient is enfeebled by childbirth. The leaves
probably possess diuretic properties as do other species of _Betula_.
No record of its use by white men has been discovered.
=Hazelnut= (_Corylus americana_ Walt.) “mûkwobagaˈ nak” [bear nut].[99]
Bearskin said that the bark of the hazelnut bush is medicine. It is
boiled and used as a poultice on cuts to close and heal them. No record
of its medical use by white men has been discovered.
=Beaked Hazelnut= (_Corylus rostrata_ Ait.), “bagaˈn” or “bagaˈnak”
[nut] Flambeau names, and “bagaˈnamijic” [nut tree], Pillager name.
Bearskin assigned the same properties and uses to the bark of the
Beaked Hazelnut as to the Hazelnut. The Pillager Ojibwe used only the
hairs of the hazelnut husk as a medicine to expel worms. Eclectic
practitioners have used it in the same manner as an anthelmintic,
depending probably on the irritant effect of the tiny stickers.
BORAGINACEAE (BORAGE FAMILY)
=Hound’s Tongue= (_Cynoglossum boreale_ Fernald), “masaˈn”. Three terms
are used to denote the action of such plants as this, which are burned
upon live coals that the patient may inhale the fumes. They are: “abaˈ
bûson”,—to revive or “head standing by smoke”; “sasaˈ bîkwat”,—to
snuff it; and “nokweˈ sîkûn”,—“smell as it comes”. They are used
interchangeably in designating the use of the plant. Hound’s Tongue is
specifically fumed to cure a headache.
Among the whites, Hound’s Tongue has been recommended as a sedative and
demulcent in the treatment of bronchial and pulmonary affections. It
is said to be of value also in dysentery. The fresh leaves are used
locally as a remedy for superficial burns and abraded surfaces.
CAMPANULACEAE (BELLFLOWER FAMILY)
=Marsh Bellflower= (_Campanula aparinoides_ Pursh.) Although plentiful
around the Lac du Flambeau region, our informants said that this is not
used.
=Harebell= (_Campanula rotundifolia_ L.) “adotaˈgons” [little bell].
The Pillager Ojibwe use the root of the Harebell combined with three
other unnamed roots for lung troubles. There is no record of its use by
whites.
CAPRIFOLIACEAE (HONEYSUCKLE FAMILY)
=Bush Honeysuckle= (_Diervilla lonicera_ Mill.), “osawaˈ skanet”
[yellow fluid]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the root together with other
plants such as the Ground Pine, for their most valued urinary remedy.
It is also known among white men as a diuretic and a remedy to relieve
itching.
=Red Elderberry= (_Sambucus racemosa_ L.), “papaskatcîksiˈganaˈtîg”
[popgun wood]. According to the Pillager Ojibwe, this bark is an emetic
or a purgative, depending upon how it is prepared for use. It is a last
resort purgative to be used when other remedies for the same complaint
are of no avail. It may be said that the Ojibwe have more plants for
physic than for any other purpose, thus the Red Elder will be seen to
be their most important one.
Four internodes of the stalk are taken, because four is their magic
number. These sections are measured carefully from the point of the
ulna to the point of the humerus. The inner bark is secured by peeling
downward. This is steeped and boiled, and the resulting liquid is
drunk for constipation. It is supposed to thus save the life of one
threatened with serious constipation. It is reserved for extreme cases,
because of the many other physics they employ, and they consider it
drastic and dangerous otherwise. If these same four sticks had been
peeled upwards and the resulting tea drunk, then it would have acted as
a powerful emetic. The writer can testify to its strength, but notes
that it works both ways at once, no matter how prepared, so that the
method of preparation is doubtless superstitious.
Among the whites only the elder flowers are recognized in the New
Formulary, but the inner bark has been known to produce death in
children, a short time after being eaten, with symptoms similar to
Poison Hemlock (_Cicuta_). In moderate doses, it is also known to
produce vomiting and purging. The active alkaloid evidently works only
in the fresh state, as it loses its potency in a dried state.
=Snowberry= (_Symphoricarpos racemosus_ Michx.) “anîgomijiˈ
mînagaˈwûnj” [little crow bush]. Among the Pillager Ojibwe, the root
of the Snowberry is used to make a tea to clear up the afterbirth, and
enable quicker convalescence. Among the Meskwaki Indians the same use
is ascribed to the Wolfberry (_Symphoricarpos occidentalis_). There is
no record of its use by white men.
=Nannyberry= (_Viburnum lentago_ L.), “atîteˈ tamînûn” or “atîteˈ
tamînagaˈwûnj.”[100] The Pillager Ojibwe collect the inner bark of the
trunk, down low next to the ground, to yield a tea which is used as a
diuretic.
Among the white men, Nannyberry is often sold as _Viburnum prunifolium_
which is official in our pharmacopoeia. The virtues assigned to this
class of medicine are as feeble as they are numerous. It has been used
as a nervine, astringent, tonic, diuretic and has been said to have
value as an uterine sedative and preventive of abortion.
=Highbush Cranberry= (_Viburnum opulus_ L. var. _americanum_ [Mill.]
Ait.) “aˈnibîmîˈnûgaˈwûck” [anib means elm, berries, bush].[101] The
Pillager Ojibwe used the inner bark as a physic, and also drank the tea
to cure cramps in the stomach.
Among the white men, _Viburnum opulus_ is considered to be the same
as _Viburnum prunifolium_, only less potent. It is recommended as
an antispasmodic in asthma, hysteria, puerperal convulsions, and
dysmenorrhea.
CARYOPHYLLACEAE (PINK FAMILY)
=White Campion= (_Lychnis alba_ Mill.) “basiˈ bûgûk” [small leaf]. The
Flambeau Ojibwe use the root of this for a tea to physic a patient.
There is no record of its use by white men.
CELASTRACEAE (STAFF TREE FAMILY)
=Climbing Bittersweet= (_Celastrus scandens_ L.) “manîdobimaˈ kwît”
[spirit-twisted]. The Pillager Ojibwe use the red berries of this plant
for stomach trouble.
The white man uses the berries for decorative purposes, and has used
the bark for emetic, diaphoretic and antisyphilitic purposes.
COMPOSITAE (COMPOSITE FAMILY)
The composite family is represented by many species in northern
Wisconsin and also in northern Minnesota. There are probably three
times as many plants in this family as in any other, hence it furnishes
numerous medicines.
=Woolly Yarrow= (_Achillea lanulosa_ Nutt.), “waˈ bîgwûn”
[white-flower]. The Flambeau Ojibwe, under the name given, use the
leaves of this plant as a poultice to cure the bite of a spider. The
dried flowering heads are smoked in mixture with other things, much as
kinnikinnik, not for pleasure, but more for ceremonial purposes.
It has not been distinguished by the eclectic practitioner from the
Common Yarrow, which was used for its bitter and aromatic principles.
It was used as an emmenagogue and for various ailments of the
reproductive organs. It was sometimes used to cure diseased conditions
of the entire gastro-intestinal tract.
=Yarrow= (_Achillea millefolium_ L.), “adjidamoˈ anûk” [squirrel
tail].[102] The Pillager Ojibwe used the florets in ceremonial smoking
and placed them on a bed of coals inhaling the smoke to break a fever.
Yarrow has always been a home remedy of the white man, and the Germans
still use the dried flowers in a tea, called “schafesgarbetee”, to
break a fever. Other uses are the same as above.
=Pearly Everlasting= (_Anaphalis margaritacea_ [L.] B. & H.), “basiˈ
bagûk” [small leaf]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the flowers of this plant,
calling attention to the fact that it smells like acorns, reducing them
to a powder which is sprinkled on live coals as a “nokweˈ sîgûn” or
perfume. This is inhaled by a party who has had a stroke of paralysis
and is said to revive him.
The Pearly Everlasting has never been properly analyzed by white men,
but the flowers have been locally used by them as soothing expectorants
and are known to have more or less marked stomachic properties.
=Lesser Cat’s-Foot= (_Antennaria neodioica_ Greene) “gagîgeˈ bûg”
[everlasting leaf]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the whole herb as a valued
remedy to make a tea to be given to the mother after child birth. It is
to purge the afterbirth and heal them internally.
Eclectic practitioners have used this plant as a hemostatic.
=Common Burdock= (_Arctium minus_ Bernh.), “giˈ masan” [big stickers].
The Flambeau Ojibwe use the root of burdock as one of the ingredients
of a medicine for pain in the stomach. It is also supposed to have a
tonic effect.
Burdock root has quite a reputation among home practitioners among
the white men as a diaphoretic, diuretic, alterative, aperient and
depurative. It has been used for rheumatism, gout, pulmonary catarrh,
chronic skin diseases such as scrofula and syphilis, and to dissolve
urinary deposits. Externally it has been used as a salve or wash for
eruptions, burns, wounds, hemorrhoids and swelling.
=White Sage= (_Artemisia ludoviciana_ Nutt.) “îmbjîˈgoa” according to
White Cloud, Bear Island Ojibwe, but “wîngûskw” or “bebejiˈgogaˈnji”
[horse medicine] by John Peper, another Bear Islander. Peper said the
Pillager Ojibwe used it as a horse medicine, but the Sioux smoked it.
Miners and frontiersmen prized it in their treatment of “mountain
fevers.”
=Large-leaved Aster= (_Aster macrophyllus_ L.), “naskosiˈ îcûs”. The
Flambeau Ojibwe consider this a feeble remedy but also good as a charm
in hunting. Young roots were used to make a tea to bathe the head for
headache. The informant giving this latter use called it “megîsiˈ bûg”
[eagle leaf]. There is no record of its use by the whites.
=Ox-eye Daisy= (_Chrysanthemum leucanthemum_ L.). The Flambeau Ojibwe
had no name for this, as they said it was from the south, and they do
not use it.
=Canada Thistle= (_Cirsium arvense_ [L.] Scop.) “masaˈ nûck”
[prickly]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the plant for a bowel tonic. Canada
Thistle is one of the worst American weeds, and white men have used the
dried plant for a diuretic and tonic.
=Common Thistle= (_Cirsium lanceolatum_ [L.] Hill), “jiˈ masaˈnûck”.
The Flambeau Ojibwe use the root of this for alleviating stomach cramps
in both men and women. The dried plant has been used by the whites as a
diuretic and tonic.
=Philadelphia Fleabane= (_Erigeron philadelphicus_ L.) “mîcaoˈgacan”
[odor of deer hoof]. The Pillager Ojibwe use the flowers to make a tea
to break fevers. The smoke of the dried flowers is inhaled to cure a
cold in the head. The disk flowers, pulverized, were snuffed up the
nostrils to cause the patient to sneeze and thus loosen a cold in the
head. The whites have used the Canada Fleabane as a remedy in the
pharmacopoeia, and also have used the Philadelphia Fleabane locally,
but for different purposes. It is diuretic rather than astringent.
=Daisy Fleabane= (_Erigeron ramosus_ [Walt.] BSP). The Flambeau
Ojibwe do not assign this plant a special name but class it as a
“nokweˈ sîgûn” or perfume for curing sick headache. Several species of
_Erigeron_ have been substituted by white men for the Canada Fleabane,
which is used as a diaphoretic and expectorant.
=Joe-Pye Weed= (_Eupatorium purpureum_ L.), “bûˈ gîsowe” [bathing]. The
Flambeau Ojibwe make a strong solution of the root, with which to wash
a papoose up till the time he is six years old. This is supposed to
strengthen him.
Joe-Pye is officinal but not official among white men. Official
designates that it is authorized by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia while
officinal means that it is regularly kept for sale in drug stores.
Officinal remedies are much used by eclectic practitioners. The root
has the odor of old hay and is diuretic, stimulant, astringent and
tonic. It has been used in chronic urinary disorders, gout, rheumatism,
and hematuria.
=Tall Blue Lettuce= (_Lactuca spicata_ [Lam.] Hitchc.), “dadocaˈbo”
[milk]. The Flambeau Ojibwe employ the plant to make a tea given to
women with caked breasts to render lactation easier. A dog whisker hair
is used to pierce the teat. Among white men _Lactuca_ was formerly
employed as a soporific and sedative.
=White Lettuce= (_Prenanthus alba_ L.), “wecaˈ wûs waˈ ckwînêsk”
[yellow light]. The Flambeau Ojibwe use the milk of the White Lettuce
as a diuretic, especially in female diseases. The root is also used as
a female remedy.
White men have used the root decoction internally for dysentery. Old
time herb doctors gave the milk of the plant internally, and used the
leaves, steeped in hot water, as a poultice for the bite of a snake.
=Black-eyed Susan= (_Rudbeckia hirta_ L.). The Flambeau Ojibwe claim
that this plant is adventive from the south and have no name or use for
it. It has been used by the white men as a diuretic.
=Golden Ragwort= (_Senecio aureus_ L.).