[13] Political Essay on New Spain. Vol. 2, p. 315. (London ed. in 4
vols. 8vo.)
[14] Life and Travels in California. p. 372.
[15] Dr. Lyman states, that "in the autumn of 1841, an American trader
with thirty-five men, went from Bents fort to the Navijo country, built
a breastwork with his bales of goods, and informed the astonished
Indians, that he had 'come into their country to trade or fight, which
ever they preferred.' The campaigns of the old trappers were too fresh
in their memory to allow hesitation. They chose to trade, and soon
commenced a brisk business."
[16] Humboldt's Political Essay on New Spain. Vol. 2, p. 316. On the
testimony of the missionaries of the _Collegio de Queretaro_, versed in
the Aztec language, M. Humboldt states, that the language spoken by the
Moqui Indians is essentially different from the Mexican language. In the
seventeenth century, missionaries were established among the Moquis and
Navijos, who were massacred in the great revolt of the Indians in 1680.
[17] Clavigero, Hist. Mexico. Vol. 1, p. 151. Humboldt's Polit. Essay on
New Spain, Vol. 2. p. 300. A more detailed account of these remains, may
be found in the Appendix to Castaneda's "_Relation du Voyage de Cibola
en 1540_," published in the "_Relations et memoirs originaux_" of
Ternaux-Compans. The state of the country, the manners and customs of
the Indians, and their peculiar state of civilization are given at
length, and are interesting in this enquiry. The notice of the "_Grande
Maison, dite de Moctezuma_," is extracted from the journal of Father
Pedro Font, who traversed this country to Monterey, on the Pacific, in
1775.
[18] Report to the Royal Geographical Society, London, Nov. 9, 1846.
[19] Nouvelles Annales des Voyages. Feb. 1846. p. 146.
[20] London Athenaeum, Aug. 8, 1846, in which is a condensed account of
this journey.
[21] Simmond's Colonial Magazine. Vol. V. p. 87.
[22] There is evidently some mistake in these dimensions, which would
give a mass of masonry many times larger than the great pyramid at
Ghizeh.
[23] London Athenaeum, Nov. 9. 1846.
[24] Journal of the Geographical Society. Vol. 16.
[25] Missionary Herald, vol. 41. p. 218.
[26] London Athenaeum, March 7, 1846.
[27] Ibid. Oct. 31, 1846.
[28] Bulletin de la Societe de Geographie. Rapport par M. Roger. 1846.
p. 321.
[29] London Athenaeum, July 4, 1846.
[30] London Athenaeum, July, 1845.
[31] The Geography of N'Yassi, or the Great Lake of Southern Africa,
investigated, with an account of the overland route from the Quanza, in
Angola, to the Zambezi, in the government of Mozambique, by Wm.
Desbrough Cooley, in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society,
London. Vol. xv.
[32] Notes on African Geography, by James M'Queen.--_Ibid._
Contributions towards the Geography of Africa, by James McQueen, in
Simmond's Colonial Magazine, Vol. vi.
[33] Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, Vol. 15, p. 371.
[34] Nouvelles Annales des Voyages: May, 1846, p. 139.
[35] Bulletin de la Societe de Geographie de France, for 1845, p. 251.
[36] Notice sur le Progres des decouvertes Geographiques pendant
l'annee, 1845, par V. de St. Martin. Bulletin de la Societe de
Geographie, p. 245.
[37] Nouvelles Annales des Voyages. Notes Ethnologiques, sur la race
blanche des Aures. Par M. Guyon. Janvier, 1846, p. 116.
[38] Comptes-Rendus de l'Academie des Sciences, 29 Dec. 1845.
[39] Revue Archaeologique, Nov. 1845.
[40] The incident which led to the discovery of this alphabet is
deserving of notice. An Algerine named Sidy-Hamdan-Ben-Otsman-Khodja,
who had gained the confidence of the Duke of Rovigo, then Governor of
Algiers, was in correspondence with the Bey of Constantine. The Hadji
Ahmed, to render this correspondence more sure, wrote his letters in
conventional signs, known among certain Arabs by the name of _romouz_.
Ali the son of Sidy-Hamdan, who was the bearer of these Missives, had
lived a long time in France as an officer in the employ of the Sublime
Porte; and in his hands M. Boisonnet one day discovered the letters of
Hadji Ahmed. On glancing his eye over one of these documents he
discovered at the top (_en vedette_) two groups of signs, which, from
their situation, he readily imagined might be the equivalents of the
Arab sacramental words, _Praise be to God_, with which all good
Musselmen generally begin an epistle. With this supposition he applied
the alphabetic value to each character, and thus obtained the value of
six of these strange cyphers. The next day he obtained two of these
documents or letters from Ali, who little suspected what use he intended
making of them. With these materials he diligently applied himself, and
on the following morning sent him a complete translation of the letters.
Ali was greatly alarmed that Mr. Boisonnet had solved the enigma, but
more so that he had thereby become acquainted with the correspondence.
Struck with the analogy between these characters and the Lybian
characters on the Thugga monument, he applied the alphabet discovered by
him, and the result is known.--_Revue Archaeologique_, November, 1845.
[41] See De Saulcy. Revue des deux Mondes, June, 1846.
[42] The accident which led to this second discovery deserves to be
mentioned. The person into whose hands the manuscript fell, while
examining the leaves which were remarkably thick, accidentally spilt a
tumbler of water on it. In order to dry it he placed it in the sun in a
window, when the parchment that was wet separated. He opened the leaves
which had been sealed and found the Pagan manuscript between them. A
farther examination showed that the entire volume was similarly formed.
[43] Keppell's Borneo, vol. I. p. 233.
[44] Keppell's Borneo, vol. I. p. 59.
[45] Missionary Herald, vol. 42, p. 100.
[46] Letter to the Hon. C.J. Ingersoll, chairman of the committee on
foreign affairs, containing some brief notices respecting the present
state, productions, trade, commerce, &c. of the Comoro Islands,
Abyssinia, Persia, Burma, Cochin China, the Indian Archipelago, and
Japan; and recommending that a special mission be sent by the government
of the United States, to make treaties and extend our commercial
relations with those countries: by Aaron H. Palmer, councillor of the
Supreme Court of the United States.
[47] See "China Mail" newspaper, for March 26, 1846.
[48] Frazer's Magazine, 1846. In this Magazine is an article of much
interest on the commercial relations of the Indian Archipelago.
[49] Annals of the Propagation of the Faith. Sept. 1846.
[50] London Evangelical Magazine, August, 1846.
[51] Bulletin de la Societe de Geographie, 1846. Extrait d'une
description de l'archipel des iles Solo, p. 311.
[52] Bulletin de la Societe de Geographie, for 1846, p. 365.
[53] Physical description of New South Wales and Van Dieman's Land.
[54] Address of Lord Colchester to Count Strzelecki on presenting him
with the medal.
[55] Discoveries in Australia, vol. 1. p. 252.
[56] p. 394.
[57] vol. 2. p. 10.
[58] London Athenaeum, July 25, 1846. Ibid. Aug. 8, 1846.
[59] Report of Dr. Leichardt's Expedition, Simmonds' Colonial Magazine,
vol. 2, 1845.
[60] London Athenaeum. Nov. 3, 1846.
[61] Simmond's Colonial Magazine, Nov. 1846.
[62] Herodotus, in speaking of the subjugation of Lycia, by Cyrus and
Harpagus, says; "When Harpagus led his army towards Xanthus, the Lycians
boldly advanced to meet him, and, though inferior in numbers, behaved
with the greatest bravery. Being defeated and pursued into their city,
they collected their wives, children and valuable effects, into the
citadel, and there consumed the whole in one immense fire.... Of those
who now inhabit Lycia, calling themselves Xanthians, _the whole are
foreigners_, eighty families excepted."--_Clio_, 176. See also _Clio_,
171-173.
Herodotus further states that the Lycians originated from the Cretans, a
branch of the Hellenic race; and Strabo, in a fragment preserved from
Ephorus, states that the Lycians were a people of Greek origin, who had
settled in the country previously occupied by the barbarous tribes of
Mylians and Solymi.
Homer briefly alludes to the Lycians, who, at the siege of Troy,
assisted the Trojans under certain rulers whose names are
mentioned.--_Iliad_, b. v. and xii.
[63] Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London. Vol. IX.
[64] Ibid. Vol. XV. p. 104.
[65] Wellsted's Travels in Arabia, Vol. I. p. 92.
[66] Particulars read to the meeting of Royal Geographical Society of
London, November 9, 1846.--London Ath.
[67] Les Steppes de la mer Caspienne, le Caucase, la Crimee et la Russie
meridionale; voyage Pittoresque, Historique et Scientifique; par X.
Hommaire de Hell. 3 vols. royal 8vo. and folio atlas of Plates. Paris,
1845.
[68] I feel warranted in going back and tracing the progress of these
discoveries, as so little is known of it by English readers. The
translation of Grotefend's essay in Heeren's Researches, was the only
accessible original treatise on the subject, until the recent
publications of Major Rawlinson and Prof. Westergaard. In Germany, much
has been written and some in France. These papers are chiefly in
antiquarian or philological Transactions and are scarcely known here. A
full account of the discovery in question, of its progress and present
state, seems therefore necessary.
[69] Grotefend's Essay on the cuneiform inscriptions, in Heeren's
Asiatic Nations. Vol. II. p. 334.
[70] The Zendavesta is one of the most ancient as well as remarkable
books that has come down to us from the East. It was first made known in
Europe in the year 1762, by Anquetil du Perron, who brought it from
Surat in India, whither he went expressly to search for the ancient
books of the East. He spent many years (seventeen it is said) in making
a translation, which he accompanied with valuable notes, illustrative of
the doctrines of Zoroaster, and in elucidation of the Zend language, in
which this book was written. A great sensation was produced in Europe
among the learned at the appearance of the work. Examined as a monument
of the ancient religion and literature of the Persians, it was
differently appreciated by them. Sir William Jones[A] and others, not
only questioned its authenticity, but denounced the translator in very
harsh terms. But later writers, among these some of the most
distinguished philologists of Europe, are willing to let it rank among
the earliest books of the East, and as entitled to an antiquity at least
six centuries anterior to the Christian era.
The Zendavesta (from _zend_ living, and _avesta_ word, i. e. "the living
word") consists of a series of liturgic services for various occasions,
and bears the same reference to the books of Zoroaster that our
breviaries and common-prayer books do to the Bible. It embraces five
books. 1. The _Izechne_, "elevation of the soul, praise, devotion;" 2.
the _Vispered_, "the chiefs of the beings there named;" 3. the
_Vendidad_, which is considered as the foundation of the law; 4. the
_Yeshts Sades_, or "a collection of compositions and of fragments;" 5.
the book _Siroz_, "thirty days," containing praises addressed to the
Genius of each day; and which is a sort of liturgical calendar.[B]
The doctrines inculcated in the Zendavesta are "the existence of a great
first principle. Time without beginning and without end. This
incomprehensible being is the author of the two great active powers of
the universe--Ormuzd the principle of all good, and Ahriman the
principle of all evil. Ormuzd is the first creative agent produced by
the Self-Existent. He is perfectly pure, intelligent, just, powerful,
active, benevolent,--in a word, the precise image of the Element; the
centre and author of the perfections of all nature." Ahriman is the
opposite of this. He is occupied in perverting and corrupting every
thing good; he is the source of misery and evil. "Ordained to create and
govern the universe, Ormuzd received the Word, which in his mouth became
an instrument of infinite power and fruitfulness."[C]
"The first created man was composed of the four elements,--fire, air,
water, and earth. "Ormuzd to this perishable frame added an immortal
spirit, and the being was complete." The soul of man consists of
separate parts, each having peculiar offices. "1. The principle of
sensation. 2. The principle of intelligence. 3. The principle of
practical judgment. 4. The principle of conscience. 5. The principle of
animal life." After death, "the principle of animal life mingles with
the winds," the body being regarded as a mere instrument in the power of
the will. The first three are accountable for the deeds of the body, and
are examined at the day of judgment. "This law or religion is still
professed by the descendants of the Persians, who, conquered by the
Mohammedans, have not submitted to the Koran; they partly inhabit Kirman
and partly the western coast of India, to the north and south of
Surat."[D] The traces which are apparent in the Zendavesta of Hindoo
superstitions, indicate that its author borrowed from the sacred books
of India, while its sublime doctrines evidently point to the Pentateuch.
Mr. Eugene Burnouf is now publishing at Paris a new translation of the
Zendavesta from a Sanscrit version under the title of "Commentaire sur
le Yacna," in which he has embodied a vast deal of oriental learning,
illustrative of the geography, history, religion and language of ancient
Persia. The first volume was published in 1833.
[A] Sir William Jones's Works. Vol. X. p. 403.
[B] See note to the "Dabistan." Pub. for the Oriental Translations
Fund. Vol. I. p. 225.
[C] Frazer's History of Persia. p. 150-157.
[D] Note to the "Dabistan." Vol. 1. p. 222. by its editor, A. Troyer.
[71] The modern title of the sovereign of Persia, _Shah_, is at once
recognised in the ancient name _Kshe_ or _Ksha_ of the monuments.
[72] Memoire sur deux Inscriptions cuneiforms, trouvees pres d'Hamadan.
Paris, 1836.
[73] Die Alt-Persischen Keil-Inschriften von Persepolis. Bonn, 1836. The
other papers of Prof. Lassen may be found in the "Zeitschrift fuer die
Kunde des Morgenlandes," a periodical work published at Bonn,
exclusively devoted to Oriental subjects. It is the most learned work on
Oriental Philology and Archaeology published in Europe.
[74] While Major Rawlinson was occupied in Persia, the subject was
attracting much attention among the Orientalists of Europe. Burnouf and
Lassen, as we have seen, then published the results of their
investigations, which were afterwards found to be almost identical with
those of Major R. Neither of these scholars was aware at the time of the
others' labors. This is an interesting fact, and establishes the
correctness of the conclusions at which they eventually arrived.
[75] The Zend language is known to us chiefly by the "Zendavesta." Of
its antiquity there is doubt. Some philologists believe that it grew up
with the decline of the old Persian, or was formed on its basis, with an
infusion from the Sanscrit, Median, and Scythic languages. It was used
in the time of Darius Hystaspes, B.C. 550, at which period Zoroaster
lived, who employed the Zend in the composition of the "Zendavesta." Its
antiquity has formed the subject of many memoirs; but late writers,
among whom are Rask, Eugene Burnouf, Bopp, and Lassen, have decided from
the most severe tests of criticism, that the Zend was an ancient
language derived from the same source as the Sanscrit, and that it was
spoken before the Christian era, particularly in the countries situated
west of the Caspian Sea, in Georgia, Iran proper, and northern Media.
Note to the Dabistan, Vol. I. p. 222. The only specimen of this language
yet known, with the exception of a few MSS. of little importance among
the Parsees, is the Zendavesta. Major Rawlinson[A] adopts views at
variance with those of the distinguished German philologists, in regard
to the antiquity of the Zend language. Its "very elaborate vocalic
organization," he thinks, "indicates a comparatively recent era for the
formation of its alphabet;" and of the Zend-Avesta, he is of opinion
that "the disfigurement of authentic history affords an argument of
equal weight against the antiquity of its composition." He fully agrees,
however, with all others as to the very remote composition of the books
generally ascribed to Zoroaster. In fact this is beyond all question,
for Plato mentions them (Pol. B. XXX.). Clemens of Alexandria says they
were known in the 5th century B.C. and many other ancient writers could
be cited in proof of the same.[B]
[A] See Rawlinson. Memoir on Cuneiform Inscriptions. Note to page 42.
[B] See a note to the "Dabistan," Vol. I. p. in which is given a list
of all the ancient writers who mention Zoroaster and his works.
[76] On the Decyphering of the Median species of Arrow-headed Writing,
by N.L. Westergaard, in the Memoires de la Societe Royale des
Antiquaires du Nord. Copenhagen, 1844.
[77] Memoir on the Cuneiform Inscriptions, p. 20.
[78] Ibid. p. 28.
[79] On the Median variety of Arrow-headed Writing. Memoires de la
Societe des Antiquaires du Nord, for 1844. p. 272.
[80] Zeitschrift fuer die Kunde des Morgenlandes. 1844-45. Prof.
Westergaard has also published his paper in English, in the Memoires de
la Societe Royale des Antiquaires du Nord, Copenhagen, 1844, prefixing
to it Lassen's alphabet of the first sort of Persepolitan writing. He
was probably induced to do this by observing the limited extent to which
the German language is cultivated by English scholars, insomuch that
even Rawlinson complains that he was unable to read any more of Lassen's
papers than his translations of the inscriptions, which are in Latin.
[81] Memoir on the Persian cuneiform inscriptions. p. 47.
[82] Zeitschrift fuer die Kunde des Morgenlandes, 1844 '45.
[83] For inscription see Rich's Babylon and Persepolis, plate 24, and
page 254.
[84] Revue Archaeologique. October, 1844.
[85] Westergaard in Mem. de la Socie. Royale des Antiq. du Nord, p. 419.
Ibid. p. 423.
[86] Lettres de M. Botta sur les decouvertes a Khorsabad, pres de
Ninive; publiees par M.J. Mohl.
[87] London Times, June, 1846. Two interesting letters from Mr. Layard,
dated August 12, 1846, to Mr. Kellogg, of Cincinnati, were read before
the American Ethnological Society, at its meeting in February, giving
further accounts of his discoveries.
[88] See London Athenaeum, Oct. 10, 1846, a letter from Constantinople
dated Sept. 10.
[89] The prophet Daniel in his vision of four beasts says, "The first
was like a lion, and had eagles' wings; I beheld till the wings thereof
were plucked, and it was lifted up from the earth, and made stand upon
the feet as a man." _Daniel, ch. VII. v. 4._ The resemblance between the
animal of Daniel's vision and those recently discovered at Nineveh is
striking.
[90] Richardson in the Preface to his Persian Dictionary.
[91] Preface to the "Dabistan" published by the Oriental Trans.
Fund:--by A. Troyer. Vol. I. p. 30.
[92] Annales des Voyages, April, 1845, p. 58.
[93] Ld. Colchester's Address, Journal of the Royal Geographical
Society, 1846.
[94] Address to the British Association for the Advancement of Science,
at its meeting, September, 1846.
[95] The Royal Geographical Society of London has conferred its Victoria
Gold Medal on Prof. Middendorff for his successful exploration.
[96] Lord Colchester's Address before the Royal Geog. Society. London,
1846.
[97] Missionary Herald. Vol. XLI. p. 138.
[98] Missionary Herald. Vol. XLI. p. 206.
[99] English Baptist Missionary Report for 1845. p. 9.
[100] It appears that the Baptist Missionary Society in the year ending
in March, 1845,[A] expended in India $29,500, of which sum nearly
$15,000, or rather more than one half, was expended in making
translations of books into various languages. The remainder was for the
support of the missionaries, their outfits and passages, the support of
native teachers--schools &c. The languages and dialects which have been
studied and elucidated and into which books have been translated may be
summed up as follows.
32 languages and dialects in India,
4 do. do. in Persia and the Caucasian countries,
5 do. in China and the Indo-Chinese countries,
4 do. in Polynesia.
The translations consist of the whole or portions of the Scriptures;
books on religious or moral subjects; elementary works on Science,
popular Histories, geography, &c. Elementary books in the several
departments of Science and History constitute the greater variety,
though of the whole number of works distributed, the Bible and Testament
constitute by far the greatest part. For example, the English Baptist
Missionary Society printed and issued in the year ending March 1845,
fifty-five thousand copies of the Bible and Testament in the Sanscrit,
Bengali, Hindostani, and Armenian languages. The number of books printed
and distributed in India by the American Board of Commissioners for
Foreign Missions was as follows.
MADRAS MISSION. In the Tamil and English languages: The Scriptures or
portions of them--books of a religious character--elementary school
books--tracts--periodicals and reports of benevolent associations
bearing on the cause of Christianity and the social and intellectual
improvement of the population of India, there were printed at this
single establishment, within a fraction of twenty-seven millions of
pages--or, if in volumes of two hundred and seventy pages each, one
hundred thousand volumes; but as there were many tracts, the number was
doubtless double or treble. Besides this there are six other large
establishments in Southern India, where books in the Tamil language are
printed, all under the control of Missionary Societies.
CEYLON MISSION. In the Tamil and English languages were printed during
the year, twenty-three thousand seven hundred and forty-four volumes,
and one hundred and forty-five thousand tracts, amounting to six million
one hundred and fifty-six thousand pages.
SIAM MISSION. In the Siamese language were printed in two years two
million four hundred and sixty-two thousand pages.
When so much is accomplished by one Society, how vast must be the
influence exerted by the various Missionary and Tract Societies engaged
in the same cause.
[A] Report of the English Baptist Missionary Society for 1845.
[101] Missionary Herald, Vol. XLV. p. 47.
[102] Chinese Repository. Vol. XV. p. 113.
[103] Annals of the Propaganda for 1846. p. 55.
[104] Ibid. July, 1846.
[105] Annals of the Propaganda for September, 1845.
[106] Chinese Repository, Vol. xii. p. 78.
[107] Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, July, 1846.
[108] Chinese Repository, Vol. xiv. p. 155.
[109] It is desirable that this word be expunged from all works on China
and eastern Asia, and the proper words _officers_, _authorities_,
_magistrates_, &c., be used instead. Every officer, from a prime
minister to a constable or tide-waiter, is called a mandarin by
foreigners, partly because those who write do not know the rank of the
person, and partly from the common custom of calling many things in
China by some peculiar term, as if they were unlike the same things
elsewhere.
[110] Chinese Repository, Vol. X, pp. 205-215.
[111] Chinese Repository. Vol. I., p. 276; Vol. II., pp. 135-138.
[112] Chinese Repository. Vol. XIV. p. 202.
TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES:
Obvious typesetting errors have been corrected. Obvious spelling errors
in foreign language references have been corrected. Inconsistencies in
spelling have been normalized unless otherwise noted below. Questionable
or vintage spelling has been left as printed in the original
publication.
Footnotes in the original publication were marked with symbols at the
page level. Sequential footnote numbering has been applied and all
footnotes have been relocated to the end of the text.
Variations in spelling for Musselman/Mussulman left as printed in
original publication.