that Cyrus made war against the Scythians, and after having attacked
them, made a feint of retreating, leaving a great quantity of
provisions and wine behind him. The Scythians, supposing he had indeed
departed, seized the booty and were soon thoroughly drunk from the
effects of the wine. While they were still in a drunken slumber, they
were surprised by Cyrus and completely routed. The son of Tomyris,
queen of the Scythians, had commanded the vanquished army, and was
taken prisoner. When he recovered from his drunken fit and found
himself in captivity, with a disgrace hanging over his head which
he could never hope to wipe out, he killed himself in despair. His
mother, Queen Tomyris, determining to avenge the death of her son,
collected a large force; and meeting the Persians in a second battle,
they were defeated, and more than two hundred thousand of their number
were killed, together with their king, Cyrus. Tomyris was so enraged
against Cyrus, that even his death did not suffice her vengeance; but
it is said that she ordered his head to be cut off and flung into a
vessel full of blood. This shocking account, however, is not given
by Xenophon, who relates that when Cyrus perceived the time of his
death to be near, he ordered his children and officers of state to be
assembled about him. After thanking the gods for their favors to him,
he declared his oldest son, Cambyses, to be his successor, and left the
other, whose name was Tanaoxares, several important governments. Having
taken his leave of them all, he addressed these words to his sons:—
[Illustration: RUINS OF BABYLON.]
“I could never imagine that the soul only lived while in a mortal body,
and died when separated from it. But if I mistake, and nothing of me
shall remain after death, at least fear the gods, who never die, who
see all things, and whose power is infinite. Fear them, and let that
fear prevent you from ever doing, or deliberating to do, anything
contrary to religion and justice. For my body, my sons, when life has
forsaken it, enclose it neither in gold or silver, nor any other matter
whatever; restore it immediately to the earth. Adieu, my dear children;
may your lives be happy. Carry my last remembrance to your mother. And
for you, my faithful friends, receive this last farewell, and may you
live in peace.” Having said these words, he covered his face and died,
sincerely lamented by all his people.
ALEXANDER THE GREAT.
356-323 B.C.
“Self-conquest is the greatest of victories.”—PLATO.
ONE day a terrible event transpired in the ancient city of Ephesus.
The magnificent temple of Diana, one of the famous Seven Wonders of
the World, was in flames. The people from all parts of the country
flocked to the scene of the imposing conflagration. This marvellous
temple had been built at the expense of all Asia Minor. One hundred
and twenty-seven kings had contributed one hundred and twenty-seven
magnificent columns of Parian marble, which were sixty feet in height,
and wrought by the most famous artists. Pliny says that two hundred
and twenty years were occupied in rearing this vast structure. But now
the flames mount higher and higher. All the efforts of the distracted
people to subdue them are in vain. See! the rapacious tongues of fire
are nearing the sacred image of the goddess, which the Ephesians
believed had fallen from heaven. Why does not Diana, the great goddess,
prevent the destruction of this, her most imposing and sacred shrine?
The people call upon her in their wild despair; but still the flames
devour with fury the magnificent structure, and the air is rent with
the cries of the horror-stricken multitude. That very night, while the
heavens were still red with the lurid light of the burning temple,
another event occurred upon the other side of the Ægean Sea, in the
royal palace of the kingdom of Macedon. A tiny infant first opened
its eyes upon this strange world; and above his royal cradle, king and
nobles bent in gratified delight, and welcomed the little stranger
with proud joy. But what had this helpless babe to do with the burning
temple in Ephesus? This baby was the infant Alexander the Great; and
so superstitious were the people of those times that in order to
explain the strange fatality of a great goddess like Diana allowing her
magnificent temple to be burned and destroyed without any miraculous
intervention on her part, to punish such a sacrilegious desecration of
her shrine by wicked mortals, the historians of those days declared
that as Diana was at that time lending her aid and presence to insure
the future greatness of the new-born infant Alexander, it was on
account of her absence on so beneficent an errand, that her temple was
not guarded from this impious destruction.
[Illustration: TEMPLE OF DIANA AT EPHESUS.]
But what mortal had so dared to insult the gods, as to apply the torch
to this most sacred shrine? At last it was discovered that a person
named Herostratus had fired the temple; not by accident, but with
wicked intent. Upon being put to the torture in order to force him to
confess the motive for so infamous a crime, he declared that it was to
immortalize his own name, that he might be known to all posterity as
the destroyer of this famous structure. A decree was then published
that all should be prohibited from mentioning his name. But this decree
only caused greater curiosity, and scarcely one of the historians of
those times have failed to mention the name of this wicked and vain man.
These events happened about 356 B.C. Alexander was born the heir to the
throne of one of the Grecian kingdoms. His father was King Philip of
Macedon. The kingdom of Macedon was in the northern part of Greece.
The mother of Alexander was Olympias, the daughter of the king of
Epirus, which was a kingdom lying west of Macedon. Olympias was a woman
of very strong character, but possessed also some unlovely traits. His
father, King Philip, was a great warrior, and during the boyhood of
Alexander, he made many conquests in various parts of Greece. Alexander
was much favored in the circumstances of his early life, and also in
the possession of a superior mind, and handsome face and figure, and
most winning manners. He was born to rule; and had he always used his
many gifts as wisely as he employed his executive powers and physical
courage, he would have been one of the greatest of men, whereas now he
can be called only one of the greatest of conquerors, whose life was
marred by some of the most terrible of vices.
But the boy Alexander is intensely attractive and interesting. He
seemed to possess few of the faults of youth. He was active, and full
of ardor and enthusiasm, and at the same time he was calm and prudent
in emergencies, and very thoughtful and far-seeing. He was kind and
considerate, faithful to his friends, and generous to his foes. He
possessed a remarkable mind, and delighted in study and in improving
conversation with his teachers. He was privileged to be a pupil of the
famous Aristotle. The progress of the pupil was equal to the care and
ability of the preceptor. Alexander became very fond of philosophy and
metaphysics, even though a young boy; and he did not omit mathematics
and the study of the wonders of nature. But Alexander applied himself
chiefly to the study of morality, as it contributes to the good conduct
of a prince and the best government of a people. How sad it was that,
with all these desirable qualities of heart and mind, his later years
were marred by the greatest of vices, and his natural noble impulses
were deadened by a life of brutal ferocity and drunken debauchery,
which tarnished the brightness of his glory and sullied the reputation
of a great conqueror, whose brilliant actions and intrepid bravery
dazzled the eyes of friends and foes!
[Illustration: ALEXANDER THE GREAT.]
But we must not suppose that the youthful Alexander was a melancholy
dreamer or an embryo philosopher. His greatest delight was to read of
the exploits of the Grecian heroes, which were described by Homer, an
ancient poet who lived four or five hundred years before the time of
Alexander. There were then no printed books, but these and other works
were written on parchment rolls, which the young scholars were taught
to read. As Homer’s tales were written in Greek, which was the native
language of Alexander, he could understand them very easily, and was
greatly excited with the stirring scenes there depicted. Aristotle
ordered a beautiful copy of Homer’s poems to be prepared expressly for
his princely pupil. Alexander afterwards carried this copy with him in
all his campaigns; and years after, when he was fighting the Persians,
among the spoils taken from them was a very costly casket, which King
Darius had used for jewels or perfumes. This box was always afterwards
employed by Alexander as a receptacle for his beautiful copy of Homer;
and he placed it with his sword beneath his pillow at night. Although
he was a prince, he was not brought up in habits of luxury. The Greeks
in those days had no firearms, and in battle combatants fought in
hand-to-hand conflicts. It was the business of the officers to lead the
men on, and set them the example of bravery by performing themselves
deeds of daring and valor. It was considered necessary to accustom the
young, even though princes, to hardship and fatigue. Alexander was
full of energy and spirit. He early evinced a great degree of ambition;
and when news of his father’s many conquests would be brought to the
court in Macedon, Alexander often remarked to his companions, in a tone
of sorrow and dejection,—
“There will be nothing left for us to conquer.”
The story of Bucephalus, his famous horse, illustrates the courage and
also the keen observation of Alexander. A spirited war-horse had been
sent to Philip while Alexander was quite a young boy. The king and his
courtiers went out into one of the parks to view and try the horse; but
so furious was the animal that no one dared to mount him, as he seemed
entirely unmanageable. Philip was very much provoked, and gave orders
that the horse should be sent back into Thessaly, as useless.
Alexander had stood quietly by, noticing the actions of the animal and
attentively studying his traits. He perceived that the horse seemed
to be frightened at his own shadow; and he begged the consent of his
father to allow him to try the experiment of mounting him. Philip at
last gave a reluctant consent, as the attempt seemed so hazardous
for a young boy, when all his experienced grooms condemned the horse
as too vicious to be subdued. Alexander, however, quickly turned
the frightened creature round, so that he could not see his shadow;
and patting him on the head and neck, reassured him with the gentle
tones of his voice; and as he became less restive, he sprang upon
the animal and gave him full rein to run as he pleased. King Philip
and his nobles first looked on in terror, then in admiration, as the
splendid steed flew over the plains like the wind, with his intrepid
rider seated in calm grace upon his back, evidently perfectly fearless
and self-possessed. Having allowed the horse to tire himself with
his free run, Alexander reined him in with perfect ease, and returned
safely to the king. Philip was so pleased and proud of his son that he
embraced Alexander when he had alighted, and kissing his forehead, he
said to him, “My son, seek a kingdom more worthy of thee, for Macedon
is below thy merit.” This Bucephalus afterwards became the famous
war-horse of Alexander the Great, and many surprising stories are told
of his marvellous sagacity. When this horse was saddled and equipped
for battle, he seemed to realize his proud position, and would allow
no one to approach him but Alexander. When his master wished to mount
him, he would kneel upon his forelegs. Some historians relate that
when Alexander was fighting in a desperate battle, and had plunged too
imprudently amidst his infuriated foes, Bucephalus, though severely
wounded, bore his master to a place of safety, although he was himself
bleeding to death, pierced with the fatal darts of the enemy. Then,
perceiving that Alexander was safe, he fell exhausted, and expired.
Others say that Bucephalus lived to be thirty years of age, and that
Alexander so mourned for him at his death that he built a city on the
spot where his faithful horse had been buried, and called it Bucephalia
in honor of the noble and trusty steed.
When Alexander was only sixteen years of age, his father, Philip, made
him regent of Macedon while he was absent on a great military campaign
against the other Grecian states.
At this time some ambassadors from the Persian court arrived in
Macedon. In the absence of Philip, Alexander received them with
courtesy. They, supposing that he would be interested in hearing about
the splendors of the Persian court, entertained him with stories of
the famous Hanging Gardens of Babylon; and the vine of gold, the grapes
of which were emeralds, rubies, and other precious stones; and the
marvellous golden plantain-tree. But Alexander, instead of appearing
absorbed and delighted with these glowing accounts of fabulous wealth,
inquired about the geography of the country, the various roads, and the
strength and power of the Persian king. What battles he had fought,
how he behaved towards his enemies, and how he governed his people.
The ambassadors, astonished at such maturity in one so young, and
filled with admiration for the Grecian prince, began to compare among
themselves Alexander and their own Artaxerxes, saying, “This young
prince is great, while our king is only rich.”
When Alexander was eighteen years of age, King Philip took him with him
on one of his military campaigns, during which Philip fought one of his
great battles in Bœotia. Philip gave the command of one of the wings
of his army to Alexander; and so valiantly did he lead his troops,
that his wing was victorious, and Philip and his command had to exert
themselves to prevent being outdone by the youthful prince. His mother,
Olympias, was of a haughty and imperious temper, and Philip himself was
headstrong and obstinate, and the result of their frequent quarrels
was a final separation, and Philip obtained a divorce from his wife,
she returning to the court of her father. Philip then married a young
and beautiful princess, and at the wedding festivities an incident
occurred which illustrated the traits of both father and son. The uncle
of the new queen, having made some disparaging remark about Olympias,
the mother of Alexander, that prince threw the cup from which he had
been drinking at the offender’s head. Attalus, the queen’s uncle, then
threw his cup at Alexander, and Philip, enraged at such disturbance at
the feast, seized his sword, and rushed towards his son. Having a lame
foot, he stumbled, and fell upon the floor; and Alexander, looking upon
him with scorn and contempt, exclaimed, “What a fine hero the states of
Greece have to lead their armies, a man who cannot get across the floor
without tumbling down!” He then turned away and left the palace, and
afterwards joined his mother in Epirus, and espoused her cause in the
quarrel with his father.
Philip had been planning a great expedition into Asia. He had formed a
strong combination among the states of Greece, and had raised a large
army. Alexander is said to have taken sides with his mother, not so
much out of filial devotion, as because he was jealous of his father’s
conquests, and desirous himself of reaping the glory which seemed to
await the Grecian army in the coming campaign. Before setting forth
upon this expedition, Philip desired to become reconciled to his son
Alexander, and Olympias. He realized the importance of securing the
co-operation of Alexander in his plans; and it would be dangerous to
leave his own kingdom with a son so near in open hostility. Whereupon,
Philip sent conciliatory messages to Olympias and Alexander, and he
proposed that one of his own daughters should marry the present king of
Epirus, who was the brother of Olympias. His overtures were peacefully
received; and Olympias and Alexander returned to Macedon, where great
preparations were made for the proposed wedding festivities. Philip
determined that this event should be celebrated with most gorgeous pomp
and splendor.
He received very costly presents from the other states of Greece;
and though their professions of friendship were very hollow on both
sides, he took this occasion to pay marked attention to their kings and
generals; and they sent him golden crowns, most beautifully wrought,
and large embassies, expressing their good wishes. Athens, the seat of
literature in Greece, sent a poem, in which the history of Philip’s
expedition into Persia was related in anticipation, and in which he was
described as being most triumphantly successful.
The wedding was at length celebrated with much splendor, and the day
after the nuptials was devoted to games and processions. In one of the
latter, which was a religious ceremony, twelve statues of the gods,
carved with marvellous art, were carried with great pomp through the
streets. A thirteenth, which surpassed them all in magnificence, was
a statue of Philip, representing him as a god. The procession was
moving towards a great theatre, where games and spectacles were to be
exhibited. At length Philip himself appeared in the procession. He
had ordered that a wide space should be left around him, so that he
might be more plainly visible to the populace, and also as a proof
of his confidence in the love of his people, thus to expose himself
without a guard. He was clothed in white robes, and adorned with a
sparkling crown. Just as the statues of the gods had been carried into
the theatre, and as that of Philip was about to be born in, an officer
of the guards, a young Macedonian nobleman, named Pausanias, advanced
quickly towards King Philip, and before the spectators suspected his
design, he plunged his dagger into the heart of the king, who fell dead
upon the ground. All was now confusion. The murderer was instantly cut
to pieces by the guards; and an officer of state hastened to inform
Alexander of his father’s death, and his succession to the throne. An
assembly of the leading statesmen was hastily summoned, and Alexander
was proclaimed king. It was by some supposed that the motive which
induced Pausanias to murder Philip was a private revenge for a personal
insult he had received from the uncle of Philip’s present wife, which
insult Philip would not notice. But others believed that the murder was
instigated by the other states of Greece, who were hostile to Philip.
Demosthenes, the celebrated orator, was Philip’s bitterest enemy, and
he used his eloquence in stirring up the Grecians against him. These
orations were called his Philippics.
[Illustration: DEMOSTHENES.]
Alexander’s first measures were to punish his father’s murderers.
Although it could not be ascertained who were involved in the plot,
several were suspected, and put to death. Alexander decided not to make
any change in his father’s appointments, and to carry out his proposed
campaigns. There were two officers in particular, who were the especial
confidants of Philip,—Antipater and Parmenio. Antipater had charge
of the civil, and Parmenio of military affairs. Alexander, at this
time, was only twenty years of age; and Parmenio, a very distinguished
general, was sixty years old. But the genius, power, and enthusiasm of
Alexander’s character made even men of such age and experience willing
to obey his orders, and aid in the execution of his plans.
The Macedonians advised Alexander not to attempt to hold all the states
of Greece; but to relinquish the conquests of Philip, and join with
them in an alliance. But Alexander determined to march boldly into
their midst, and demand their continued subjection, which his father
had gained. This was a bold measure for so young a prince. He thereupon
collected his forces, and set forth at their head. He first marched
his troops to the banks of the Danube, which he crossed in one night.
He defeated the king of the Triballi in a great battle, and subdued
several barbarous nations. While he was thus engaged, several of the
Grecian cities, inflamed by the eloquence of Demosthenes, who harangued
the people, calling Alexander “a child, a hare-brained boy,” formed
a powerful alliance against him. A false report that Alexander was
dead inspired the Thebians with a boldness which proved their ruin.
Alexander, having secured his kingdom from the barbarians, marched with
much expedition towards Greece, and passed the Strait of Thermopylæ.
He then said to his army, “Demosthenes called me, in his orations,
a child, when I was in Illyria, and among Triballi; he called me a
young man, when I was in Thessaly; and I must now show him, before the
walls of Athens, that I am a man grown.” At the Pass of Thermopylæ, a
great council was held between Alexander and the Thessalians, who were
favorable to his claims. Alexander now appeared so suddenly before
the city of Thebes, as to astonish them. He demanded only that they
should deliver up to him the two ringleaders of the revolt against
him, and then he promised a general freedom to the citizens. But the
Thebans insultingly replied that they would only comply, if two of
his generals were delivered to them. Alexander now determined upon a
speedy punishment, and attacked them so vigorously, that the city was
taken, and a large number of the Thebans were killed. Alexander then
resolved to make Thebes a warning to all the Grecian states, and the
city was accordingly destroyed, and thirty thousand of the Thebans were
sold into slavery. He, however, set the priests at liberty; and those
who had opposed the revolt, and also the descendants of Pindar, the
famous poet. Alexander now sent word to Athens, and demanded that they
should deliver up to him ten orators, whom he supposed had influenced
the people against Philip and himself. The Athenians, though in this
dilemma, were still unwilling to deliver up their orators to death;
and at last, one Demades, who was a friend of Alexander’s, offered to
undertake the embassy alone, and plead for them. Alexander, having
now satiated his revenge, and believing that the Grecians were enough
subdued to be controlled, waived his demand.
He then summoned all the monarchs and potentates of Greece, to meet him
at Corinth, that he might obtain from them the same supreme command
against the Persians which had been conferred by them upon his father
Philip. The deliberations of the assembly were short, and Alexander was
appointed generalissimo against the Persians.
There is a story told of Alexander and the philosopher Diogenes, who
was then at Corinth. Alexander supposed that Diogenes would of course
come with the officers and governors of cities, and philosophers, who
waited upon him immediately to congratulate him upon his election. But
Diogenes did not come, and so Alexander, having curiosity to see a
man who would thus slight a king, condescended to call upon Diogenes.
Attended by his courtiers, he paid the philosopher a visit.
Diogenes was found lying in the sun, and seeing the crowd of people
advance toward him, he sat up and fixed his eyes upon Alexander.
That prince was surprised to see so great a philosopher in such seeming
poverty, and accosting him kindly, asked him courteously if there was
anything he wanted.
“Yes,” replied Diogenes, “that you would stand a little out of my
sunshine.”
The courtiers of the monarch were astounded at such audacious boldness;
but Alexander exclaimed,—
“Were I not Alexander, I would be Diogenes.” For Alexander perceived,
that even with all his wealth and power, he was in some sense inferior
to a man to whom he could give, and from whom he could take, nothing.
Alexander now returned to Macedon to prepare for his great expedition
into Asia. As king of Macedon he possessed large estates and revenues,
which were his own personal property, independent of the state. He
apportioned these among his officers and generals, both those who were
to go with him, and those who were to remain to guard his kingdom, over
which he placed Antipater as viceregent during his absence.
He displayed such generosity in his gifts, that his friends asked him
what he had reserved for himself.
“Hope,” replied Alexander.
After all things were ready, Alexander celebrated the religious
sacrifices and ceremonies. This great Macedonian festival was held in
honor of the Muses, as well as Jupiter. The Muses, according to the
belief of the Greeks, were nine singing and dancing maidens, who were
very beautiful in face and form, graceful in motion, and brilliant in
mind. They were supposed to have first come from Thrace, and having
gone to Mount Olympus, they were made goddesses by Jupiter. At last
they selected for their place of residence a palace in Mount Parnassus.
They were worshipped all over Greece and Italy as the goddesses of
music and dancing. Afterwards arts and sciences were assigned to
them,—one being the goddess of history, another of astronomy, another
of tragedy, etc.