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THE
PROGRESS OF ETHNOLOGY
AN ACCOUNT OF RECENT
ARCHAEOLOGICAL, PHILOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL
RESEARCHES
IN VARIOUS PARTS OF THE GLOBE.
TENDING TO ELUCIDATE
THE PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.
BY
JOHN RUSSELL BARTLETT,
COR. SEC. OF THE AMERICAN ETHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY, AND FOREIGN COR. SEC.
OF THE NEW YORK HIST. SOCIETY.
SECOND EDITION.
NEW YORK:
BARTLETT & WELFORD, 7 ASTOR HOUSE.
1847.
NEW YORK:
WILLIAM VAN NORDEN, PRINTER,
NO. 39 WILLIAM STREET.
CONTENTS.
NORTH AMERICA.
EXPLORATIONS and Discoveries in the Mounds and other earth-works in
Ohio. Similar researches and their results in Mississippi and
Louisiana.... Mr. Jomard's essay on the tablet found in the Grave Creek
mound in Virginia, p. 1.
CALIFORNIA AND NEW MEXICO--Recent explorations in these countries, with
accounts of the Navijo and Moqui Indians; architectural remains on the
banks of the Gila.... French explorations in the Isthmus of Panama, p.
15.
RESEARCHES IN GREENLAND, and the Arctic regions; geographical and
historical results.... Late attempts for exploring the northern portions
of the American Continent, p. 21.
SOUTH AMERICA.
Details of the Scientific Expedition under Count Castelnau, sent by the
French government for exploring the interior of South America....
English expedition under Lord Ranelagh--other scientific expeditions....
Peruvian antiquities, etc. etc., p. 27.
AFRICA.
Recent attempts for exploring the interior of Africa.... Mr. Thomson's
journey from Sierra Leone.... Mr. Duncan's journey northward from
Dahomey. Missionary operations at the Gaboon.... Mr. Richardson's
journey into the great desert of Sahara.... The French expedition up the
Senegal, under Mr. Raffenel.... Extensive project for the exploration of
Soudan, in Central Africa.... Proposed expedition for penetrating the
country from the eastern side.... Contributions to the geography of
Southern Africa.... Mr. Maizan's unfortunate attempt to reach the
interior from Zanzibar, p. 32.
ALGIERS--scientific explorations by the French Government; interesting
results; errors respecting the desert of Sahara, p. 41.
DISCOVERY of the ancient LYBIAN alphabet, by M. de Saulcy, p. 44.
The BERBERS; late researches into their language, p. 45.
MADAGASCAR; recent visits of the French, p. 47.
EGYPT; results of the late explorations; state of hieroglyphic and
Coptic literature; Egyptian history and chronology, p. 48.
EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO.
BORNEO--Mr. Brooke's colony; the Dyaks.... The Dutch and other European
colonies in the East Indies.... New Caledonia islands.... The Sooloo
islands. The Nicobar islands, p. 54.
AUSTRALIA; accounts of late explorations, by Count Strzelecki, Dr.
Leichardt and others, p. 63.
ASIA.
ASIA MINOR--Interesting discoveries in Lycia, p. 69.
ARABIA--Historical and philological results of the researches in
Southern Arabia, the country of the ancient Himyarites; importance of
these discoveries in elucidating Scriptural history, p. 73.
THE CAUCASUS--Exploration by M. Hommaire de Hell.... Sclavonic MSS. and
inscriptions, p. 84.
ASSYRIA AND PERSIA--History of the study of the ancient arrow-headed
inscriptions.... Extraordinary results therefrom.... The Zendavesta....
The Zend language.... The great inscription of Darius.... Explorations
at Nineveh. Journeys of Dr. Robert; of Prince Waldemar, etc., p. 84.
SIBERIA--Journeys of Count Middendorff and others; geographical and
ethnographical results, p. 109.
INDIA--Progress of civilization; importance of missionary labors, p.
113.
SIAM--Decline of Boodhism; extension of Christianity, p. 117.
COCHIN-CHINA--Visit of Mr. Hedde to Turon, in Annam, p. 118.
CHINA--Latest accounts from, p. 119.
COREA--Efforts of the Catholic missionaries to christianize the natives,
p. 123.
MANCHURIA....MONGOLIA--Recent accounts from these countries; journey of
Rev. Mr. Huc, in Mongolia, p. 125.
LEW-CHEW ISLANDS--Attempt to establish a mission, by Rev. Mr. Forcade;
notices of the people, their manners, customs, and language, p. 127.
JAPAN--Recent attempts to communicate with the Japanese; peculiarities
of this people.... General view of the languages of the Japanese,
Coreans, Chinese, and Cochin-Chinese, p. 131.
THE PROGRESS OF ETHNOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.
NORTH AMERICA.
I have the pleasure of laying before the New York Historical Society a
brief account of the progress which has been made during the past year
towards extending our knowledge of the globe, particularly with
reference to its geography, and to those nations whose history is
imperfectly known. The subject is one that more properly belongs to
ethnology, but the historical results which are deduced from these
enquiries come within the scope of the objects, the elucidation of which
belongs to this Society.
A new impulse has lately been given to the study of American
Antiquities. A brief account of recent investigations carried on in a
portion of the West and South will show that we possess much that is
interesting, and which will throw light on a neglected branch of
aboriginal history and ethnology.
Every enquirer into the origin and purposes of the monuments and ancient
remains of the Mississippi valley has regretted the limited number and
poorly attested character of the facts, of which the public are in
possession, respecting them. The practical investigations made from time
to time by various individuals, have not been sufficiently thorough and
extensive, nor have they developed sufficient data to warrant or sustain
any definite or satisfactory conclusions. They have served rather to
provoke enquiries which they could in no degree satisfy, than to afford
information on the subject with which they were connected.
It was under a strong sense of the deficiencies in our stock of
information in this branch of knowledge, that two gentlemen of
Chillicothe, Ohio, Dr. Davis and Mr. E.G. Squier, undertook the
exploration of the ancient remains which abound in the state of Ohio,
and particularly of those in the valley of the Scioto river.
It is known that there exists in this region vast numbers of mounds, of
various dimensions, and extensive embankments of earth, enclosing in
some instances many acres of ground. Beside these there are ditches,
walls, causeways and other works of a greater or less extent. The
examination of these, by opening the mounds, and making accurate surveys
of the other works constitute the labors of these gentlemen, some of the
results of which may be stated in anticipation of a full account which
will shortly appear.
Though their labors at first promised to end in increased doubt and
uncertainty, they were abundantly rewarded as their enquiries
progressed. Out of confusion, system began to develope itself, and what
seemed accidents, were found to be characteristics. What was regarded as
anomalous, was recognized as a type and feature of a class, and apparent
coincidences became proofs of design.
For instance, it was remarked among the numerous tumuli opened, that
certain ones were stratified, while others were homogeneous in their
composition. Further observation showed that stratified tumuli occupy a
certain fixed position with regard to other works, which the
unstratified tumuli do not. Still further examinations demonstrated that
the contents of those respective tumuli are radically and invariably
different. Here then was established: 1st. That the mounds are not, as
is generally supposed, identical in character and purpose. 2d. That one
class occupies a fixed position with regard to works of a different
character, the design of which is to be determined, to some degree, by
the peculiarities and the contents of this description of mounds, etc.
It will be seen, at once, that a close observation of facts of this kind
is absolutely essential, to arrive at any reasonable conclusions,
regarding the purposes of these ancient structures, their origin, or the
character or customs of the people by whom they were built. The
investigations of Dr. Davis and Mr. Squier, were therefore conducted so
as to permit the escape of no fact which might tend to elucidate the
mystery in which our antiquities are shrouded. The excavations were made
under their personal direction, and the results may be briefly stated,
without detailing the facts in support of each conclusion, as follows.
The number of enclosures or earthworks which have been surveyed by them,
and of which they have taken careful admeasurements, exceeds _ninety_.
The number of tumuli which have been excavated and their characteristics
noted, amounts to _one hundred and fifteen_.
Of the first class of works, it has been sufficiently demonstrated, that
a small proportion were intended for works of defence; that another
portion were sacred places, or in some way connected with religious or
superstitious rites, while a third and much the larger number are
entirely inexplicable in our present state of information.
The tumuli are divided into three grand classes, which are broadly
marked in the aggregate, though there are individual instances of an
anomalous character. These are:
1st. Tumuli of sepulture, each containing a single skeleton enclosed
in a rude, wooden coffin, or an envelope of bark or matting, and
occurring in isolated or detached groups.
2d. Tumuli of sacrifice, containing symmetrical altars of stone or
burnt clay, occurring within or in the immediate vicinity of
enclosures, and always stratified.
3d. Places of observation, or mounds raised upon elevated or
commanding positions.
Within these monuments have been found implements and ornaments of
silver, copper, lead, stone, ivory and pottery, fashioned into a
thousand forms, and evincing a skill in art, to which the existing race
of Indians, at the time of their discovery, could not approach. Marine
shells, mica from the primitive regions, native copper from the shores
of lake Superior, galena from the upper Mississippi, cetacean teeth,
pearls and instruments of _obsidian_, show the extent of communication
and intercourse had by the authors of these ancient works. Sculptures of
animals, birds and reptiles have been found in great numbers and
variety, exhibiting a skill which few could now surpass. Also,
sculptures of the human head, disclosing most probably the character of
the physiognomy, as well as the manner of adjusting the hair, the head
dress and ornaments of the mound-builders. Careful admeasurements of the
earth works which abound in the Ohio valley, have been made by the
gentlemen alluded to, in which the interesting fact has been developed,
that many of them are perfect circles and squares, and hence that the
people by whom they were constructed had some means of determining
angles and of constructing circles. In some of those earth-heaps,
sufficient remains to show that when in a perfect state, they resembled
the _teocallis_ or terraced edifices of Mexico and Yucatan, though they
were composed wholly of wood and earth.
The number of works manifestly connected in some way with their
religion, guide us to some estimate of the prominence which their
superstitions occupied, and that a religious system existed among them,
in some degree resembling that of the ancient Mexicans. The immense
tumuli heaped over the remains of the dead, show the regard which they
attached to their chiefs, and the veneration in which they held their
memory. The number and extent of their remains of all kinds, which
occupy the fertile valleys, and which are confined almost entirely to
them, indicate that an immense population once existed there, that it
was stationary and therefore agricultural;[1] and if agricultural and
stationary, that a different organization of society, different manners
and customs, different impulses and feelings existed among them, than
are to be found among the hunter and nomadic tribes, discovered by
Europeans in possession of the country.
Another class of antiquities has been discovered by these gentlemen, of
which we only have the particulars in a letter. These consist of rocks
sculptured with figures of men, of birds and animals. They are cut in
outline, the lines being from one half to three quarters of an inch deep
by about the same width. Only those on the sides of the rocks are
visible. Those on the upper or horizontal faces are nearly obliterated.
One represents an elk and is said to be very spirited.
What may result from the future researches of Dr. Davis and Mr. Squier,
remains to be seen; but sufficient has been developed to show that a
people, radically different from the existing race of Indians, once
occupied the valley of the Mississippi, and built the singular monuments
in which it abounds. These also show that they were to a certain extent
advanced in the arts and civilization. In short that they closely
resembled in the character of their structures, ornaments and implements
of war and husbandry, the races of Central America; if they were not
indeed their progenitors or an offshoot from them. Many facts strongly
point to such a conclusion and farther observations carefully conducted,
will probably enable us to settle the question beyond a doubt.
A detailed account of the researches of the gentlemen alluded to,
accompanied by numerous engravings representing the implements,
ornaments and sculptures, &c., discovered in their excavations;--surveys
of the various earth works, forts and enclosures in the Scioto valley,
will be given in the second volume of the Transactions of the American
Ethnological Society, now preparing for publication. They are still
actively engaged in their labors, and intend, should the facilities be
extended them to carry on their operations, to examine every ancient
relic to be found in Ohio and the adjacent parts, where these remains
exist.
Among the explorations which have been carried on in the United States,
none possess a greater interest than those of Dr. M.W. Dickeson, in the
south western states, chiefly in Mississippi, though in some instances
extending to Alabama, Louisiana, and Texas. Dr. Dickeson has laid open
or examined one hundred and fifty mounds and tumuli, of various
dimensions and collected a vast number of interesting relics, which
illustrate the customs and arts of the ancient people who built them.
The mounds vary from three to ninety feet in height, and from twelve to
three hundred feet in diameter at the base. The Seltzer Town mound
contains a superficies of eight acres on its summit. On digging into it
vast quantities of human skeletons were found, chiefly with their heads
flattened, and measuring generally six feet in length. Numerous
specimens of pottery, including finely finished vases filled with
pigments, ashes, ornaments, and beads, were also found.
The north side of this mound is supported with a wall two feet thick, of
sun dried bricks, filled with grass, rushes and leaves. In order to
ascertain whether this immense tumulus was artificial or not, Dr.
Benbrook, sank a shaft forty two feet, and found it artificial or made
ground to that depth. Immense quantities of bones, both of men and
animals, among the latter the head of a huge bear, were thrown out.
Other excavations were made in this tumulus with the same result, thus
showing it to have been a vast mausoleum or cemetery of the ancient
race.
The mounds are generally in systems varying from seven to ten, which Dr.
Dickeson has divided into six classes as follows: _out post_, _ramparts
or walls_, _telegraphs or look outs_, _temples_, _cemeteries_, and _tent
mounds_. The first is seldom more than thirty feet at the base by ten
feet high. Their shape varies, presenting sometimes a pyramid, at others
a cone, or rhomboid. Walls surround the second class, which are from ten
to fifteen feet in heighth, the same across the top, and from forty to
fifty feet at the base.
The "_Look out_" mounds are seldom under sixty feet high. Of this class,
Dr. Dickeson has examined upwards of ninety. They are generally on the
summit of a hill, overlooking the bottom lands. Here they stand some
three hundred feet above the bottom lands, commanding an extensive
prospect, and in some instances one may see the peaks of several systems
of mounds in the distance.
The "_Temple mounds_" are seldom more than twenty feet high, and
stratified with ashes, loam, gravel, &c. They all have an earthen floor.
Dr. Dickeson has, but in a single instant, found a skeleton in these
mounds, and in this, he thinks the subject a Choctaw Indian recently
placed there. It lay in a horizontal position, differing from the usual
mode of burial, which is the sitting posture.
The "_Cemeteries_" are oval, and from six to ten feet high, filled with
bones, lying east and west, and when incased in sarcophagi, the rows run
in the same direction. In some instances Dr. Dickeson found the bones
lying in heaps, promiscuously. These he believes to have been the
_canaille_.
The "_Tent or Structure mounds_" are small, and a short distance below
their surface, fragments of brick and cement are found in great
quantities; sometimes skeletons and pottery. Never more than six
skeletons are found together, and more care is shown in the burial of
these than in the "cemetery mounds." In one instance an angular tumulus
was seen by the Doctor, with the corners quite perfect, formed of large
bricks, bearing the impression of an extended hand.[2]
Many mounds and tumuli are advantageously situated on the tops of
ridges, surrounded with walls. Some of the latter have crumbled away,
while others remain strong and perpendicular. In many instances, the
walls that surround these groups of mounds, form perfect squares and
circles. Dr. Dickeson adds that, "if from the centre of one of these
groups a circle were traced, it would strike the centre of each mound,
both large and small." They contain numerous fragments of walls, images,
pottery, ornaments, etc. etc.
The "Temples" are generally situated among the hills and ravines, with
perpendicular escarpments, improved by artificial fortifications. The
enclosures often embrace upwards of thirty acres. The great enclosure at
"the Trinity" contains upwards of one hundred and fifty acres, and is
partially faced with sundried brick. Upon the plantation of Mr.
Chamberlain in Mississippi, the temple is flanked with several
_bastions_, besides _squares_, _parallels_, _half moons_, and ravines
with perpendicular escarpments for its defence. The ditches and small
lakes are frequently chained for miles and filled with water, intended,
the Doctor thinks, for outworks. In these, bricks are found both at the
bottom and on the sides. Among the rubbish and vegetable deposits taken
from them to put on the land, ornaments, and other relics are found.
Wells and reservoirs, completely walled with burnt clay, are found in
Louisiana; near which are "systems," or groups of mounds so regular and
strongly fortified, that they became the retreat of pirates and robbers
who infested the rivers, greatly disturbing the early settlers, after
the massacre of the Natchez Indians by the French. The Natchez built
large dikes or ditches, and upon the counterscarp piled up huge
ramparts, which they made almost impregnable, by having one side flanked
by the slope of a hill, surrounded by precipices. They are sometimes
situated on the level "bottoms."[3] In these cases one side invariably
faces a creek or bayou, or is in its bend, making the creek serve as a
formidable ditch, offering a serious impediment to an enemy's approach.
The other two sides are protected by parallel walls or half moons, with
gateways leading to the citadel. These walls have indications of having
been faced with dry masonry. The east and west corners are generally
flanked with a small oval mound.
In these tumuli and mounds numerous ornaments and pottery were found by
Dr. Dickeson, buried with the occupants, such as idols, clay stamps,
mica mirrors, stone axes, and arrow heads, silver and copper ornaments,
rings, beads of jasper, chalcedony, agate, &c., similar to those found
in Peru and Mexico. Several pearls of great beauty and lustre, an inch
in diameter, have been found. By an examination of the skulls, Dr. D.
discovered that _dentistry_ had been extensively practised by this
ancient people, as plugging the teeth, and inserting artificial ones,
was common. In one instance, five artificial teeth were found inserted
in one subject. Ovens were found containing pottery partially baked,
three feet below the surface, with large trees covering them, exhibiting
an age of upwards of five hundred years. Magazines of arrow points, in
one instance a "wagon body full," (about twenty bushels), lying within
the space of a few feet. In a small mound in Adams county, Dr. D. found
three large jars holding upwards of ten gallons of arrow points
elaborately finished; and three similar in dimensions and finish, have
lately been received by Dr. Morton, of Philadelphia, from South
Carolina. Carvings representing the English bull dog, the camel and
lama, have been found by Dr. Dickeson, from forty to sixty feet below
the surface of the mound. The bricks, to which allusion has been made,
are of various colors; some of a bright red, others dark brown, various
shades of purple and yellow. Forty stamps of baked clay, containing a
variety of figures used for stamping their skins. Pieces of coin, two of
which found near Natches, had the figure of a bird on one side, and on
the reverse an animal.
The pottery found is quite extensive, some mounds have been opened in
which were upwards of sixty vases, some quite plain, and others
elaborately ornamented. Of the pottery, Dr. Dickeson has succeeded in
getting upwards of a hundred fine specimens to Philadelphia, which are
deposited with his other Indian relics and fossils, in the Museum of the
Academy of Natural Sciences.
Dr. Dickeson has kindly furnished me a catalogue of his collection of
relics, from which I have selected the following to give an idea of the
extent and variety of the objects found:
6000 Arrow points of jasper, chalcedony, obsidian, quartz, &c.,
&c.
150 Arrow points, finely polished, under one inch in length.
25 Arrow points, finely polished, under half an inch in
length.
1600 Unfinished Arrow and Spear points.
250 small stone Axes.
40 Quoits, Weights, &c.
20 Paint mullers.
10 Corn grinders.
3 large stone Mortars.
14 small earthen Heads of men, women and boys.
6 stone Statues, erect and sitting.
A great variety of personal ornaments of jasper, chalcedony, pottery,
beads, pearls, war clubs, war axes, mica mirrors, carved ornaments, arm
bracelets, bone carvings, earthen plates, handled saucers, earthen
lamps, a variety of vessels for culinary purposes, stone chisels, two
copper medals, the tusk of a Mastodon, six feet long, elaborately carved
with a serpent and human figures; cylindrical tubes of jasper
perforated, ornaments in pumice, (lava), seals, bricks, jars, cups and
vases in every variety.
In addition to these, Dr. Dickeson has made a collection of upwards of
sixty crania of the ancient mound builders, out of many thousand
skeletons discovered by him in his several explorations. These possess
much interest in an Ethnographic point of view, for the rigid test to
which all his results have been subjected, have satisfied him that these
skulls belong to the ancient race. Like the gentlemen in Ohio, whose
labors have been noticed, the Doctor can at once detect the mounds and
remains of the ancient, from those of the modern race. Some mounds he
has found to be the work of three periods. At the top were the remains
of the present race of Indians; digging lower he found these remains
accompanied by ancient Spanish relics, of the period of the earliest
Spanish visit to these parts; and below these, he discovered the remains
and relics of the ancient race.
The inscribed tablet discovered in the grave-creek mound, Virginia, and
which was noticed by Mr. Schoolcraft in the first volume of the
Transactions of the American Ethnological Society, continues to excite
much interest. Mr. Jomard of the French Institute, read a second paper
on that subject last year, before the Academy of Inscriptions and
Belles-lettres at Paris, a copy of which he has transmitted to the
Society.[4] He distinctly shows, that the letters of this curious
inscription are identically the same as those of the Libyan on the
monument of Thugga,[5] and of the Tuarycks used at this day. It is
worthy of remark, that Mr. Hodgson in his "Notes on Africa,"[6] arrived
at the same conclusion, without the knowledge that Mr. Jomard, some
years previously, had asserted the Libyan character of this inscription,
in a first note on the subject.[7] Such a coincidence gives force to the
views adopted by both these gentlemen. The results to which the French
savant has arrived, in his enquiry into this engraved stone or tablet,
possess much interest, as it is the only relic yet discovered in North
America, of an inscription bearing alphabetic characters,[8] which have
been satisfactorily identified as such. This Numidian inscription, which
title we may now apply to the engraved tablet in question, will be again
alluded to, when we come to speak of the philological discoveries in
Northern Africa, and of the Libyan alphabet.
In conclusion Mr. Jomard observes, that at a remote period the Libyan
language was spoken by various tribes in Northern Africa, and that it
was a language written with characters, such as we now find on the
Thugga edifice and other monuments; that it is still written with the
same characters, particularly in the vicinity of Fezzan and in the
deserts traversed by the Tuarycks, although this method of writing has
been to so great an extent supplanted by Arabic letters that we must
consider the Berber language, the language of Syouah, Sokna, Audjelah,
and Gherma, as representing the remains of the ancient Libyan language
in use in the most remote period; and finally, that in the interior of
America, on a monument of which the age is unknown, but anterior to the
settlement by Europeans, we find an engraved stone, bearing signs
perfectly resembling the characters traced by the modern Tuarycks and by
their ancestors, upon the rocks of Libya. Mr. Jomard's pamphlet contains
an engraved table, in which are given, in parallel columns, the
characters on the American tablet, the Tuaryck alphabet, the Thugga
characters, and their value in Hebrew and Arabic.
In connexion with this subject it may be added, that M. Berthelot, a
learned traveller, states that there exists a striking affinity between
the names of places and of men in the ancient language of the Canaries
and certain Carib words.[9] The contiguity of the Canaries to the
African continent is such, that we can readily suppose their ancient
inhabitants to have had communication with it, whereby the Libyan
language became known to them. A new field of enquiry is thus opened to
philologists, and we may here seek for the means to unravel one of the
most difficult questions connected with the origin of the American race,
and the means by which they reached this continent, for we never have
been among those who believed that America derived the mass of her
population, her men and animals, from Asia, by the way of Behring's
Straits.
The author of a late work on California, New Mexico, &c., brings to our
notice a tribe of Indians known as the Munchies (Mawkeys) or white
Indians.[10] "This remarkable nation occupies a valley among the _Sierra
de los Mimbros_ chain of mountains, upon one of the affluents of the
river Gila, in the extreme northwestern part of the province of Sonora.
They number about eight hundred persons. Their country is surrounded by
lofty mountains at nearly every point, is well watered and very fertile.
Their dwellings are excavated in the hill-sides, and frequently cut in
the solid rock. They subsist by agriculture, and raise great numbers of
horses, cattle and sheep. Among them are many of the arts and comforts
of civilized life. They spin and weave, and make butter and cheese, with
many of the luxuries known to more enlightened nations. Their government
is after the patriarchal order, and is purely republican in its
character. In morals they are represented as honest and virtuous. In
religion they differ but little from other Indians. Their features
correspond with those of Europeans, with a fair complexion and a form
equally if not more graceful. In regard to their origin, they have lost
all knowledge or even tradition; neither do their characters, manners,
customs, arts or government savor of modern Europe."
Another tribe of Indians called the Navijos, of whom we know but little,
except that they have long had a place on the maps, is noticed by the
same author. They occupy the country between the Del Norte and the
Sierra Anahuac, in the province of Sonora, and have never succumbed to
Spanish domination. "They possess a civilization of their own. Most of
them live in houses built of stone, and cultivate the ground--raising
vegetables and grain for a subsistence. They also raise large numbers of
horses, cattle and sheep--make butter and cheese, and spin and weave."
The blankets manufactured by these Indians are superior in beauty of
color, texture and durability to the fabrics of their Spanish neighbors.
Their government is in strict accordance with the welfare of the whole
community. Dishonesty is held in check by suitable regulations, industry
is encouraged by general consent, and hospitality by common practice. As
warriors they are brave and daring, making frequent and bold excursions
into the Spanish settlements, driving off herds of cattle, horses and
sheep, and spreading terror and dismay on every side. As diplomatists,
in imitation of their neighbors, they make and break treaties whenever
interest and inclination prompts them.[11]
The Navijo country is shut in by high mountains, inaccessible from
without, except by limited passes through narrow defiles, well situated
for defence on the approach of an invading foe. Availing themselves of
these natural advantages, they have continued to maintain their ground
against fearful odds, nor have they suffered the Spaniards to set foot
within their territory as conquerors.
The relations above given of the Mawkeys and Navijos (pronounced
_Navihoes_, and sometimes so written), correspond with the accounts that
from time to time have been brought to us, by hunters and trappers who
have occasionally visited them. A few years since there appeared in the
newspapers an account of both these tribes, by a trapper. He stated that
the Mawkeys had "light, flaxen hair, blue eyes and skins of the most
delicate whiteness."[12] I have two other accounts wherein both are
described much as before stated. Their manufactures are particularly
dwelt upon. Some of them wore shoes, stockings and other garments of
their own make. Their stone houses are noticed as well as their large
herds of cattle,--also their cultivation of fruits and vegetables. They
raise cotton, which they manufacture into cloth, as well as wool. Fire
arms are unknown to them. "Their dress is different from that of other
Indians, and from their Spanish neighbors. Their shirts, coats and
waistcoats are made of wool, and their small clothes and gaiters of deer
skin."
These accounts might be considered fanciful, had we not high authority
which fully corroborates them. Humboldt says, "The Indians between the
rivers Gila and Colorado, form a contrast with the wandering and
distrustful Indians of the savannas to the east of New Mexico. Father
Garces visited the country of the Moqui, and was astonished to find
there an Indian town with two great squares, houses of several stories,
and streets well laid out, and parallel to one another. The construction
of the edifices of the Moqui is the same with that of the _Casas
grandes_ on the banks of the Gila."[13]
In Mr. Farnham's late work on California, is a notice of the Navijos
from Dr. Lyman's report. The author begins by saying, that "they are the
most civilized of all the wild Indians of North America."[14] Their
extensive cultivation of maize and all kinds of vegetables--their
rearing of "large droves of magnificent horses, equal to the finest
horses of the United States in appearance and value," and their large
flocks of sheep are also noticed. From the fleece of the sheep which is
long and coarse resembling mohair, "they manufacture blankets of a
texture so firm and heavy as to be perfectly impervious to water." They
make a variety of colors with which they dye their cloths, besides
weaving them in stripes and figures. They are constantly at war with the
Mexicans, but stand in fear of the American trappers, with whom they
have had some severe skirmishes, which resulted much to their
disadvantage.[15]
It is believed by Baron Humboldt and by others, that in the Navijos and
Mawkeys we see the descendants of the same race of Indians which Cortez
and the Spanish conquerors found in Mexico, in a semi-civilized state.
We are unable to state whether any affinity exists between their
language and the other Mexican dialects, as no vocabularies have been
collected. The whiteness of their skins, their knowledge of the useful
arts and agriculture, and the mechanical skill exhibited in their
edifices at the present day, bear a striking analogy with the Mexican
people at the period of the conquest, and as M. Humboldt observes,
"appears to announce traces of the cultivation of the ancient Mexicans."
The Indians have a tradition that 20 leagues north from the Moqui, near
the mouth of the Rio Zaguananas, the banks of the Nabajoa were the first
abode of the Aztecs after their departure from Atzlan. "On considering
the civilization," adds Baron Humboldt, "which exists on several points
of the northwest coast of America, in the Moqui and on the banks of the
Gila, we are tempted to believe (and I venture to repeat it here) that
at the period of the migration of the Toltecs, the Acolhues and the
Aztecs, several tribes separated from the great mass of the people to
establish themselves in these northern regions."[16]
Connected with this subject and in evidence of the identity of these
tribes with the Aztecs, it should be stated that there exists numerous
edifices of stone in a ruined state, on the banks of the Gila, some of
great extent, resembling the terraced edifices and teocallis of Mexico
and Yucatan. One of these structures measures four hundred and
forty-five feet in length by two hundred and seventy in breadth, with
walls four feet in thickness. It was three stories high, with a terrace.
The whole surrounding plain is covered with broken pottery and earthen
ware, painted in various colors. Vestiges of an artificial canal are
also to be seen.[17] Among the fragments are found pieces of obsidian, a
volcanic substance not common to the country, and which is also found in
the mounds in the Mississippi and Ohio valleys, in both cases applied to
the same uses.
Some valuable contributions to the geography and ethnology of the vast
region lying between the Rocky Mountains and Upper California and
Oregon, have been made by Capt. Fremont of the U.S. corps of Engineers.
The expedition under his command traversed the great desert, and
examined portions of the country not before visited by white men. The
information collected by this enterprising traveller will be of much
service to the country in the new relations which may arise between the
United States and California, as well as to persons who are seeking new
homes in Oregon. The report of Captain, (now Col.) Fremont has been so
widely circulated, and rendered so accessible to all who feel an
interest in the subject, that it would be superfluous to give any
analysis of the work at this time. So satisfactory were the results of
the expedition of this accomplished officer to the country and the
government, that he has again been sent to make further explorations of
the country south of that previously visited by him, and which lies
between Santa Fe and the Pacific Ocean. Colonel Fremont has in this
expedition already rendered important services to the country, having
the command of a detachment of troops in Upper California. This armed
body of men will give him great advantages over an ordinary traveller in
a wild and inhospitable country, where there are still tribes of Indians
which have not yet been subjugated by the Spaniards, and which an
unprotected traveller could not approach. Much interest has been
awakened from the accounts already received from Col. Fremont, and it is
to be hoped that ere long we shall be placed in possession of full
reports of his explorations, which must throw much light on the
geography of this vast region, its aboriginal inhabitants, productions,
climate, &c.
An exploratory journey in the isthmus of Panama has recently been made
by M. Hillert, which has resulted in adding much important information
to our previous knowledge of the country. It is known that there have
been many surveys of the isthmus, with the view of opening a water
communication between the oceans on either side. Such was the primary
object of Mr. Hillert, who, it appears has also made enquiries as to the
practicability of making a rail road across it. His observations on the
junction of the two oceans by means of a canal have appeared in the
bulletin of the Geographical Society of Paris for 1846, (pp. 306 and
389), together with various letters from him on other subjects which
attracted his attention.
Among other things Mr. Hillert has made known a most valuable
anti-venomous plant, the guaco, a creeping plant, which abounds in the
forest of the Isthmus, the virtues of which were made known to him by
the Indians. After rubbing the hands with the leaves of this plant, a
person may handle scorpions and venomous insects with impunity, and
mosquitoes after sucking the blood of those who had taken it inwardly
died instantly. The geology and botany of the country received
particular attention. M. Hillert proposes to introduce several of the
most useful plants and vegetables into the French dominions in Senegal
or Algeria, among them the plant from which the Panama hats are made. So
valuable are the labors of this gentleman considered, that the French
commission has awarded him the Orleans prize, for having introduced into
France the most useful improvement in agriculture. Some ancient
monumental edifices were discovered in the Isthmus, not far from the
river Atrato, and others near the mines of Cano; besides these an
ancient canal cut through the solid rock in the interval which separates
the rivers Atrato and Darien.
NOTE.--The following list embraces all the books relating to
Oregon, California, and Mexico, printed during the last two
years.
Narrative of the exploring expedition to the Rocky Mountains,
in the year 1842, and to Oregon and North California, in the
years 1843-4, by Capt. J.C. Fremont of the Topographical
Engineers, under the orders of Col. J.J. Abert, 8vo.
Washington, 1846.
Exploration du Territoire de l'Oregon, des Californies, et de la
Mer Vermeille, executee pendant les annees 1840, 41 et 42, par
M. Duflot de Mofras, Attache a la Legation de France a Mexico. 2
vols. 8vo. and folio atlas of maps and plates. Paris, 1845.
The Oregon Territory, claims thereto, of England and America
considered, its condition and prospects. By Alexander Simpson,
Esq. 8vo. London, 1846.
The Oregon Territory, a geographical and physical account of
that country and its inhabitants. By Rev. C.G. Nicholay. 18mo.
London, 1846.
The Oregon Question determined by the rules of International
law. By Edward J. Wallace of Bombay. 8vo. London, 1840.
The Oregon question. By the Hon. Albert Gallatin. 8vo. New
York, 1846.
The Oregon Question examined, in respect to facts and the laws
of nations. By Travers Twiss, D.C.L. 8vo. London, 1846.
The Oregon Question as it stands. By M.B. Sampson. London,
1846.
Prairiedom; Rambles and Scrambles in Texas and New Estremadura.
By a Southron. 12mo. New York, 1846.
Life in California during a residence of several years in that
Territory. By an American. To which is annexed an historical
account of the origin, customs and traditions of the Indians of
Alta California, from the Spanish. Post 8vo. New York, 1846.
An Essay on the Oregon Question, written for the Shakespeare
Club. By E.A. Meredith. Montreal, 1846.
The Topic No. 3. The Oregon Question. 4to. London, 1846.
Life in Prairie Land. By Mrs. Eliza W. Farnham. 12mo. New York,
1846.
Green's Journal of the Texan expedition against Mier;
subsequent Imprisonment of the Author; his Sufferings, and
final Escape from the Castle of Perote. With reflections upon
the present political and probable future relations of Texas,
Mexico, and the United States. Illustrated by Drawings taken
from Life by Charles M'Laughlin, a Fellow-prisoner. Engravings.
8vo.
Travels over the table lands and Cordilleras of Mexico, in
1843-4. With an appendix on Oregon and California. By Albert M.
Gilliam, late U.S. Counsul, California. 8vo. Philadelphia,
1846.
Recollections of Mexico. By Waddy Thompson, Esq., late Minister
Plenipotentiary of the U.S. at Mexico. 8vo. New York, 1846.
Altowan; or incidents of life and adventure in the Rocky
Mountains. By an Amateur Traveller. Edited by James Watson
Webb. 2 vol. 12mo. New York, 1846.
Scenes in the Rocky Mountains, Oregon, California, New Mexico,
Texas, and Grand Prairies, including descriptions of the
different races inhabiting them, &c. By a New Englander. 12mo.
Philadelphia, 1846.
History of Oregon and California, and the other Territories on
the North West Coast of North America: from their discovery to
the present day. Accompanied by a geographical view of those
countries. By Robert Greenhow. 8vo. third edition. Boston,
1847.
GREENLAND AND THE ARCTIC REGIONS. The Royal Society of Northern
Antiquaries published, in 1845, Groenlands Historiske Mindesmaerker, (The
Historical Monuments of Greenland), Vol. III., (958 pages, with 12
copperplates), which closes this work. The 1st and 2d volumes, (pp. 814
and 794 respectively), were published in 1838. After Professor Rafn had
finished the compilation of his separate work, _Antiquitates Americanae_,
which was published by the Society in 1837, he connected himself with
Professor Finn Magnusen, for the purpose of editing--also under the
auspices of the Society--the great collection of original written
sources of the ancient history of that remarkable polar land, which was
first seen in 877, and colonized in 986. With a view of doing all that
lay in its power to throw light on ancient Greenland, the Society,
during the ten years from 1832 to 1841, caused journies to be undertaken
and explorations to be performed in such of the Greenland firths as were
of the greatest importance in respect of the ancient colonization. By
excavations made among the ruins remaining from the ancient colony,
there was obtained a collection of inscriptions and other antiquities,
which are now preserved in the American Museum erected by the Society,
and drawings were taken of the ground plans of several edifices. Of the
reports received on this occasion, we must in an especial manner notice,
as exhibiting evidence of the most assiduous care, and as moreover
embracing the most important part of the country, the exploration
undertaken by the Rev. George T. Joergensen, of the firths of Igalikko
and Tunnudluarbik, where the most considerable ruins are situated. The
present, vol. III., contains, extracts from annals, and a collection of
Documents relating to Greenland, compiled by Finn Magnusen; (to this
part appertains a plate exhibiting seals of the Greenland Bishops);
ancient geographical writings, compiled by Finn Magnusen and Charles C.
Rafn; the voyages of the brothers Zeno, with introductory remarks and
notes by Dr. Bredsdorff; a view of more recent voyages for the
re-discovery of Greenland, by Dr. C. Pingel, an antiquarian chorography
of Greenland, drawn up by J.J.A. Warsaae, from the accounts furnished
by various travellers of the explorations undertaken by them. The work
is closed by a view of the ancient geography of Greenland, by Professor
Charles C. Rafn, based on a collation of the notices contained in the
ancient manuscripts and the accounts of the country furnished by the
travellers. To which is added a list of the bishops and a chronological
conspectus of the ancient and modern history of the country, a
historical index of names, a geographical index, and an antiquarian
index rerum. Copperplate maps are annexed of the two most important
districts of ancient Greenland--the eastern settlement, (Eystribygd),
and the western settlement, (Vestribygd), exhibiting the position of
the numerous ruins. Moreover, plans and elevations of the most important
ecclesiastical ruins and other rudera; also delineations of runic stones
and other northern antiquities found in Greenland.
_Scripta Historica Islandorum_, latine reddita et apparatu critico
instructa, curante Societate Regia Antiquariorum Septentrionalium. Vol.
XII. The edition first commenced by the Society, of the historical Sagas
recording events which happened out of America, (Iceland, Greenland and
Vinland), particularly in Norway, Sweden and Denmark, in the original
Icelandic text with two translations, one into Latin, and another into
Danish, (36 vols.) has now been brought to a completion, by the
publication of the above mentioned volume, (pp. 658 in 8vo.) wherein are
contained Regesta Geographica to the whole work, which for this large
cyclus of Sagas may be considered as tantamount to an old northern
geographical gazetteer, in as much as attention has also been paid to
other old northern manuscripts of importance in a geographical point of
view. Complete, however, it cannot by any means be called, neither as
regards Iceland especially and other lands in America, whose copious
historical sources have, in the present instance, been but partially
made use of, nor also as regards the European countries without the
Scandinavian North, for whose remote history and ancient geography the
old northern writings contain such important materials, but it is to be
hoped that the Society will in due time take an opportunity of extending
its labors in that direction also. The present volume does, however,
contain a number of names of places situated without the bounds of
Scandinavia in countries of which mention is made in the writings
published in the work itself. To the name of each place is annexed its
Icelandic or old Danish form, and the position of the place is
investigated by means of comparison with other historical data and with
modern geography.
Sir John Franklin who left about two years on a voyage of exploration,
in the Arctic regions of America, remains in those inhospitable parts.
Much anxiety is felt for him as no tidings have been received from him.
It is to be hoped that his voyage will prove successful and that before
the close of the present year, he may return.
The Hudson's Bay Company has lately fitted out an expedition, for the
purpose of surveying the unexplored portion of the coast on the
northeast angle of the North American continent. The expedition, which
consists of thirteen persons, is under the command of one of the
company's officers. It started on the 5th July, in two boats, under
favorable circumstances;--the ice having cleared away from the shores of
the bay at an earlier period of the year than usual.[18]