triple, like those on the Behistun tablets, before described. Those of
the first or simplest variety, have all been translated by Professor
Lassen,[82] to whom Professor Westergaard transmitted them. Accompanying
his translations are critical and explanatory remarks, proving
conclusively the correctness of his version. The inscriptions at and
near Persepolis, relate to Xerxes. They do not possess the historical
value that the tablets of his father do on the rocks of Behistun, but
consist of praises of Ormuzd for blessings he had received, and of
himself for the additions he made to the royal palace at Persepolis. The
following is a translation of an inscription on the wall of an immense
portal at Nakshi Regib, two miles from Persepolis.[83]
"Ormuzd (is) the great God. He created this earth; he created
the heavens; he created mortals; he created the fortune of
mortals. He made king Xerxes the only king of many, the only
emperor of many.
"I Xerxes (am) the great king, the king of kings, the king of
realms inhabited by many nations; the sustainer, the author of
this great land; the son of king Darius, the Achaemenide.
"I (am) the noble Xerxes, the great king. By the will of
Ormuzd, I have built this portal to be entered by the people.
Let the Persians abide, let them congregate under this portal,
and in this palace--the palace which my father built for
abiding in. By the will of Ormuzd we built them.
"I (am) the noble king Xerxes. Protect me O Ormuzd; and also
this kingdom, and this my palace, and my father's palace
protect, O admirable Ormuzd."
No inscriptions have yet been found in Persia of Artaxerxes, the first
son of Xerxes. A vase, however, was discovered at Venice by Sir J.G.
Wilkinson, bearing an inscription in hieroglyphics, and in the three
species of arrow-headed characters so common in Persia. This vase and
its inscriptions have been examined by M. Letronne and M. Longperier,
who do not hesitate to ascribe it to Artaxerxes the first, or
Longimanus, whose names and titles have been made out both in the
hieroglyphics and cuneiform characters.[84]
An inscription of great historical interest of Artaxerxes the third, has
been found at Persepolis.[85] It is in only one species of the
Achaemenian writing, and is noticed by Prof. Westergaard as exhibiting "a
most remarkable change and decay which the language must have undergone
in the interval between the reigns of Xerxes and this monarch." In a
philological point of view, this fact is interesting as showing so early
a decline of the Persian language.
But the most important part of this inscription consists of the
genealogy of Artaxerxes the third, from Arsama, the Greek Arsames, the
father of Hystaspes, completely agreeing with that given by Grecian
historians. In this as well as in all the other inscriptions thus far
decyphered, Ormuzd is invariably invoked; he is called upon to aid them,
and the several sovereigns acknowledge their gratitude to him as to an
all-protecting Providence for the blessings received.
NINEVEH. We have received from M. Mohl, of Paris, an account of the
researches of MM. Botta and Flandin,[86] on or near the site of ancient
Nineveh.
This volume contains letters from M. Botta, giving the details of his
discoveries, accompanied by fifty-five plates of sculptures, statues,
and inscriptions. He penetrated into the interior of a large mound,
where he found a series of halls and chambers, the walls of which were
covered with paintings and relievos representing historical events, and
scenes illustrating the manners and customs of the Assyrians. The
drawings and sculptures exhibit a higher state of art than the monuments
of Egypt. The figures are remarkably well drawn, both as it regards the
anatomy and the costumes. The men appear to be more athletic than the
Egyptians--they wear long hair combed smooth over the top of the head,
and curled behind. The beard is also long and always curled. Their
dresses are exceedingly rich and profuse in ornaments and trimmings.
Ear-rings, bracelets, and armlets, of various forms and elaborately
wrought, are seen on most of the figures both of the men and women. The
discoveries made by M. Botta have induced others to explore the ground
in that vicinity. An English traveller, Mr. Layard, has recently opened
a mound many times larger than that excavated by the French. "It
contains the remains of a palace, a part of which, like that at
Khorsabad, appears to have been burnt. There is a vast series of
chambers, all built with marble, and covered with sculptures and
inscriptions. The inscriptions are in the cuneiform character, of the
class usually termed Babylonian. It is possible that this edifice was
built at an epoch prior to the overthrow of the Assyrian Empire by the
Medes and Babylonians under Cyaxares. Many of the sculptures discovered
by Mr. Layard are, even in the smallest details, as sharp and fresh as
though they had been chiselled yesterday. Among them is a pair of winged
lions with human heads, about twelve feet high. They form the entrance
to a temple. The execution of these figures is admirable, and gives the
highest idea of the knowledge and civilization of the Assyrians. There
are many monsters of this kind, lions and bulls. The other reliefs
consist of various divinities, some with eagles' heads--others entirely
human but winged--with battle-pieces and sieges."[87]
Other letters from Mr. Layard of a later date than that just mentioned,
announce new discoveries. "Another mine has been opened at Nimroud; and
every stroke of the pick-axe brings new wonders to light." Old Nineveh,
whose very existence had become little better than a vague historic
dream, is astonishing the world by her buildings her sculptures, and
her many thousands of inscriptions, which have been brought to light by
the explorations of Mr. Layard.[88] "He has opened fourteen chambers and
uncovered two hundred and fifty sculptured slabs. The grand entrance
previously described led him into a hall above two hundred and fifty
feet long and thirty broad--entirely built of slabs of marble covered
with sculptures. The side walls are ornamented with bas-reliefs of the
highest interest--battles, sieges, lion-hunts, &c.; many of them in the
finest state of preservation, and all executed with extraordinary
spirit. They afford a complete history of the military art of the
Assyrians; and prove their intimate knowledge of many of those machines
of war, whose invention is attributed to the Greeks and Romans--such as
the battering ram, the tower moving on wheels, the catapult, &c. Nothing
can exceed the beauty and elegance of the forms of various arms, swords,
daggers, bows, spears, &c. In this great hall are several entrances,
each formed by winged lions, or winged bulls.[89] These lead to other
chambers; which again branch off into a hundred ramifications. Every
chamber is built of marble slabs covered with sculptures or
inscriptions." The excavations thus far only extend to one corner of a
great mound, the largest on the plain, measuring about one thousand
eight hundred feet by nine hundred. The wonders that may be brought to
light from a more complete survey of this vast heap of ruins, will be
looked forward to with intense interest.
All are familiar with the accounts of the building of this city by
Asshur, (whence the name Assyria), and of the first empire under
Nimrod. In this short record we have the first traces of political
institutions and of great cities. They burst upon us, and as suddenly
disappear from the world's history for more than a thousand years. A
learned author of the last century[90] has endeavored to throw distrust
on all that the Greek writers have written about these countries,
because in the Persian historians he could not recognise the great Cyrus
and other prominent characters which fill important places in the
Grecian annals. But the revelations already made through the
arrow-headed inscriptions must remove these doubts, as they substantiate
in a remarkable degree the assertions of the Greek writers. The
observations of a learned Orientalist are so well adapted to this
subject that I cannot forbear quoting them. "The formation of mighty and
civilized states being admitted even by our strictest chronologers to
have taken place at least twenty-five centuries before our era, it can
but appear extraordinary, even after taking into account violent
revolutions, that of so multitudinous and great existences, only such
scanty documents have come down to us. But, strange to say, whenever a
testimony has escaped the destruction of time, instead of being greeted
with a benevolent though discerning curiosity, the unexpected stranger
is approached with mistrustful scrutiny, his voice is stifled with
severe rebuke, his credentials discarded with scorn, and by a
predetermined and stubborn condemnation, resuscitating antiquity is
repelled into the tomb of oblivion."[91]
A journey of much interest was undertaken by Dr. Robert in 18_3, who was
directed by the French government to continue, in the west of the
Himalaya range and the high region adjacent, the geographical, physical,
and ethnographical observations which had been begun by M. Jaquemont.
The latest accounts from this intrepid traveller left him in the
inaccessible valleys of Chinese Tartary, from whence it was his
intention to pass through Turkestan, for the purpose of entering China
on the north.[92]
In the same distant region we hear of the journeys of H.R.H. Prince
Waldemar, of Prussia (cousin to the king). "Consulting only his ardor
for science, and burthened with the usual load carried by a traveller on
foot, he scaled the lofty Himmalayah, crossed the frontier of the
Celestial Empire, and reached the table-land of Thibet."[93] The prince
has already transmitted a large collection of objects of natural
history, many of which are new, to Berlin. It is his intention to return
to Europe by way of Affghanistan, Persia, and Asia Minor.
The following list embraces the late works on Assyria and
Persia, as well as those relating to the arrow-head
inscriptions.
The Persian Cuneiform Inscriptions at Behistun, decyphered and
translated; with a Memoir on Persian cuneiform inscriptions in
general, and on that of Behistun in particular, by Major H.C.
Rawlinson, 8vo., in the journal of the Royal Asiatic Society.
Vol. 10. London, 1846.
On the Decyphering of the second Achaemenian or Median species
of Arrow-headed Writing; by N.L. Westergaard, 8vo., in the
Memoires de la Societe Royale des Antiquaires du Nord.
Copenhagen, 1844.
Lettres de M. Botta sur les Decouvertes a Khorsabad, pres de
Ninive, publiees par M.J. Mohl, 8vo., with 56 plates. Paris,
1845.
Essai sur la Numismatique des Satrapies et de la Phenicie, sous
les rois Achaemenides, par H. de Luynes, 4to. Paris, 1846.
The Manual, Formation and early Origin of the Hebrew letters
and points, demonstrated and explained; also an Elucidation of
the so-called Arrow-headed or Cuneiform characters. 8vo.
London, 1847.
Essai de Dechiffrement de l'Ecriture Assyrienne pour servir a
l'explication du Monument de Khorsabad. Par J. Loewenstern. 8vo.
Paris, 1846.
Die Grabscrift des Darius zu Nakschi Rustum erlaeutert. Von F.
Hitzig. Zurich, 8vo. 1846.
Remarks on the Wedge Inscription recently discovered on the
upper Euphrates by the Prussian engineer, Capt. Von Muelbach.
Being a commentary on certain fundamental principles in the art
of decyphering the "cuneatic" characters of the ancient
Assyrians, by G.F. Grotefend. 8vo. In the papers of the
Syro-Egyptian Society. Vol. I. London, 1845.
Voyage en Perse. de MM. Eugene Flandin et P. Coste. Recueil
d'Architecture ancienne, Bas reliefs, inscriptions cuneiformes
et Pehlvis, plans topographiques et vues pittoresques. Folio.
250 plates and text.
This magnificent work, the result of an expedition sent out by
order of the French government, under the directions of the
Institute, and now published by a commission of savans,
consisting of Messrs Burnouf, Le Bas, and Leclerc, is in the
course of publication. It will unquestionably be the most
complete work ever published on this interesting country and
will include the antiquities of Babylon and Nineveh.
G.F. Grotefend, Neue Beitraege zur Erlaeuterung der
Persopolitanischen Keilschrift, nebst einem Anhange ueber die
Vollkommenheit der ersten Art-derselben. Hanover, 1837.
G.F. Grotefend, Neue Beitraege zur Erlaeuterung der
Babylonischen Keilschrift, nebst einem Anhange ueber die
Beschaffensheit des aeltesten Schriftdruck. Hanover, 1840.
The valuable Oriental Journal edited by Prof. Lassen, entitled
"Zeitschrift fuer die Kunde des Morgenlandes," contains many
papers of great interest on these subjects.
SIBERIA. To the love of science which the enlightened Emperor of Russia,
has always manifested, we are indebted for an expedition, the most
successful which has yet been undertaken for the exploration of the
northern and eastern parts of Siberia. The results of this extensive
exploration of a region not before examined by scientific men, are of
the greatest interest to science, and have earned for its distinguished
and undaunted leader, Prof. Von Middendorff, the applause of the savans
of Europe. Not having seen any detailed account of this journey, I am
indebted to Sir R. Murchison for some particulars of its results.[94]
The expedition traversed the whole extent of Siberia, from east to west,
and from south to north, even to the extreme northern headland of
Taimyr. "Undaunted by the severe privations he had undergone in
obtaining his knowledge of the far northern lands of Siberia, he next
undertook the not less arduous task of traversing the whole of that vast
continent to the Shantar Isles, at its southeastern extremity, and
thence to return to Nertchinsk, along the Chinese frontier. His journey
through thickly-wooded rocks, deep morasses and over swollen rivers,
was so successfully accomplished, that the stores he has brought back to
St. Petersburgh, will fully lay open the Fauna and Flora of a region
never previously explored by a man of science."
"Floating down the sea of Okotsk from Udskoi in frail canoes, M.
Middendorff and his friends, braving shoals of floating ice and
perpetual rains, reached Nitka on the great Shantar island. The wild
regions which were traversed, in many parts could only be threaded by
_following the tracks formed by bears beneath the dense matting of
underwood and birch trees_" In his return journey, he examined the
frontier line of China, a tract never explored even by a Cossack, and
ascertained that between the Udskoi of the Russians and the mouth of the
Amur, there is a considerable tract quite independent both of Russia and
China, and occupied by a people called Guilaiques, who pay no tribute to
either Emperor.
In addition to the several arduous journeys performed by this intrepid
traveller and his companions, many questions hitherto unsolved were
investigated and much new light added to our previous knowledge on these
respective points. One was the real state of the question of the frozen
subsoil of Siberia. "By placing thermometers at various depths in the
shaft at Yakutsk, he has found that at its bottom, or at 382 feet below
the surface, the cold is 2 deg. 4'' Reaumur, and that it is probable the
frozen subsoil reaches to the great depth of about 600 feet!
Notwithstanding this extraordinary phenomenon, the lateral extent of
which has still to be determined, it appears that the culture of rye
succeeds perfectly under favorable local conditions in those regions,
and that the crops of grain are more abundant than in Livonia!" M.
Middendorff has also thrown new light on the boreal range of vegetation.
He has ascertained "that whilst rye, turnips, beets, and potatoes grow
on the Yenisei to latitude 61 deg. 40', indigenous plants, requiring less
warmth, flourish much farther north, and that even trees with vertical
stems reach to about 72 deg. north latitude, in that parallel of longitude!"
This fact will show that geographers can no longer mark the limit of
vegetation by a rectilinear zone, but must accommodate such line to
climatological and local conditions.
In regard to the mammoths, the fossil bones of which have been found in
Siberia, M. Middendorff has shown that, in accordance with the views of
Professor Owen, (who states that these quadrupeds were specially
organized to live on the branches and leaves of such shrubs and trees as
grow in boreal latitudes) there are still trees in latitude 72 deg. which
would suffice for their sustenance.
The Ethnology of this region has been elucidated by our traveller, who
by investigating the languages and physical characteristics of these
remote tribes, has been enabled to affiliate them with their parent
stocks.
Our knowledge of the geology and geography of the northern and
southeastern extremities of Siberia have been greatly extended by this
journey; in fact no enquiry for the advancement of science and a
knowledge of this far distant and hitherto unknown region, seems to have
been neglected.[95]
Another scientific expedition of an Ethnological character is employed
in Siberia under the direction of M. Castren, who has devoted much of
his first report to the geography of the country. After speaking of the
river Irtisch and its fisheries, he gives some account of the Ostiaks,
the most ancient people of its banks. Surrounded by Russians and
Tartars, they have lost all their nationality except their language. The
Tartar influence is feeble, but that of Russia is felt in their
religion, their manners, their customs and even in their general mode of
thinking.
A paper containing "Ethnological Notes on Siberia," by Prof. Von
Middendorff, was read at the late meeting of the British Association for
the advancement of science. "In this paper, the geographical boundaries
of the different tribes were set forth, the tribes were enumerated and
some of the characteristic peculiarities described. The 1st, was the
Ostiaks; these were stated to be of Finnish origin, on both
physiological and philological evidence. 2d, the Samoiedes, who were of
Mongol descent. 3rd, the Tunguses. 4th, the Yakuts; the extent to which
Mongol features were found in a nation speaking a language akin to
Turkish, was insisted on. 5th, the Yukagins; the physical peculiarities
of which placed them along with the Samoiedes. 6th, the Ainos; these
were the inhabitants of the Kinule islands at the mouth of the Arnus; of
these there were two types, the Finnish and the Japanese. 7th, the
Kachkell; these were only known through the Ainos."
A geographical Society has lately been founded at St. Petersburg, to
which the emperor proposed to give ten thousand silver rubles annually.
The first great exploratory expedition under the directions and
patronage of this Society will be directed along the eastern flank of
the Ural mountains, from the parallel of 60 deg. north (Bogoslafsk) to the
Glacial sea. This survey is to be conducted by Count A. Von Keyserling,
already known to the public through his valuable geological co-operation
in the work on Russia, by Sir R.I. Murchison; and who by his sound
acquirements in geology, zoology and geography, will it is presumed,
during the ensuing three years, throw great additional light on the wild
Arctic Ural which separates Europe from Asia, and which, inhabited by
Ostiaks and Samoiedes, extends beyond the limits of arboreal vegetation.
Among numerous other objects, it is hoped that this expedition will
elicit new results concerning the entombment and preservation of the
mammoths.[96]
INDIA. The obstacles which have existed in India, and which have
retarded the extension of European civilization, will now be effectually
removed by the noble step taken by Lord Hardinge, the Governor General,
for promoting education in that country.[97] This benevolent and
excellent man, whose well earned laurels on the field of battle are not
more honorable than his philanthropic efforts in extending education
among the natives of India, and in improving their social condition,
"has directed the Council of Education and other authorities charged
with the duty of superintending public instruction throughout the
provinces subject to the government of Bengal, to submit returns of the
students who may be fitted according to their degrees of merit and
capacity, for such of the various public offices, as with reference to
their age, abilities and other circumstances, they may be deemed
qualified to fill." As this order recognizes no distinction of schools,
or castes, or religion, it will have a great influence on the people,
towards inducing them to give their children the benefit of a good
education, which to a great extent must be obtained through the
Christian missionaries. "It is," says the Friend of India, "the most
powerful impulse which the cause of education has received during the
last twenty-five years. It makes the seminaries the nursery of the
service, and the service the stimulant of the seminaries. It introduces
the enlightened principles adopted by European governments, of
recruiting the public service in every department from those who have
earned distinctions in the public schools. At the same time it will be
found instrumental in the highest degree in the general elevation of the
country. It will transplant into the interior that European knowledge
and science which has hitherto been confined to Calcutta, and diffuse
their influence through every district."
The renunciation of idolatry must necessarily follow the first steps in
this great work of reform, and we already see it noticed that in
southern India, within the short period of three months, eight hundred
and thirty-two persons renounced idolatry and embraced Christianity.
This large number was a part of the population of seven villages.[98]
Such changes are not without their effects on the great mass of the
natives, indeed it is only by removing from their minds the gross
superstition in which they have been for ages immersed, that there can
be a hope of improving their social condition. The wealthy Hindoos cling
to their ancient religion with greater tenacity as it totters towards
its downfall, than when in its most flourishing state. Alarmed at the
innovations which European civilization and Christianity have made, they
are printing by subscription, a series of popular religious books in
monthly numbers, on their doctrines, rites, superstitions and idolatry.
Fearing that the Europeans and such as have been taught to observe these
things with ridicule, might controvert them, they have confined the
subscription to Hindoos, and have directed that their books shall be
rigidly kept from the hands of Christians.
The Mahommedans too, in Bengal, are greatly alarmed at the danger to
which their religion is exposed. They have prepared tracts and books in
opposition to Christianity, and have sent, or are sending emissaries in
every direction, with a view to strengthen the tottering cause of their
false prophet.[99] A Mahommedan merchant in Bombay has printed at his
own expense, two thousand copies of the Koran for gratuitous
distribution, at a cost of several thousand dollars.
In former times the efforts of the missionaries were directed to
proselyting among the Hindoos and other idolaters of the East, without
first making themselves acquainted with the fabric which they were
laboring so earnestly to demolish. Nursed and educated as the natives
were in the doctrines and superstitions which for ages their forefathers
had venerated and professed, the efforts of the missionaries and
of others who labored to improve their condition were unattended
with success--and a conflict between Oriental and European
civilization--between Hindooism and Christianity--between the false
science of the shastres and the enlightenment of Europe, for a long time
existed; and it seemed doubtful whether truth or falsehood would
triumph. Now, the system is changed, and a course is pursued which bids
fair to produce the most wonderful effects on the people of India and
China.