Spain was divided into various small states. In the fifteenth century
these were so united as to form four,—Castile, Aragon, Navarre, and
the Moorish kingdom of Granada. The province of Granada was all
that remained to the Moslems of their once vast possessions in the
peninsula. On the 10th of March, 1452, in the little town of Sos,
Ferdinand, son of King John of Aragon, was born. The early Spanish
historians note with care the good omens attending this event. The sun,
which had been obscured with clouds during the whole day, suddenly
broke forth with unwonted splendor. A crown was also beheld in the sky,
composed of various brilliant colors, like those of a rainbow. All
which appearances were interpreted by the spectators as an omen that
the child then born would be the most illustrious among men. As this
event was also nearly contemporary with the capture of Constantinople,
it was afterwards regarded by the Catholic Church as a providential
provision in behalf of the religion of which Ferdinand became such a
staunch supporter, as his zealous life might be regarded as an ample
counterbalance to the loss of the capital of Christendom. One year
before this time, in the palace of the king of Castile, on the 22d
of April, 1451, a little princess had been born, and christened
Isabella. This Spanish princess was descended, both on her father’s and
mother’s side, from the famous John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster.
[Illustration: FERDINAND OF ARAGON.]
But around the cradles of these two royal babies many contentions
arose, which we cannot stop to note. When Isabella was four years
of age, her father died, and her half-brother Henry became king of
Castile; and, as she had still another brother, Alfonso, there did not
seem to be much probability that she would succeed to the throne. She
retired with her mother to the small town of Arevalo, where she was
educated with care, and instructed in lessons of practical piety, until
she reached her fourteenth year.
Meanwhile, the little Prince Ferdinand, in Aragon, was surrounded
with constant contentions between his father, king of Aragon, and his
half-brother Carlos. Joan, the mother of Ferdinand, was the second
wife of King John. She was a proud, ambitious woman, much younger than
her husband, and was of the blood royal of Castile, being the daughter
of Don Frederic Henriquez, admiral of that kingdom. She hated her
step-son Carlos, who was heir to the throne, as she regarded him as an
obstacle to the advancement of her own child, Ferdinand. We cannot stop
to note all the family broils occasioned by Joan’s jealousy. Prince
Carlos seems to have been a youth of many attractions of mind and
body, and was the idol of the people. So, when King John, influenced
by his wife Joan, succeeded in having Carlos arrested, and placed in
strict confinement, the entire kingdom was thrown into excitement. The
people sprang to arms, determined to release the prince; and they were
so threatening that King John fled with his wife to Saragossa. The
insurrection now spread throughout Aragon, Valencia, and Navarre, and
even into King John’s possessions in Sardinia and Sicily. At length,
the frightened king saw the necessity of releasing his prisoner. Prince
Carlos was received by the people with wild enthusiasm; and the king
could only make peace with his subjects by a public acknowledgment of
Carlos as his rightful heir and successor. But Carlos did not long
survive this triumph. He fell sick of a fever, and died in 1461. Some
historians hint that the prince was poisoned, to make way for the
youthful Ferdinand, now ten years of age, and who was immediately
declared heir to the throne. The queen-mother then took Ferdinand to
Catalonia, to receive the homage of that province; but the Catalonian
nobles, who were exasperated against the king on account of his
treatment of Carlos, displayed so much hostility that the young prince
and his mother were obliged to take refuge in the fortress of Gerona.
Here they were at last relieved by King John. But the Catalans then
seceded from the authority of the king of Aragon, and they presented
the crown to the duke of Lorraine, who marched with an army of eight
thousand men against the old king of Aragon, whose treasury was empty,
and who had become totally blind. In this emergency, the mother of
Ferdinand, who was a brave woman, placed herself at the head of such
forces as she could collect; and, with her young son Ferdinand riding
by her side, she heroically marched against the enemies of her husband,
and attacked the duke of Lorraine with such impetuosity that she drove
him in confusion from Gerona. In this encounter, young Ferdinand came
near being taken captive.
[Illustration: ISABELLA OF CASTILE.]
Meanwhile, the Princess Isabella was nearly sacrificed to the ambition
of her half-brother, who was king of Castile. The beautiful
princess, who had now been brought from her retirement in Arevalo to
her brother’s court, had many suitors for her hand. Her half-brother,
King Henry, promised his sister in marriage to a rich but wicked old
nobleman; and great preparations were made for the wedding. The anguish
of the poor Princess Isabella was so great that she shut herself up in
her apartment, praying to God, with groans and tears, that He would
deliver her from this impending doom. Still, the wedding preparations
went on. Meanwhile, the wicked old nobleman set out from his palace to
claim his youthful and beautiful bride. But God had heard the prayers
of the afflicted princess; and, as the aged bridegroom reached a small
village, at the end of the first day’s travel, he was suddenly seized
with an attack of quinsy, which terminated his life.
The nobles of Castile now entreated Isabella to allow herself to be
proclaimed Queen of Castile, in opposition to her brother, whom they
all hated. Her other brother, Alfonso, who would have been heir, had
previously died. But Isabella was too noble to seek such revenge upon
her cruel brother; but the nobles forced the king to declare her his
successor to the throne, and to promise that she should not be forced
to marry against her will.
The king of Portugal now desired to secure Isabella for his bride;
and her brother threatened to imprison her unless she would yield. As
overtures had been made by the young and handsome Prince Ferdinand of
Aragon for the hand of the fair Isabella, and as her heart was also
inclined towards this handsome prince, she determined, in spite of
her brother, to accept the proffered hand of Ferdinand. The marriage
articles were signed on the 7th of January, 1469. Isabella was aided
by the archbishop of Toledo, who raised a regiment of dragoons, and
carried her in triumph to Valladolid, where she was greeted by the
people with the wildest enthusiasm. Meanwhile, her brother attempted
to prevent Ferdinand from entering Castile to marry Isabella. As the
father of Ferdinand was so pressed by a war with his nobles, he could
not afford his son an armed escort sufficient to secure his safety. So
Ferdinand resolved to go disguised as a merchant. With half a dozen
companions, Ferdinand started upon this adventuresome expedition to
secure his lovely bride, in spite of hostile foes. Amidst many perils
they pressed on their way. One night, at an inn, they lost their purse,
containing all their money. At length they were met by an escort, sent
by Isabella for their protection. The fair princess, with her little
court, was at Valladolid. Ferdinand, accompanied by four attendants,
rode privately to Valladolid, where he was received by the bishop of
Toledo, and conducted to the presence of Isabella. The young prince
was very handsome, tall and fair, with an intelligent countenance and
intellectual brow. He was eighteen years of age. He was well educated,
and of temperate habits. He was graceful and courtly in manner, and
seemed a fitting mate for the beautiful princess of nineteen, of whom
a contemporary writer says, “She was the handsomest lady whom I ever
beheld, and the most gracious in her manners.”
[Illustration: SEGOVIA: THE ALCAZAR AND CATHEDRAL.]
Isabella was highly educated for those times, and spoke the Castilian
language with grace and purity. After a brief lover’s interview
of two hours, Ferdinand returned to Duenas, where he had left his
companions. Preparations were immediately made for the marriage, which
was solemnized at the palace of one of the nobles in Valladolid,
on the morning of the 19th of October, 1469. Ferdinand, having
lost his slender purse by the way, was without money; and Isabella,
being a fugitive from her brother’s court, was also without means.
But the royal couple readily borrowed the money necessary to defray
the expenses of the wedding. King Henry now determined to cast aside
Isabella, and place upon the throne Joanna, the daughter of his second
wife. This was a blow to Isabella, for now the court of Castile,
aided by the king of France, were combined against her. Ferdinand and
Isabella held their little court at Duenas, in humble style. In 1474,
the brother of Isabella, Henry IV., king of Castile, died, and she was
proclaimed queen. Isabella was at that time in Segovia. Attended by an
imposing retinue, she rode upon a beautiful steed, whose bridle was
held by two high officers of the crown, and she was escorted to her
seat upon the splendid throne, which had been erected in one of the
public squares of the city. As the people gazed with admiration upon
their beautiful queen, a herald cried,—
“Castile, Castile, for the king Don Ferdinand, and his consort Dona
Isabella, queen proprietor of these kingdoms!”
The queen took the oath of office, and then repaired to the cathedral,
to pray at the altar. Ferdinand was at this time in Aragon, and when
he returned he was greatly displeased with the document prepared by
the dignitaries of Castile, in which Isabella alone was declared heir
to the throne of Castile, but Ferdinand was associated with her in the
performance of many acts of royalty. But, persuaded by his wife, he
agreed to submit.
Alfonso V., the king of Portugal, now invaded Castile. Ferdinand and
Isabella raised an army and met the foe at Toro. The powerful bishop
of Toledo, exasperated by the independence of opinion which Ferdinand
and Isabella displayed, whom he had supposed would be pliant tools in
his hands, joined Alfonso against them. The strife was too desperate
to last long. There was a hand-to-hand fight along the entire line.
At length a storm arose. A dark night came down upon the conflicting
hosts. A deluge of rain fell, and the field was flooded with mingled
blood and water. The Portuguese were utterly routed. Ferdinand
displayed great humanity to his prisoners, furnishing them with food,
clothing, and a safe return to their own country.
Isabella was awaiting the issue of the battle at Tordisillas, twenty
miles above on the river. When she received tidings of the victory, she
ordered a procession to the Church of St. Paul, as an expression of
her gratitude to God, and she herself walked barefoot in the garb of a
penitent. In a few months, the entire kingdom of Castile acknowledged
the supremacy of Ferdinand and Isabella.
In 1479, the king of Aragon died, leaving the kingdoms of Aragon and
Navarre to his son Ferdinand. Aragon, Castile, and Navarre, being thus
united under these two illustrious monarchs, the great Spanish monarchy
was thereby founded.
Ferdinand and Isabella now commenced the enterprise of conquering
Granada, thus expelling the Moors from their last foothold in Spain.
Malaga, on the coast of the Mediterranean, was one of the principal
Moorish towns. The Moors were aware of the importance of this
position, and had strongly fortified it. The Moors were as brave as
the Christians, and were led by famous chieftains. In April, 1487,
Ferdinand, at the head of fifty thousand men, arrived before Malaga,
and commenced its siege. There were continual ambuscades, and nightly
sallies. One day, while Ferdinand was dining in his tent, which
commanded a view of the field of conflict, he perceived a party of
Christians, who had been sent to fortify an eminence, retreating in
confusion, pursued by the Moors. King Ferdinand leaped upon his horse,
not delaying for any defensive armor, rallied his men, and charged
against the enemy. Having thrown his lance, he endeavored to draw his
sword from its scabbard. But the sword held fast, the scabbard having
been by some accident, indented. Just then several Moors surrounded
him. The king would have been slain had not two brave cavaliers rushed
to his rescue. The nobles remonstrated with the king for so risking his
life, but Ferdinand unselfishly answered,—
“I cannot stop to calculate chances, when my subjects are perilling
their lives for my sake.”
After a siege of ten days, one of the outposts of Malaga was captured
by the Spaniards, who now pressed triumphantly forward to assault
the city itself. Ferdinand first attempted to induce the Moors to
capitulate, by generous offers, to the commander. But he loyally
replied, “I am stationed here to defend the place to the last
extremity. The Christian king cannot offer a bribe large enough to
induce me to betray my trust.” Ferdinand then encompassed the city by
sea and by land. Queen Isabella joined him, and her presence inspired
the Spaniards with fresh courage. When she arrived with a brilliant
train of ladies and cavaliers, an imposing escort was sent to meet her,
and she was conducted to the encampment with great magnificence of
parade, and many demonstrations of joy.
The assault was now renewed more fiercely than ever. Famine at length
caused great suffering amongst the Moors. They had consumed most of
their ammunition, while the Spanish army was constantly re-enforced by
new volunteers. King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella maintained strict
religious discipline in their camp. Neither oaths nor gambling was
allowed, and the rites of the Roman Catholic Church were performed
with imposing ceremony. Gradually the Christians gained ground. They
succeeded in blowing up one of the towers, thereby obtaining entrance
into the city. The citizens of Malaga, suffering from pestilence and
famine, had been reduced to living upon the flesh of horses, dogs, and
cats. Everywhere the most appalling misery was seen. Many were dying
in the streets. In view of their sufferings, Hamet Zeli, the Moorish
commander, gave the citizens permission to make the best terms they
could with their conqueror. Ferdinand would listen to nothing, however,
but unconditional surrender. At length the citizens sent a deputation
to Ferdinand, declaring that they were willing to resign to him the
city, the fortifications, and all the property, if he would spare their
lives, and give them their freedom. “If these terms are refused,” they
added, “we will take the six hundred Christian captives, who are in our
hands, and hang them like dogs on the battlements. We will then enclose
our old men, women, and children in the fortress, set fire to the town,
and sell our lives as dearly as possible, in the attempt to cut our way
through our enemies. Thus if you gain a victory, it shall be such a one
as will make the name of Malaga ring throughout the world, to ages yet
unborn.”
[Illustration: THE CATHEDRAL AND PORT OF MALAGA.]
In answer, Ferdinand replied, “If a single hair of a Christian’s head
is harmed, I will put to the sword every man, woman, and child in the
city.”
The citizens in hopeless despair, cast themselves upon the mercy of
Ferdinand, unconditionally surrendering the city.
On the 18th day of August, 1487, the Spanish army, headed by Ferdinand
and Isabella, with great military and ecclesiastical pomp, entered
the city, and repaired to the cathedral, where the _Te Deum_ was for
the first time performed within its walls. The Christian captives
were liberated from the Moorish dungeons. They presented a dreadful
spectacle, which drew tears from all eyes. This band of sufferers, many
of whom had languished in dark cells for fifteen years, were brought
forth, haggard, emaciated, and heavily manacled with chains. Being
freed from their fetters, Ferdinand and Isabella addressed to them kind
words of sympathy, and dismissed them with rich gifts.
The heroic Moorish chieftain, who had so gallantly defended the
city, was brought loaded with chains before his conqueror. Upon
being questioned why he had so long persisted, he replied, “I was
commissioned to defend the place to the last extremity. Had I been
properly supported, I would have died sooner than have surrendered.”
Then came the doom of the Moors. The entire population of the city,
amounting to about twenty thousand, were condemned to slavery. Men,
women, and children were alike sentenced by the Christians. One-third
were sent to Africa in exchange for Christians imprisoned there.
Another portion were sold to the highest bidder, to procure money to
defray the expenses of the war. The Pope at Rome received one hundred
Moorish soldiers. The Moorish girls were renowned for their great
beauty; fifty of the most beautiful of these were sent by Isabella as a
gift to the Queen of Naples, and thirty to the Queen of Portugal. All
the property of the victims was seized by the crown. Cruel as this doom
appears to us, it was regarded at that time as mild and humane, though
now one shudders at such unchristian barbarity. But in justice, the
excuse must be made for Ferdinand and Isabella, that they supposed that
thereby the Moslem Moors would be more likely to become converts to the
Christian religion, even in slavery. It is said that Isabella was urged
by the clergy to put all the captured Moors to death, as a warning to
others. The city of Malaga was now re-inhabited by the Spaniards.
In the next year, Ferdinand, with a force of twenty thousand men,
marched against Granada, the capital of the Moorish kingdom. The
Christians were driven back in confusion into their own territory.
The year following, King Ferdinand collected an army of ninety-five
thousand men. The cavalry was composed of the highest nobility of the
realm. The Christians advanced upon Baza. The Moors sallied forth
from the city to meet their foes; a fierce battle lasted for twelve
hours, when the Moors were forced to retreat within the city walls.
The conflict had been so severe, however, that the Spanish generals
counselled an abandonment of the siege. Ferdinand, relying upon the
wisdom and great mental endowments of his wife, sent dispatches to
Jaen, where Isabella then was, asking her advice. Her reply was so
encouraging that the siege was renewed. The summer and winter passed
away; the Christians suffered much during the floods of rain which
inundated their camp. The energetic queen, however, came to their
rescue, and sent six thousand pioneers to repair the roads; and she
even pawned the crown jewels and her own ornaments, to raise money to
furnish her husband’s forces with supplies. The Moorish women within
the city displayed heroism equal to that of the Christian queen. At
length, as the Spanish troops began to despond, Ferdinand sent for
his brave wife to come to the camp, that her presence might inspire
them with fresh courage. An historian thus describes the coming of the
queen:—
“On the 7th of November, the queen, accompanied by her daughter
Isabella, several ladies of honor, a choir of beautiful maidens, and
a brilliant escort, entered the camp of Ferdinand. The inhabitants of
Baza crowded their walls and towers to gaze upon the glittering pageant
as it wound its way through the defiles of the mountains and emerged
upon the plain, with gold-embroidered banners and strains of martial
music. The Spanish cavaliers sallied forth in a body from their camp
to receive their beloved queen and to greet her with an enthusiastic
reception. The presence of this extraordinary woman, in whose character
there was combined with feminine grace so much of manly self-reliance
and energy, not only reanimated the drooping spirits of the besiegers,
but convinced the besieged that the Spanish army would never withdraw
until the place was surrendered. Though there was no want of food for
the beleagured Moors, their ammunition was nearly expended, and the
garrison was greatly reduced by sickness, wounds, and death.”
Soon after the arrival of Isabella, the Moorish garrison offered to
capitulate. Ferdinand was so anxious to secure the place, that he
agreed to allow the army to march out with the honors of war, and the
citizens to retire with their property at their pleasure. The fall of
Baza secured the surrender of many other important strongholds of the
Moslems. Granada, the capital of the Moorish kingdom, was still in the
possession of the Moors. Ferdinand, in 1491, having raised another
army, encamped within six miles of this city. Abdallah, the king of the
Spanish Moors, was in personal command at Granada. The city possessed a
population of two hundred thousand people.
The situation of Granada was exceedingly picturesque. A wild, rugged
mountain range, whose summits were crowned with snow, protected the
city upon the south. On the north was a beautiful plain, blooming with
flowers, and beyond, groves and vineyards reached for thirty leagues.
But upon this lovely spot occurred scenes of blended heroism and
revolting carnage, which have made the fall of Granada famous for all
time.
Sometimes a company of Moors, clad in armor, and mounted upon their
fiery Arabian chargers, would ride forth from the gates, while
bugle-blasts rang shrill upon the air, and challenge an equal number
of Christian knights to combat. Promptly the defiance was met. All the
citizens of Granada crowded the house-tops, battlements, and towers of
the city, to watch the exciting conflict. Both armies rested upon their
arms, breathlessly awaiting the issue. Again, some brave Christian
knight would ride forth alone and challenge a Moorish cavalier to
combat. The ladies of the two hostile courts cheered their respective
champion with their fair presence and encouraging smiles; and never did
knight or cavalier fight more valiantly to win the prize of victory.
The memory of these brilliant but deadly tourneys still inspires
the songs of the Castilians. Spanish ballads glow with thrilling
descriptions of these knightly tourneys; and the prowess of Moslem, as
well as Christian warriors, sheds undying glory over the conquest of
Granada.
Queen Isabella took an active part in all the military operations of
the Spanish army. She often appeared upon the field, encased in full
armor, mounted upon a splendid steed; and her presence always inspired
her troops to fresh deeds of valor. Isabella occupied in the camp a
pavilion, richly draped with silken hangings. One night, a gust of
wind blew the fringes of one of the curtains into the flame of a lamp,
and soon the entire pavilion was in a blaze. The conflagration spread
to other tents, and it was only with great difficulty that the entire
camp was preserved from destruction. The queen and her children were
in great danger of being destroyed. In consequence of this accident,
Ferdinand, to prevent a like occurrence, ordered a city of substantial
houses to be built upon the spot occupied by his army. In three
months, a large and stately city arose. The soldiers wished to call it
Isabella, in honor of their idolized queen, but she named it Santa Fé,
in recognition of her faith in Providence. The city still stands.
The Moors were now convinced that their Spanish foes were determined to
remain until the Crescent should give place to the Cross. The citizens
of Granada were suffering from famine. Abdallah, therefore, surrendered
Granada to the Christians on the second day of January, 1492.