PLUMBING.--IS PLUMBING ENTIRELY SAFE?--COMPLETENESS IN PLUMBING
APPARATUS.--LABOR-SAVING PLUMBING APPARATUS.--SEWER
CONNECTIONS.--SOIL PIPE.--A TRAP.--ACCIDENTS TO TRAPS.--FREQUENT
USE OF PLUMBING APPARATUS DESIRABLE FOR
SAFETY.--WATER-CLOSETS.--SIMPLICITY IN PLUMBING.--DRAIN
CONNECTIONS.--TO KEEP PLUMBING APPARATUS FROM FREEZING.--CISTERN
WATER SUPPLY.--GREASE SINK.--FLUSHING OF DRAIN.--BATH-TUB.
In considering the plumbing apparatus of a house, the question is often
asked, "Are these things safe? Do they not endanger the health of the
occupants of the house?" The answer is, The plumbing apparatus may be
entirely safe. That it is not always so, we all know. We hear of many
cases of typhoid fever, diphtheria, scarlet fever, and other diseases,
which are traceable to, or aggravated by, defective plumbing. In some
sections of the country so much trouble has been caused by poor
plumbing, that the people, as a class, have come to be suspicious of
all. The reason for this is the effort to cheapen the work. Suffering
from bad work has led to safety. In larger cities this work is under the
control of the city government. It may be said that it is possible so to
arrange the fixtures and apparatus appertaining to plumbing that it is
entirely safe. The question naturally follows, "How is this done?"
It may be said that good work is not a great deal more expensive than
poor work. Again, good work is not always a question of money. It is one
of knowledge or inclination on the part of the plumber.
One in moderate circumstances, who builds a house to cost from
twenty-five hundred to four thousand dollars, should have well water or
city water, and hot and cold cistern water in the sink in the kitchen.
There should be at least a slop-hopper in the laundry. In the bath-room
a water-closet, a tub, and generally a wash-stand. This latter feature
is not absolutely necessary, as will be explained later. In the attic
there should be a tank to hold the cistern water, which is connected
with the fixtures using soft water below. A force-pump, or water-motor,
may be located in the kitchen or basement to lift the water to tank. In
more elaborate houses a completer plumbing apparatus may be used. There
may be an especial sink in the china-closet. There may be wash-stands in
the various chambers, and one on the first floor.
There may be, also, an additional water-closet on the first floor, or in
the cellar, located where it is accessible to the members of the family.
There are many ways of expending money in plumbing fixtures; but, with
those first mentioned, one may be entirely comfortable, and derive all
of the housekeeping benefits which may be expected from such
conveniences. Unless the house be large, an increase in the number of
fixtures would increase the amount of work done in keeping them clean,
rather than save labor.
In the matter of safety, another question, which sometimes arises, is as
to the danger from the plumbing apparatus where there is no sewer
connection, or where it has to be made with a vault. The protection
against sewer-gas is not from the sewer itself or the vault. It is
entirely through protective apparatus in the house, and the manner of
the connection with the vault or sewer.
One may consider the conditions of safety in plumbing apparatus under
two general heads. First, as to the workmanship; second, as to design or
plan of the apparatus. Nothing need be said as to the workmanship,
excepting that the execution of the design, or the benefits to be
derived from it, maybe entirely lost by defective workmanship. If the
work is not properly executed, the design need not be considered. The
result will be bad irrespective of the plan.
In considering the design of the apparatus, we will take into account
the arrangement of the connections and fixtures. By the latter
expression is meant the tub, the water-closet, the wash-bowl, and the
sink, pump, etc. The connections which have to do with the safety of the
apparatus are the traps and the waste pipes, or pipes which connect with
the vault or sewer.
The main waste pipe inside the house is called the soil pipe. The
smaller waste pipes from the fixtures connect with it. The soil pipe is
of cast-iron, and usually four inches in diameter on the inside. It
connects, full size, with the water-closet. Most other wastes are of
lead, and are usually an inch and a half in diameter. In the soil and
waste pipes there will naturally be the odors from the vaults and sewer,
or from the foul matter which is in or passing through the pipes.
Therefore, there must be means in each waste pipe, which connects a
fixture with the main soil pipe, of preventing the passage of gas or air
from it into the house. This is done by means of what is called a trap.
The "S" trap is the commonest form; this name is given it from its
shape, and illustrates its construction. If we take a letter S and turn
it sideways we will get the form of such a trap. The right side or end
would continue directly down toward the drain or soil pipe, and the left
side would continue upward and connect with the fixture (see Fig. 6).
The water from the fixture comes down and is forced upward through the
bend by the pressure of water above, and from thence runs into the soil
pipe or drain. Thus it will be seen that there is always a seal of water
in the trap. There is always water in the trap as indicated by the depth
of the bend of the S. There are hundreds of different forms of traps,
but they are all constructed on the same principle; the idea being that
the gas or air from the pipe would have to pass through the water in
order to get into the house. The water in the trap is called the seal;
it seals the passage of air as stated.
[Illustration: Fig. 6.]
There are many conditions under which a trap may fail to do its full
duty. It may be foul in itself, or it may be rendered foul by the bad
air in the drain. The trap may be siphoned by a heavy flow of water
through the main drain, or it may be siphoned by a string or a rag which
may readily find its way into the trap, and hang over the bend so that
all of the water will run out. Again, the water in the trap may
evaporate. All these dangers may be guarded against. In the first place,
there should be means which allow fresh air to pass through all that
portion of the main drain or soil pipe which is in or close to the
house. The means of accomplishing this are various.
The soil pipe is ventilated by continuing up through and well above the
roof with a full opening at the top. The smaller drains should be
ventilated in the same way when far removed from main soil pipe or other
connection. The traps should be ventilated by 1-1/2-inch or two-inch
connections with the outer air, as shown by cut.
Frequent use of plumbing fixtures contributes to safety. It causes a
large volume of water to pass through the pipes. The flushing of the
pipes and drains in this way makes them cleaner and thus safer. It is
frequently said by those who have plumbing fixtures in their houses
that they use them as little as possible, because they are afraid of
them. Nothing worse could be done. The water in the traps evaporates or
becomes foul, and thus the gas has a free entrance to the house. A
water-closet helps greatly to cleanse the soil pipe and outside drain.
It discharges a large volume of water into it suddenly, in a way to keep
it clean. It is not a bad plan to use the closet at least once a day,
solely for the purpose of flushing the drain. In houses where there are
a number of wash-stands distributed through the various chambers and
halls there is danger from neglect in using them. The water seal in the
traps may evaporate, and thus give direct sewer-air connection with the
house. Particularly is this so in the guest's room. A wash-stand is a
more dangerous fixture for this reason than any other in the house.
[Illustration: Fig. 7]
The water-closet problem has received a great deal of attention. A few
years ago they were quite complicated, there being levers and pipes,
pans, springs and weights, to a degree of complexity which caused a
great deal of trouble. There has since been a return to first principles
and great simplicity. The water-closet of to-day is nothing more or less
than a large bowl connected by means of an "S" trap four inches in
diameter with the soil pipe, and provided with means of flushing with
large volumes of water. Such a closet is known as the "washout closet."
In other closets there is an intermediate plunger-valve separating the
hopper from the trap. The plunger-valve is defined by its name. It is a
large stopper which plunges into and closes up the opening to the trap
by means of its own weight when released. That which makes one closet
different from another has to do more with means of flushing than
anything else. By flushing is meant the pouring into and distribution of
water in the hopper. The most popular closets, those which have given
the most satisfaction, are "washout" closets, made entirely of white
earthenware, not alone the bowl, but the trap and connecting neck.
Closets are best flushed from an independent tank, which is placed about
seven feet above the closet and connects with it by means of 1-1/4-inch
pipe. The height gives it a strong flush of water, which cleanses it
thoroughly.
In the past it has been usual to conceal the earthenware or iron body of
the closet. It is best to leave it entirely open around the sides, that
the entire apparatus may be exposed. Sometimes it is necessary to
support the flap and seat by legs, though the modern closets are
arranged so that all of the woodwork may be secured to the upper part of
the hopper or the wall. There should be the solid flap covering to the
wooden seat with the opening in it, both of which should be hinged, so
as to allow them to be thrown back. It is convenient to use the
water-closet as a slop hopper. In order to do this the seat should be
hinged, so that it may be thrown back out of the way.
One frequently hears it said by those who exercise their authority over
household matters that they do not allow anything to be put into the
water-closet except that which is naturally intended for it; meaning
that they do not allow the slop water to be put into it. There is no
reason in this. The closet that cannot be used for this purpose cannot,
with safety, be allowed in the house. The use of the water-closet as a
slop sink is not only legitimate but desirable. It flushes the drain.
There is a movement toward simplicity in general plumbing apparatus. At
the time the water-closets were in the complicated state mentioned,
everything pertaining to plumbing was in the same general condition. It
was thought necessary to fill a house with a wilderness of pipes and
traps to have it safe or satisfactory. The very complexity of the
arrangement made it not only unsafe but expensive to maintain.
We have all heard a great deal about the expense of maintaining a
plumbing plant, if it may be so called. There is no reason why there
should be constant repairs and expense. It is pleasant to know that
additional expense is not necessary to secure immunity from trouble. The
idea of simplicity in arrangement, general excellence in the fixtures,
material, and labor, which go to form the completed work, has to be
borne in mind. The arrangement of the plumbing apparatus has to be
planned with the same care and thoughtfulness as the other parts of the
house.
It should be remembered that if the pipes are placed in a position where
the temperature is liable to fall below thirty-two degrees the water in
the pipes will freeze. Thus it is suggested that all pipes should be on
an inside wall,--if possible, next to the kitchen flue,--and that there
be here arranged an especial pipe duct of wood to ventilate the kitchen,
and, at the same time, keep the pipes from freezing by means of the warm
air which will pass through it. This duct should be covered on the face
with a wide board, which can be readily removed by taking out a few
screws. Thus the pipes may be exposed at any time desirable.
If the hot-water boiler in the kitchen is surrounded by an enclosure
which has an opening in the bottom, and which connects from above with
the pipe duct previously described, there will be a current of warm air
passing upward through the pipe duct as long as there is warm water in
the boiler. The water in the boiler will be warm long after everything
else is cold. This will insure safety from freezing when other helps
fail.
The cistern water is supplied to the bath-room, and to the hot-water
reservoir, by means of a tank placed in the attic, or at least above the
highest fixture. It sometimes happens that the supply pipe from the tank
above the attic floor freezes. All this may be prevented by enclosing
the tank, and the pipe which connects with it, with a large box or
canvas covering which is six or eight inches larger than the tank. This
confines the warm air from the duct mentioned, so that as long as there
is heat it will always be in this enclosure.
The outside drain, which connects with the vault or sewer, is, in some
instances, trapped previous to its entrance to the sewer or vault. In
such cases, this trap should have a connection with the outer air, and
on the side of the trap towards the house. Sometimes this outer-air
connection is made into the water spout from the roof; but this is not
proper, for the reason that the sewer gas, or the gas from the vault, is
almost certain to destroy the spout. Again, this spout may come out near
a dormer, or may pass near a window, and in either case may contaminate
the air in the house. It is better that this ventilating connection
should be in the yard, at some distance from the house, or, better yet,
that there should be a long iron pipe extending well above the ground.
It should be understood that this vent has no direct connection with the
sewer, but merely with the soil pipe and drain back of the trap; with
that part of it which is nearest to, and in, the house.
Sometimes it is necessary to run the down spouts into the sewer
connection; in such a case one should be certain that the down-spout
openings are not near the dormers, and that they have no connection
whatever with the cistern. It is common to have a switch or cut-off in
the down spout, so that the latter may be connected either with the
cistern or sewer. This is very bad practice. While it is connected with
the sewer or with the drain pipe, the down spout is contaminated with
all the foulness of the air of the drain. On its being connected with
the cistern, the water is poisoned.
Immunity from sewer gas in the house is largely dependent upon the
flushing and ventilation of the drain and the soil pipe. In the case of
a drain which is trapped as described, there is an air connection
through the vent before the trap; then the soil pipe which is in the
house should continue upward through the roof. Thus there is a fresh air
inlet through the drain, and upward through the soil pipe of the house.
Such a connection prevents the possibility of siphoning the traps, as it
gives an outward air connection. The water passing through the drain or
soil pipe can draw its supply of air from the upward soil vent, rather
than through the traps which contain water. When there is no upward vent
of the soil or drain, the water in the traps which connect therewith
will be drawn out by the passage of water through the drain where
fixtures are used.
There are those who maintain that there should be no trap in the yard or
adjacent to the house, but that there should be a straight run from the
soil pipe to the sewer or vault, and upward through the roof and above
the house. It is good practice to use the trap as described for sewer
connections, but not for open vault connections.
A grease sink is frequently placed in the drain to intercept the
passage of grease into the vault. It is so placed and connected that
only the water from the kitchen sink, or other fixtures where the water
contains grease, may enter it. It is made of brick, and is usually of
six or eight barrels capacity. A four-inch pipe connects it with the
kitchen waste, and if the grease sink is placed adjacent to the main
drain, there can be a similar connection between it and the main drain.
It should be a siphon connection, so that the sink will become nearly
full before it discharges. When it discharges through the siphon the
water will go out with a rush and leave the grease in the sink. This
makes an intermittent discharge into the main drain, which flushes or
cleanses it thoroughly and is much better than a constant small flow of
water. This grease sink must be cleaned from time to time. Small
cast-iron grease sinks are sometimes placed under kitchen sinks in very
large dwellings or hotels.
Nothing particular need be said in regard to wash-stands more than has
been said, excepting, possibly, that the drain should be trapped,
ventilated, and connected with the soil pipe; also that there should be
a lead safe or safety pan on the floor under the wash-stand when they
are enclosed; it is preferable that they should remain unenclosed. It
has been common to connect this safe with the soil pipe. It is only
intended that it should be useful in cases of accidental overflow; but,
notwithstanding the fact that there be a trap in the safe waste or
drain, it would be empty most of the time, because of the evaporation of
the water. It is proper to make direct connection with the cellar or
kitchen sink.
The bath-tub should have the same-sized drain connection as the
wash-stand; that is, one and one-half inch in diameter, trapped. The
overflows from both the wash-stand and tub should be flushed with hot
water quite frequently, to avoid the soap smells which are so common to
bath-rooms. It often happens that those who have bath-rooms in their
houses imagine that they smell sewer gas, when it is nothing more or
less than the smell of rancid soap.