Conclusion
What is the origin of these Mafulu people, with their short stature,
small and somewhat rounded heads, slight but active build, sooty
brown skin, and frizzly hair, predominantly brown in colour, and with
their comparatively primitive ideas of organisation, and simple arts
and crafts?
The question is one of no mere local interest, as the answer to
it will probably be the answer to a similar question concerning
most, and perhaps all, of the other Papuan-speaking people of the
mountainous interior of the Central District of British New Guinea,
and may even be a key to the past early history of the entire island.
It has, I think, been hitherto believed that all these mountain people
had a mixed Papuan and Melanesian ancestry; but it was impossible to
be among them, as I was, for some time without being impressed by the
difference in appearance between them and the people of the adjacent
coast and plains, and suspecting that, though they had Papuan and
Melanesian blood in their veins, there was also some third element
there. And the name which obtruded itself upon my mind, whilst in
Mafulu, was Negrito.
The dark skin and the comparatively rounded heads, and, I think, some
shortness of stature are found elsewhere in British New Guinea; though
shortness of stature and rounded heads are unusual, and, I believe,
only local, and I do not know whether even the Papuan skin is ever
quite so dark as that of the Mafulu people. But the almost universal
shortness of stature, the comparatively slight, but strong and active,
build and the brown colour of the hair seemed entirely different from
anything that I had ever seen or read of as regards either the Papuans
or the Melanesians; and all of these, coupled with the tendency to
roundness of head, were consistent with a partial negrito ancestry.
Then on my return to England I learnt that dwarf people had been
found by the recent expedition into Dutch New Guinea organised by
the British Ornithologists' Union. Dr. Haddon has expressed the
opinion that these dwarf people and some dwarf people previously
found by Dr. Rudolph Poch in German New Guinea are all negritoes,
or negritoes crossed with Papuans. [128]
Dr. Keith, to whom I submitted all my notes upon the measurements
and physique of the Mafulu people, and who measured and examined the
three skulls which I brought home, wrote to me as follows:--
"I have examined the observations you have made on the Mafulu. From
your paper one can form, for the first time, a picture of the
physical characters of this tribe; but, when I proceed to assign
the tribe to its proper race, I am at once met by difficulties. In
my opinion the short stature, the pigmented skin, and the small
heads inclined to brachycephaly indicate a strong negrito element,
which we know is widely distributed in the far east, and certainly,
as we should expect, occurs in certain districts of New Guinea. In the
three crania there were characters which one could assign to Papuan,
as well as to a Melanesian stock.... A brown or reddish tinge is
seen not infrequently in the hair of negritoes. You will see that
I am inclined to look on the Mafulu as showing a very considerable
degree of negrito blood, and to regard the more primitive tribes of
New Guinea as being of this nature. If that were so, the Mafulu might
be regarded as belonging to the older population of New Guinea, both
Papuan and Melanesian having added something to their civilisation,
as well as their physical characters."
Dr. Keith then is inclined to agree with my suggestion concerning
the origin of the Mafulu; and Dr. Haddon, having seen my notes upon
physique, said that he endorsed the views expressed by Dr. Keith. And
if the view suggested be correct as regards the Mafulu or Fuyuge
people, I am prepared to say that from what I have heard of the other
mountain Papuan-speaking people of that part of New Guinea, including
the Oru Lopiku (Kovio), Boboi and Ambo people, I am convinced that it
must be correct as regards them also, though the relative predominance
of the three strains may well vary with these different people.
I am hardly qualified to enter into the discussion as to the
relationship, if any, existing between the principal hitherto known
dwarf races, the Pygmies of Central Africa, the Semang of the Malay
Peninsula, the Andamanese and the Aetas of the Philippine Islands,
or to deal with the question whether or not all or some of them are
to be grouped together as forming a distinct and related type, or
are to be regarded as unconnected in the sense that each of them is
merely a local variation, sharing a common ancestry with some other
taller negroid race.
As, however, my suggestion of a partial negrito origin of the
Mafulu people necessarily brings me into contact with this wider
question, and the latter is still one upon which opinions differ,
I may perhaps briefly tabulate some of the chief physical characters
of the Andamanese, the Semang, the Aetas, the dwarf people recently
found in Dutch New Guinea and the Mafulu. I think I may omit the
African pygmies from my tables.
_Stature._
Andamanese 4' 10 1/2''
This is the figure given by Mr. Portman (_Journal of
Anthropological Institute_, vol. 25, p. 366) and by Dr. Haddon
(_Races of Man and their Distribution_, p. 9), and is very near
the 4'10 3/4'' given by Mr. Man (_The Andaman Islanders_, p. 5),
and adopted by Messrs. Skeat and Blagden (_Pagan Races of the
Malay Peninsula_, p. 573).
Semang 4' 10 3/4''
Skeat and Blagden (_Pagan Races_, &c., p. 573) and Haddon (Races
of Man, &c., p. 9).
Aetas 4' 10''
This is Dr. Haddon's figure (_Races of Man, &c._, p. 9), and it
is within half an inch of the 4' l0 1/2'' given by Dr. Semper
(_Journal of Anthropology_ for October, 1870, p. 135). Dr. Meyer
gives a number of varying measurements (see _Journal of
Anthropological Institute,_ vol. 25, p. 174), and Reed gives the
average of 48 males, some of whom were not pure types, only 4' 9"
(_Negritos of Zambales_, p. 32).
Dutch New Guinea dwarfs 4' 9''
Captain Rawling (_Geographical Journal_, vol. 38, p. 245).
Mafulu 5' 1''
It is merely suggested by me that they are _partly_ negrito,
which, if correct, would explain the somewhat higher stature.
_General Physique._
Andamanese
Well proportioned, and with good muscular development (Man,
_Journal of Anthropological Institute_, vol. 12, pp. 72 and 73).
Semang
Sturdily built (Haddon, _Races of Man, &c._, p. 9).
Aetas
Well formed and sprightly (Earle, _Papuans_, p. 123), and with
limbs which, corresponding to their stature, are uncommonly
slender, but well formed (Semper, _Journal of Anthropology_ for
October, 1870, p. 135). Well-built little men with broad chests,
symmetrical limbs, and well-developed muscles (Reed, _Negritos
of Zambales,_ p. 34).
Dutch New Guinea dwarfs
Of sturdy build (Rawling, _Geographical Journal_, vol. 38, p. 241).
Mafulu
Fairly strong and muscular, but rather slender and slight in
development.
_Cephalic Index._
Andamanese 82
This is Dr. Haddon's figure (_Races of Man, &c._,
p. 9). Messrs. Skeat and Blagden say they are decidedly
brachycephalic (_Pagan Races, &c._, p. 573).
Semang 78.9
Dr. Haddon's figure (_Races of Man, &c._, p. 9). Skeat and Blagden
describe them as brachycephalic to mesatecephalic (_Pagan Races,
&c._, p. 34).
Aetas 80
Dr. Haddon's figure (_Races of Man, &c._, p. 9). Skeat and Blagden
describe them as decidedly brachycephalic (_Pagan Races, &c._,
p. 573). Reed gives 82 as the average (_Negritos of Zambales_,
p. 34).
Dutch New Guinea dwarfs 80.2
This figure is calculated by me from the actual length and breadth
given by Captain Rawling (_Geographical Journal_, vol. 38, p. 245).
Mafulu 80
_Nasal Index._
Andamanese ?
Semang 101
Calculated by me from average of actual measurements of 5 people
given by Skeat and Blagden (_Pagan Races, &c._, p. 577).
Aetas ?
Reed records highly varying indices, the bulk of which were
hyperplatyrhine (87.9-108.8), and nearly all the others of which
were ultraplatyrhine (109 and over) (_Negritos of Zambales_,
pp. 34, 35).
Dutch New Guinea dwarfs 80.9
Calculated by me from Captain Rawling's actual figures.
Mafulu 84.3
_Colour of Skin._
Descriptions of this are so general, and so much depends in each case
upon the relative meanings attached by each writer to the terms used
by him, that I prefer to depend as regards the Andamanese, Semang,
and Aetas upon Dr. Haddon's descriptions, which are doubtless based
upon his comparison of those given in previous literature.
Andamanese
Very dark (_Races of Man, &c._, p. 9).
Semang
Dark chocolate brown, approximating to black. (_Ibid._).
Aetas
Dark sooty brown (_Ibid._).
Dutch New Guinea dwarfs
Brown (Rawling, _Geographical Journal_, vol. 38, p. 245).
Mafulu
Dark sooty brown.
_Texture of Hair._
This is frizzly in all cases, as with other negroids, the word "woolly"
often used being, I imagine, intended to imply frizzly.
_Colour of Hair._
This being a point which seems to me to be rather interesting,
I propose to quote various descriptions.
Andamanese
Varies from sooty black to dark brown, old gold, red and light
brown; and, though these may be the colours of individual hairs,
the general appearance is sooty black or yellowish-brown.
Portman (_History of our Relations with the Andamanese_, p. 30).
Varies between black, greyish-black and sooty, the last perhaps
predominating.
Man (_The Andaman Islanders_, p. II).
Black, with a reddish tinge.
Haddon (_Races of Man, &c._, p. 9).
Semang
Brownish-black, not a bluish-black like that of the Malays.
Skeat and Blagden (_Pagan Races, &c.,_ p. 46).
Brownish-black.
Haddon (_Races of Man, &c.,_ p. 9).
Aetas
Brown-black, shining.
Semper (_Journal of Anthropology_ for October, 1870, p. 135).
Rich dark brown.
Writer of article on Semper's work (_Id_.).
Varying from a dark seal-brown to black.
Meyer (_Journal of Anthropological Institute_, vol. 25, p. 174).
Dirty black colour, in some instances _sun-burned at top to_
a reddish-brown. [The italics are mine.]
Reed (_Negritos of Zambales_, p. 35).
Black, sometimes tinged with red.
Haddon (_Races of Man_, &c., P. 9).
Dutch New Guinea dwarfs.
Black.
Rawling (_Geographical Journal_, vol. 38, p. 245).
The hair of some of the pygmies was decidedly _dark_ brown.
Statement made to me by Mr. Walter Goodfellow.
Hair of 3 men (out of 24) distinctly not black, a sort of dirty
rusty brown or rusty black colour; all others black-haired.
Extract supplied to me by Dr. Wollaston from his Diary.
Mafulu.
Generally dark brown, often quite dark, approaching to black,
and sometimes perhaps quite black. But frequently lighter, and
often not what we in Europe should call dark.
I think that the above tables indicate that, though there are
differences, there are elements of similarity between (i) the Mafulu
people, (2) the Dutch New Guinea dwarfs, and (3) one or more of the
Andamanese, Semang and Aetas; but in my comparison of the Mafulu
and the dwarfs of Dutch New Guinea with the other previously known
dwarf races I would specially draw attention to their similarity in
shortness of stature and (as regards most of the Mafulu and a few of
the Dutch New Guinea people) colour of hair; and this impels me to
venture to say a few words on the larger question.
I have searched through much existing literature concerning the
various hitherto discovered dwarf races of the world with reference
to the question whether, even assuming that these people have an
original primary ancestry from which the taller negroid races also
are descended, they must be regarded as having become a related type,
separate and distinct from the latter, as now existing, or whether
they must all be treated as merely separate local variations, each of
them having failed to develop, or retrograded, and in other respects
become different in type from taller negroid races among or near
to whom they are found. And I am struck by the fact that, though
the natural tendency to local variation in stature, shape of head,
colour and other matters is brought forward in support of the latter
theory, no one seems, in connection with the general question, to have
noted the fact that, whilst the hair colour of negroes, Papuans and
Melanesians is black, the hair of all these various dwarf people seems
to be predominantly brown, and that this variation explanation, if
regarded as applying to these dwarf races separately and independently
of one another, involves a remarkable coinciding double variation
(in stature and predominant colour of hair) exhibited by all these
dwarf people as compared with the taller negroids.
On the other hand, if there has been an original separation of
descendants of common primary ancestors of all the negroid races,
which, through variation, has resulted in two main types, one
predominantly full-sized and always black-haired, and the other always
short and predominantly brown-haired, and the pygmies (negritoes and
negrilloes) are to be regarded as being all descendants of the latter
type, who have since for some reason become geographically separated,
there would appear to be nothing remarkable in the double variation.
But in that case we are, I take it, justified in regarding the dwarf
races as being a separate type, to be distinguished from the taller
races; and, if that be so, there appears to be substantial ground
for thinking that the Dutch New Guinea dwarf people and the Mafulu
people are in part descended from people of that type.
I may also draw attention (for what they are worth as points of detail)
to the facts already noted, that the Semang and Andamanese, who bury
their ordinary folk under ground, adopt tree burial, and apparently,
as regards the Semang, platform burial not on trees also, as a more
honourable method of disposing of the bodies of important people and
chiefs; and that as regards these matters the Mafulu custom is similar.
Also the very simple ideas of the Mafulu, as compared with Papuans
and Melanesians, in matters of social organization, implements,
arts and crafts, religion and other things may well, I think, be
associated with a primitive negrito origin.
If the Mafulu people may be properly regarded as having a negrito
ancestry, distinct in type from that of either the Papuans or the
Melanesians, the negrito element would presumably be the earlier one,
Papuan and Melanesian infusion having occurred subsequently. Indeed
it may well be believed that the negrito element is derived from
an original ancestry who were probably the earlier inhabitants of
New Guinea.
CHAPTER I
A Grammar of the Fuyuge Language
Translated and Edited by _Sidney H. Ray_, M.A., from the Manuscript
of the _Rev. Father Egedi_, S.C.
Phonology.
I. Alphabet.
Vowels: _a, e, i, o, u_.
Consonants: _k, g; t, d; p, b, f, v; m, n; r, l; s; y_.
The vowels are pronounced as in Italian, the consonants as in
English. The sound of the Italian _c_ is also found, but is rare.
It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between _o_ and
_u_. Ex. _ombo(le)_ or _umbo(le)_, belly.
_G, b_, and _d_, are often preceded by a nasal, sometimes constant
(and then marked in the vocabulary), sometimes variable according
to the pronunciation of individuals. For the nasals _m_ is employed
before _p_ and _b_, and _n_ before other consonants.
The _i_ and _y_ are very difficult to distinguish, especially when
they follow one another. Ex. _iye_ or _ye_, or _ie_, tree; _iangolo_
or _yangolo_, ear. Father Egidi wrote _j_ for _y_.
The _l_ and _r_ are very difficult to determine. Ex. _aliete_ or
_ariete_, to salute; _naul'i_ and _naur'i_, my eye. In the vocabulary
_l_ is used generally.
The _s_ is often _ts_. Ex. tsivu and sivu; su(le) and tsu(le
grass. Also in the future suffix _t_ or _ts_. Ex. _nati_ or _natsi_,
I will eat.
II. Elision.
A great number of Fuyuge words terminate in an open syllable of which
the vowel is generally _e_. This syllable is usually omitted at the end
of a phrase, and nearly always when the following word commences with
a consonant. But if the following word begins with a vowel the final
_e_ only falls away. Thus the complete form of a word is rarely used,
except to avoid confusion, or for the sake of emphasis. The following
are examples:
_ovo(le),_ pig: _ovol' ovoge,_ boar, _ovo momombe,_ sow.
_ifa(ne),_ beautiful: _ifa ta,_ very fine, _ifan' aka,_ less fine.
_da(le),_ who? _nu da?_ who art thou? _dal' aua?_ who is this?
_i(nde),_ to give: _ne i,_ give me, _ne ind' u,_ give it to me.
_-a(le)_, with: _andal' a?_ with what? _indiv' al' ongai_, cut with
the knife.
_a(le),_ here: _a mo ma?_ must I put it here? _al' itatsi,_ he will
sleep here.
_u(ne),_ and: _kitoval' u kene,_ black parroquet and white, _amb'
un' ale,_ banana and sugar cane.
Note (1). The _b_ in an elision sometimes changes to _p._ Ex. _obe,_
bud, _op'indie,_ to bud.
(2). Sometimes two syllables are elided: Ex. _taume, tame,_ from which
comes _ovo ta,_ a tame pig, and _ovo taum' ifa,_ the tame pig is good.
(3). Words which do not end in _e,_ rarely elide a final vowel, and
never the last syllable. Ex. _kuku,_ tobacco, _kuk' oko nei,_ give me
a little tobacco; _na,_ I, _nu,_ thee, _ongo_ at the foot of, _na n'
ong' ando,_ I am at thy feet; _umbubi, wash, umbub' u,_ wash him.
(4). Some verbs in _-ri_ or _-li_ however often omit this
syllable. Ex. _ivo(ri)_ to wipe, _na ga kodig' ivo,_ I have wiped the
plates; _tsimi(li),_ to lick, _ama tsimi,_ lick the salt; _itu(lili)_
to split, _ol' itu,_ split the wood.
In the grammar and vocabulary the syllable which may be elided is
enclosed in a bracket, and in compound words and phrases the elision
is marked with an apostrophe, as in the preceding examples.
III. Vowel Changes.
1. A final _o_ sometimes changes to _u_ if the word following begins
with a vowel.
Ex. _oko,_ some, a little, _kuk' oku ind' uno,_ give him some tobacco
to smoke.
2. An initial _o,_ on the other hand, sometimes changes to _u_ when
the preceding word begins with _a._
Ex. _ongo,_ under; _na_ ungo ando, remain at my feet.
3. The final _a_ of the word _na,_ I, becomes _e_ when it is followed
by the verb _indi_ in the imperative.
Ex. _ne i, ne inde,_ give me, but _nuga na indi,_ thou hast given me.
Nouns.
I. Gender.
There is no modification or grammatical difference to mark gender.
Sex is indicated by separate words in the case of human beings:
_an(e)_ man, _me(le)_ boy, _ena(ne)_ brother, _amu(le)_ woman,
_ame(le)_ girl, _eta(de)_ sister.
For mammals the words _avoge,_ male, or _momobe,_ female, follow the
noun: _ovol' avoge,_ boar, _ovo' momobe,_ sow.
Dr. Strong notes that the sex of birds is sometimes denoted by the
adjective _ifa(ne),_ good, _i.e.,_ "ornamented," for the male bird, and
_ifan' ul' amu,_ the "wife of the ornamented" for the female: _uruv'
ifa,_ the male hornbill; _uruv' ifan ul' amu,_ the female hornbill.
II. Number.
Only nouns indicating persons have been found with plurals. These
are formed by changing the final _e_ to _i._ Sometimes the _e_ is
changed to _a;_ this may indicate the dual.
Ex. _amu(le)_ woman, plur. amuli and amula; _so(le),_ young man,
plur. _soli_ and _sola; me(le),_ child, plur. _meli_ and _mela._
Note (1). The word _a(ne)_ man, has a double plural in two different
meanings: _ani,_ the men; _ake(da)_ the married men.
(2). The shortened form of the word is often used in the plural. This
naturally is the same as the singular.
III. Case.
1. There is no modification of the noun to express case, but the
equivalents of cases are shown by suffixes. The vocative alone often
takes a final _a_ as in the interrogative form.
Ex. _Tayova, a tsia!_ Tayo, come here!
The subject, direct object, and indirect object are however easily
recognised by their position in the sentence. The subject comes
first, followed by the direct object, then the indirect object if
there be one, with the verb at the end. If there are complements they
immediately precede the word which governs them.
Ex. _naga kuku nu inde,_ I tobacco to thee gave; _Baiv' u mega nembe
u fod' al' ema,_ Baiva's child bird his bow-with killed; _nuni ake
mu letsi gatsi,_ thou men their village-to will-go.
2. The genitive is expressed by means of the possessive adjective.
Ex. _ovo'u ma,_ hair of the pig, lit. pig his hair.
3. Persons belonging to a place sometimes omit the adjective.
Ex. _A Kotsi,_ a man of Kotsi; _An'Alol',_ a man of Alole; _Alol'
amu,_ a woman of Alole; _Ambov'amu,_ a woman of Ambove; _Tseluku ul'
akeda,_ men of Tseluku.
4. Position in a place, or motion to or from a place is shown in
the following ways. When the noun has a shortened for _-tsi_ is
suffixed. If there is no short form the final _e_ of the noun is
changed to _i_ and _-tsi_ is added.
Ex. _nani etsi ando,_ I am in the house; _nuni bulitsi gatsi,_ thou
wilt go to the garden; _naga Mambutsi l'a tela,_ I have come here
from Mambo.
Note (1). Some proper names of places do not take the suffix _-tsi._
Ex. _amul' Alol' itatsi,_ the woman will sleep at Alole.
(2). Other proper names, especially those of mountains and the
villages built on them, take the suffix _-tu_ (upon) instead of _-tsi._
Ex. _Falitu gatsi,_ I will go to Faliba, lit. I will go upon Faliba.
IV. Interrogative Nouns.
The noun in Fuyuge has a special form to indicate the interrogative. If
the noun ends in _e,_ this vowel is changed to _a._ If already ending
in _a,_ the _a_ takes a strong accent. To any other vowel ending _a_
is added.
Ex. _ovo(le)_ pig: interrog. _ovola?_ is it a pig?
_bulomakao,_ cow, &c.: interrog. _bulomakaoa?_ is it a cow?
_kuku,_ tobacco: interrog. _kukua?_ is it tobacco?
_kupa,_ sweet potato: interrog. _kupa?_ is it a sweet potato?
V. Demonstrative Nouns.
These are similar to the Interrogative Nouns and are formed by the
addition of the syllables _-aua, -ana,_ or _-ala_ instead of _a._
This form is both affirmative and interrogative.
Ex. _oyand' aua?_ is it a flower? or, it is a flower.
_Tayov' aua,_ it is Tayo; _kuku aua,_ it is tobacco; _an' ala,_
it is a man; _Ambov' ana,_ it is Ambo.
Adjectives.
I. Adjectives have no Gender. In the expression of Case, Interrogative
and Demonstrative forms they are the same as Nouns.
Ex. _a baibe, amu baibe,_ man tall, woman tall; _uli baibitsi mau,_
pot big-in put it, put it in the big pot; _ifana?_ is it good? _ifan'
ala,_ it is good.
II. Adjectives of Quality.
1. Number.
Number is expressed as with nouns by changing _e_ to _i._ Some
adjectives in _-a_ add _i._ There are no adjectives with the plural
in _-a._ Some adjectives in _-a(ne)_ have the plural _-ai._
Ex. _kakava(ne)_ strong, plur. _kakavani; safa(le),_ plur. _safa(li);
isosonga,_ idle, plur. _isosongai; aka(ne)_ small, plur. _akai._
2. Agreement.
The adjective always follows the noun which it qualifies, and takes
the suffix of the noun.
Ex. _a sesada,_ fence long; _emo gai,_ house old; _kodige kisiakatsi,_
plate little-in: _indiv' amoja(le)_ knife blunt-with; _koua baibitu,_
box big-on.
Sometimes the pronoun _u(ne),_ his, is placed between the noun and
the adjective.
The meaning of this is uncertain, but it appears to be more emphatic,
as _e.g._ "the road which is good," "the house which is bad."
Ex, _enamb' un' ifa,_ the good road, _em' u koi,_ the bad house.
The adjective used as predicate immediately follows the noun, without
a substantive verb.
Ex. _an' ala gududuba,_ that man (is) stingy; _nuni sesada,_ thou
(art) tall; _amu safali,_ the women (are) weak.
Note.--When the subject is represented by a pronoun of the first or
second person dual or plural, the predicate remains singular.
Ex. _dini kakava(ne)_ we (are) strong; _yani kapape,_ you two (are)
weak; but, _muni isosongai,_ they (are) idle.
When the predicate expresses a negation the word expressing the
quality is followed by the adverb _ua(ne)_ not.
Ex. _sesad' ua, onov' aka,_ it is not long, it is short.
3. Comparison.
There is no special form for comparisons. Two positive statements
are made, or a superlative may be used.
Ex. My house is larger than yours may be translated: _naul' e baibe,
nul' a kisiaka,_ my house is large, yours is small, or _nul'e baibe,
naul'a baibe ta,_ your house is large, mine is large much.
Equality is expressed by the suffix _-umba_ or _-yakala._
Ex. _naul' e, nul' em' umba,_ my house is like your house; _nuni
sesada, nauyekala,_ you are tall like me.
A superlative is expressed by the prefix _ande,_ or the suffix _-ta._
But if the adjective in the superlative expresses a lessening of the
quality then _-aka(ne)_ is suffixed.
Ex. _baibe,_ large, _ande baibe,_ larger; _ifa,_ fine, _ifata,_ finer;
but _ono(ve),_ short, _onov'aka,_ shorter.
The prefix _ande_ is used only with adjectives which express an idea
of extension.
When the adjective expresses an actual state rather than a passive,
it is preceded by the sign of past tense, the particle _ga._
Ex. _ant g'ifa,_ the breeches are (have become) good; _ena ga ko,_
the road (is) bad.
III. Demonstrative Adjectives.
The demonstrative adjectives in Fuyuge are represented by the suffixes
-_ana_, this, -_ala_, this, here, -_vala_ that, there. The same
expressions translate the French "le voici," "le voilà."
Ex. _indiv'ana_, this knife; _eni'ala_, this house; _enavala_,
that road.
There is no article, but the expression _u mane_ is used in reference
to any thing which has been previously spoken about.
Ex. _enamb' ifa_, or _enamb' un' ifa_, it (is) a good road; but _enamb
u man' ifa_, the road (which has been mentioned) is good.
IV. Interrogative Adjectives.
For these. _See_ Pronouns.
V. Indefinite Adjectives.
The indefinite adjectives are _oko_, some, a little, part of;
_tale(le)_, several, many; _korio_, several; _gegeto_, a few, several;
_alu(ve)_, all; _urambe_, another; _none_, together, one with the
other; _dovavemunge_? _domamai_? how many?
Note.--When _oko_ is followed by a word beginning with _i_, it
becomes _oku_.
Ex. _Kuku oko nei_, give me some tobacco; _nemb' oko ematsi_, they
will spear the birds; _bodol' oko tsia_, take one of his hands;
_indiv' oko ya_, take a knife; _kuk oko ua_, (there is) no tobacco;
_indiv' oku i_, give him a knife; _ake talel' ando_, there are many
men; _kupa korio inde_, give several potatoes; _me' gegeto indiatsi_,
some children will come; _aked' aluvi etsi ando_, all the men are
in the village; _nau mel' alu_, all my children; _indiv' urambe ya_,
take another knife; _Pitsoke non' ade_, the Pitsoke strike one another;
_oye non' ongete_, the dogs keep beside each other; _kokol' ul' ombo
dovavemunge?_ how many eggs? _nu sise domamai?_ how many dog's teeth?
VI. Possessive Adjectives.
_See_ Possessive Pronouns.
Numerals.
I. There are only two numerals: _fida (ne)_, one, and _gegeto_,
two. _Gegeto_ is also used for a small number, and _gegetom'inda_,
is little used for three. For more than three, _gegeto_, meaning
"a few," or _tale(le)_, "many" is used.
II. There are no ordinals and the only distributive is _fida fida_,
one by one.
Pronouns.
I. Personal Pronouns. Simple.
Singular.
lst Person _na, nave, nani,_ I, me
2nd Person _nu, nove, nuni,_ thou, thee
3rd Person _u(ne), ove, uni,_ he, she, it, him, her
Dual.
lst Person _da, dani,_ we, or us two
2nd Person _ya, yani,_ you two
3rd Person _tu, tuni,_ they, or them two
Plural.
1st Person _di, dini,_ we, us
2nd Person _yi yini,_ you
3rd Person _mu, muni,_ they, them
1. The first form _na, nu, u(ne)_ etc., is used either as subject or
object of the verb, the meaning being only indicated by the position
of the word.
Ex. _na kuku nu inditsi,_ I will give thee tobacco; _na un' adatsi,_
I will strike him; _ya di ong' ando,_ you two are beside us.
When used before the imperative of the verb _indi,_ to give, _na_
becomes _ne._
Ex. _ne i, ne inde,_ give me.
2. The forms _nave_ and _ove_ are rarely used. The commonest use is
with the words _ete,_ to say, _ende,_ also.
Ex. _nav' elete,_ I said; _ov' elete,_ he said; _nav' ende, nov'
ende, ov' ende,_ I also, thou also, he also.
3. The forms _nani, nuni,_ etc., are employed when the verb is
understood, or to indicate opposition or emphasis.
Ex. _da gatsi? dini;_ who will go? we (will); _nuni kakape ta,
nani kakava,_ you are weak, but I am strong; _nani a baibe,_ I am a
great man.
4. The dual is generally observed by the natives. Adjectives used
with the dual pronoun take the singular form.
Ex. _dani sosonga,_ we (are) idle,
5. The dual is often employed with two subjects one of which is plural.
Ex. _Kakao tu, tsimani u g'anga_, Kakao they two, with the policemen,
have started.
When _dani_ is used alone it is generally inclusive of the person
addressed, and means "I and thou." If the third person is intended
the name is used: _dani Okomi' u da gatsi_, we two Okomi with we will
go. _Yani_ is used in a similar way, when one of the persons referred
to is not present: _ya, Dun'u yani natsi_, you two Dune with you will
go. The use of the conjunction _u(ne)_ with the second member of the
subject does not appear to be constant.
6. The pronoun of the third person singular _u(ne)_ when it is the
direct object of the verb usually follows, and often takes the form
-_unde_.
Ex. _kodigitsi mau_, put it in the dish; _nag' al' unde_, I have
seen him.
II. Personal Pronouns. Compound.
From the pronouns _na, nu_, etc., are derived by means of the suffix
-_muku_, alone, the forms _namuku, numuku_, etc., with the meanings,
"I alone, without company," etc.
The suffix -_mule_, is equivalent to self, _namule, numule_, etc.,
myself, thyself, etc.
From _nani, nuni_, etc., come the forms: _naniende_, or _nanienge_,
etc., meaning myself in person, etc.; _nanieke, nunieke_, etc., from
-_eke_, alone; _naniova_, etc., it is my business, _nanibila_, I by
myself, without help. _Nani endebila_ is more emphatic than _nanibila_.
Ex. _numuku andola_? art thou quite alone? _da gatsi? uniende_; who
will go? he himself; _nu da? nanienge_; who art thou? it is myself;
_amed' unieke ando_, the chief is alone; _ake muniova_, it is the
men's business; _dinieke al' andetsi_, we will stay here alone;
_isong' unibila_, his own rainbow appears.
III. Possessive Pronouns.
1. These are formed from the simple forms of the personal pronouns
by suffixing -_ula(ne)_ literally "his thing."
Singular. Dual. Plural.
1. _naula(ne)_ 1. _daula(ne)_ 1. _diula(ne)_
2. _nula(ne)_ 2. _yaula(ne)_ 2. _yula(ne)_
3. _ula(ne)_ 3. _tula(le)_ 3. _mula(ne)_
They translate the English mine, thine, etc. Sometimes in compounds
the final _n_ becomes _nd_. Ex. _nauland' aua_, here is mine.
2. The adjectival forms appear without the syllable _la_.
Singular. Dual. Plural.
1. _nau_(_le_) 1. _dau_(_le_) 1. _diu_(_le_)
2. _nu_(_le_) 2. _yau_(_le_) 2. _yu_(_le_)
3. _u_(_le_) 3. _tu_(_le_) 3. _mu_(_le_)
These adjectives precede the noun which they govern. With personal
nouns the forms _naula_, etc., are sometimes used.
Ex. _nau me_ and _naula me_, my son; _diu vase_ and _diula vase_,
our guest.
Note.--The form _nulu_ is heard in the phrase _nulu babe_, thy father.
The suffix _mule_ is also used in the sense of "own."
Ex. _numul' ul' i to, n' alo_, your own name, which I know; _namul'
ul i_, my own name. These suggest that the true possessive is simply
_ul_(_e_) or _ula_(_ne_).
IV. Interrogative Pronouns.
1. These are: _Da_(_le_)? _dau_(_ne_)? who,
which? _anda_(_le_)? what? _unau_? which? They are used also as
adjectives.
Ex. _Nu da_? who art thou? _dau ga ne_? who has eaten it? _anda l'
elete_? what did he say? _Ivi: unau_? Ivi: which one?
2. When the verb is preceded by the particle _ga_, _dau_(_ne_) must
be used instead of _da_(_le_).
V. Indefinite Pronouns.
These are the same as the Indefinite Adjectives.
VI. Relative Pronouns.
The suffix _niu_(_ne_) or _u_(_ne_) takes the place of a relative
pronoun.
Ex. _A yaigegemune_, the man who descends; _audati itedemu bulitsi
jalo tolom elota_, in the garden which they are cutting now when the
food is ripe; _ovo jamun' imbade_, the meat taken from the pig; _fal'
itamun' akeda_, the men who have dug the ground.
Verbs.
I. Conjugation.
The Fuyuge verb is conjugated by modifications of the terminal
syllables, or by a particle added to the subject.
II. The Particle, Ga.
The particle _ga_ (often _g'_ before a vowel) is generally used with
the past tense, and is rarely absent in the positive form of the
verb. But it may be used also with the present and future. With the
present it seems to indicate reference to a preceding action in the
sense of "being on the point of," "ready to." With the future it has
almost the sense of "go."
Ex. _Ake ga nembe na,_ the men have eaten the bird; _amu g'anga_
the women are gone; _naga bulitsi gatsi,_ I am going to go away to
the garden; _naga sue,_ I am going away.
Note (1). _Ga_ always immediately follows the subject, except with
the past of the verb _ange(ge),_ to go, which always has _g'anga._
(2). When the subject is not a pronoun, the pronoun of the 3rd
pers. sing. is often expressed.
(3). _Ga_ never appears to be used in a negative expression.
Ex. _Naga ipitsial' uruv' ema,_ I have killed with the gun a toucan;
_mel ul' etsi g'anga,_ the child to his village has gone; _Okom' ug'
nemb' ema,_ Okome has killed a bird; _ake kupa me na,_ the men have
not eaten the potatoes.
III. Person and Number.
These are not expressed by the verb in Fuyuge.
IV. Tense and Mode.
1. There are three principal tenses, present, past and future. The
present is found in the indicative and imperative modes, the
past in the indicative only, and the future in the indicative and
subjunctive. Besides these, there is a method of expressing the
infinitive, a passive participle, and two forms of verbal adjectives.
2. _Paradigm of tenses and modes._
ememe, umbubi, isiei,
pierce wash follow
Indicative present ememe umbubi isiei
Indicative past (1) ema(me) umbubi(ne) isia
Indicative past (2) emo(ne)
Indicative future ematsi(me) umbubitsi(me) isiatsi
Imperative (1) ema umbubi isia
Imperative (2) emau umbubu
Subjunctive (1) emo(le) umbubi(ne) isio(me)
Subjunctive (2) emo(me)
Infinitive ema(me) umbubi(me) isie(me)
Past participle emam(ane) umbubim(ane)
Verbal adjective (1) emabul(ane) umbubibul(ane)
Verbal adjective (2) ememond(ana)
If the Imperative be regarded as the stem, there appear to be three
Conjugations, but Dr. Strong gives four based on past tense, thus:
i. Verbs with monosyllabic roots, 2. Verbs with roots in _a_, 3. Verbs
with roots in _i_, 4. Verbs with roots in _e_.
His examples are:--
1. 2. 3. 4.
nen, itede, ongai, bole,
eat cut break leave
Present nene itede ongai bolo
Past na ita ongai bole
Future natsi itatsi ongaitsi bolatsi
Imperative nu ito ongai bo(le)
Subjunctive no ito ongai bolo
Infinitive namubabe itamubabe ongaimubabe bolamane
Past participle namane itaname ongaimane bolamane
Adjectival nab'ula(ne) itedondona ongaibula(ne) bolabula(ne)
3. _Notes on the foregoing paradigms._
_a._ Indicative present.
Most verbs double the last syllable of the stem, which in the first
conjugation always ends in _e_. There are, however, some exceptions,
especially among verbs in _i_, and those which have a verbal
suffix. The syllable _-te_ when doubled is always _-tede_.
Ex. _Nag alili_, I see; _nani e gadi_, I build (tie up) the house;
_nani okid' atede_, I light the fire.
_b._ Indicative past.
The difference between the two forms, both of which are preceded
by the particle _ga_, is not yet clearly made out. The ending _e_
seems to refer to the time when the action finished, whilst _-a_
has a more general signification.
Ex. _Naga ne_, I have eaten, _naga kupa na_, I ate the potatoes. There
is another form which replaces the final syllable of the present
tense by _-ua_. Verbs in _-i_ add _-ua_ to the final syllable. But
it is uncertain whether this expresses the near past, or includes an
idea of movement.
Ex. _na bul' elelua_, I have just worked in the garden; _nu a gadi ua_,
you have just tied up the fence.
_c_. Indicative future.
If the syllables preceding the suffix _-tsi_ also contain _-tsi-ti_. In
monosyllabic verbs especially, a second form of the future is often
found, which retains the doubling of the present tense.
Ex. _etsiati_, will come; _nenetsi_, will eat; _yeyetsi_, will
take. For _ga_ with the future, see below.
_d_. Imperative.
The first form of the imperative has less force than the second. In
the first conjugation the second form always terminates in _-au_,
even when the first form is irregular. The last syllable of the
imperative is often lost, especially when the ending is _-li_.
Ex. _aitodede_, runs, imperat. _aitode_ and _aitodau_; _itulili_,
ward off, imperat. _itu_; _bole_, leaves, imperat. _bole_, _bo_,
and _bolau_; _ameme_, puts, imperat. _a_ and _ama_.
The imperative is only used for the second person. In the first and
third (sometimes even in the second) it is replaced by the subjunctive.
Ex. _di ango_, let us go; _to n'alo_, speak, that I may know; _go di
go_, go that we may go.
_e_. Subjunctive.
The two forms of the subjunctive are distinguished only in composition,
and have not yet been clearly understood. The last syllable besides is
rarely heard except in questions, and refers then to the interrogative
form. The subjunctive without a conjunction is used in simple phrases
consisting only of subject and object.
Ex. _kuku gadi, di no_, roll the tobacco (make cigarette), that we
may smoke (eat).
_f_. Infinitive.
The forms given as infinitive are uncertain. They may be verbal
nouns. They are used in phrases such as: _nam' u babe_, father of
eating, for 'a great eater': _tsimilim' u babe_, father of licking,
cf. _andaval' u babe_, father of crying, one who causes crying.
_g_. Past Participle.
This does not easily lose the final syllable when it ends a
sentence. In other cases, when it is followed by the word it qualifies
it loses _-ane_, if the qualified word begins with a vowel, and _-ne_
in other cases.
Ex. _iy' ongaimane_, the cut tree, _indiv' ongaima ya_, or _ongaim'
indi' ya_, take the broken knife, _g'usangaman' ul' ande_, the thing
of death.
The past participle of some verbs has not yet been ascertained.
_h_. Verbal Adjectives.
The exact difference between the two forms is not accurately
ascertained. The first seems to indicate an instrument, and is
equivalent to the phrase "used for," the second appears to indicate
habitual rather than momentary use. When qualifying persons _-onde_
is used for _-ondana_.
Ex. _indi kupa fifitabula_, knife for scraping potatoes; _ai
safatsilibula_, a yam which has rotted; _kulule iy' adedondona_,
a hammer for striking wood; _nuni oyatonde_, you are only joking;
_nani falawa me nonde_, I don't eat bread.
In composition _-ande_, or at least _-nde_, is lost when the word
qualified follows.
Ex. _ai filibulanda_, a yam for planting, _filibula' ai ne i_, give me
the yam for planting; _ambe nenondana_, the eatable banana, _nenond'
ambe ya_, take the eatable banana.
V. Negation.
The negative of the verb is formed by the particle _me_ or _mi_
preceding. In the imperative it also precedes, but when emphasis
is laid upon the negation _mi_ follows. The difference between _me_
and _mi_ is not clear, but _me_ appears to be used only before verbs
beginning with a consonant, and _mi_ with other verbs.
A negative participle or infinitive does not appear. For the verbal
adjective the suffix _-ua(ne)_ is used.
Ex. _Na mi alele_, I do not understand; _nani matsine mi engatsi_,
I will not put on the (shell) bracelet; _mi unde_, do not fear;
_kolose mi_, do not play; _me ya_, do not take; _nenond' an' ua_,
what is not eaten.
VI. Interrogative.
The interrogative is only employed with reference to the verb itself,
not to the complements. It changes with the conjugation and varies
for present, past and future tense.
Present. Past 1. Past 2. Future 1. Future 2.
ememoma? emama? emena? emolà? emómà?
umbubima? umbibia? umbubina? umbubila? umbubima?
The present in the first conjugation keeps the reduplication of the
stem, and changes the final _e_ to _-oma_. The second conjugation
simply adds _-ma_. The interrogative in the past simply changes the _e_
of the positive indicative to _a_ in both forms. The future is formed
in the same way from the subjunctive with a stress upon the final _a_
in the first conjugation.
Ex. _Nuga malele yera?_ have you taken the book? _uga nemb' emama?_ has
he killed the bird? _nu aiti golà?_ would you start to-morrow? _kupa
g'ilama?_ are the potatoes cooked?
Note (1). The future interrogative replies to the question, "Can
I..."? or "Should I..."?
(2). The interrogative of the near past (_cf.p._ 318, 3, _b_) is
formed by substituting _-una_ for _-ua_.
Ex. _nug' em' aliluna?_ Have you just come to see the village?
(3). The form of the second future as _umbibia_ is rarely heard,
except with the verb _alili_, see, from which comes _'Aria?_ see?
(4). The negative interrogative is formed like the simple negative
by _me_ or _mi_ preceding the verb.
The questions "What should I do?" "What should I say," How should
I begin it?" are translated by the expression _do(le)... maiti_,
from _do(le)?_ where?
Ex. _dotamaiti?_ how should I say? _dol' imaiti?_ what should I
do? _do yela maiti?_ how shall I call?
VII. Substantive Verb.
1. In the present tense there is no substantive verb. The predicate and
subject are combined as in the examples already given (cf. p. 312,
2). But when the present indicates a state in opposition to one
preceding it, _ga_ is used before the adjective, or if in opposition
to a future state, the verb _ando_ follows.
Ex. _Kuku ga ko_, the tobacco is bad; _balava ga ua_, the bread is
finished; _indi ga kouatu_, the knife is on the box; _ambe g'ifa_,
the banana is good; _ambe gos' ando_, the banana is (still) green
(not ripe).
The past is more difficult to express. It always requires an adverb
of time.
Ex. _Mele maleke ifa, audati ga ko_, the child formerly was good,
now he is bad.
3. For other tenses the verb is translated only by the auxiliaries
_-elele_ and _-angege_, for which cf. p. 322, 7.
VIII. Auxiliary Verbs.
1. The particle _ga_ may be used to make any expression whatever
attributive.
Ex. _Yu g'ua_, the water is finished (_i.e_., is not); _malele ga
kouatsi_, the book is in the box.
In such examples there is almost the sense of a past action, as if
it were "The water (has become) nothing," "the book has been put
(is already in) the box."
2. The verbs _ete, tede_, to say, or to do, and _elele_, to become,
are often used to form a noun stem into a verb. _Ete_ and _tede_
give the sense of _sounding_, _elele_ gives the sense of _using_
whatever the noun expresses.
Ex.
_fioli_, flute, _fioliete_, to play the flute.
_yuve_, water, _yuv' elele_, to bathe.
_ule_, thunder, _ulonete_, to thunder.
_ivule_, dye, _ivul' elele_, to paint one's self.
_andavale_, crying, _andav' ete_, to weep.
_bule_, earth, _bul' elele_, to cultivate.
3. The Tenses, etc., of these verbs are found as follows:
1 2
Pres. indic. ete or tede. elele.
Imperative. ta. elau, ele, e.
Past indic. te(ne). elame.
Subjunctive. to(me), to(le). elo(me), elo(le).
Past indic. ta(me). elene.
Infinitive. ta(me). ela(me).
Future indic. tatsi(me). elatsi(me).
Verbal adj. tond(ana). ?
4. The negative is formed regularly by _mi_.
Ex. _nani yu mi elatsi_, I shall not bathe; _degu mi e_, don't
get dirty.
5. The interrogative is regular.
Pres. or past, _tena?_ or _tama? elena?_ or _elama?_ Fut. _toma?_
and _tola? eloma?_ and _elola?_
6. The auxiliaries _ete, tede, elele_, should be distinguished from
the regular verb, _tede_ or _ta_, to make. The latter is a distinct
verb used when the result of the action is to produce a new thing.
Ex. _Sambari tatsi_, will make a wall; _ombo tatsi_, will make a sieve.
7. The verbs _elele_ and _angege_, both meaning "to become," may be
regarded as auxiliary verbs when they are used with adjectives, often
taking the place of a substantive verb. In this use _elele_ is never,
and _angege_ very rarely used in the past tense, the particle _ga_
taking their place.
Both are regular except in the imperative, which has respectively _ela_
and _elau_, _ange_ and _angau_.
Ex. _Ifan' eloma?_ will he become handsome? _ifa mi elatsi?_ he will
not be handsome? _indi g' ifa_, the knife is good; _yuv' uan angatsi_,
the water will cease (become nothing); _mel g' us' anga_, or _me g'
use_, the child is dead.
IX. Verbal Suffixes.
1. The suffix _-i_, added to a noun stem, forms generally a neuter
verb.
Ex. _abe_, work, _abi_, to work; _iso_(_ne_), smoke, _isoni_, to give
forth smoke; _kese_, a clean vegetable, _kesi_, to clean vegetables.
2. The suffix _-tede_, added to a noun stem, forms usually an active
verb.
Ex. _foye_, ashes, _foitede_, to cook in ashes; _gurube_, neck,
_gurutede_, to hang at the neck.
3. The suffix of manner defining the verb, is formed by adding the
adjective with the final syllable changed to _-i_.
Note (1). The suffix of manner is always added to the infinitive form
of the preceding verb.
(2). In the negative these compound verbs are considered a single word.
Ex. _te_, say, _ifane_, good, _tam' ifani_, to say well. _i_, do,
_koye_, bad, _i'koi_, to do badly. _ilele_, cook, _akane_, small,
_ilam'akani_, to half-cook.
4. The suffix _-matede_ appears to have a causative signification.
Ex. _ga koda_ (perhaps the past of _kodede_,) pierced, _komatede_,
to pierce (of a man); _ga siuda_, extinguished, _siumatede_,
to extinguish.
Note. This suffix appears in some examples as a separate verb in the
same sense.
Ex. _yuv' olola mata_, warm up the water; _indi koi matatsi_, the
knife will become bad.
The negative is not known.
5. The suffixes _-meme_ and _-ngo_ are added to neuter verbs. The
first has an active meaning, the second is passive.
Ex. _yu_, to be upright, _yuma_, to put upright, _yungo_, to be
upright. _yari_(?), _yarima_, to hang, _yaringo_, to be hanging.
Note (1). _Meme_ is regularly conjugated; _-ngo_ is imperfectly known.
(2). Negative forms are _me yumatsi_, will not place upright, _mi
yaringo_, not hanging.
6. The auxiliary verbs, except _ga_, may perhaps be included among
the suffixes (_see_ p. 322, VIII.).
X. Verbal Prefixes.
The prefix _ya-_ renders a neuter verb active or causative.
Ex. _yaigege_, to go down, _yeyaigege_, to carry down. _faikadede_,
to come back, _yefaika(dede)_, to give back. _yu_, to stand up,
_yeyu_, to set up.
XI. Irregular Verbs.
1. Many verbs are irregular in the imperative.
Ex.
_angege_, imperat. _ange_, go.
_atede_, imperat. _ade_, kindle, burn.
_ende_, imperat. _ende_, undo.
_etsie_, imperat. _etsie_, come up (ladder).
_faikadede_, imperat. _faika(dede)_, go back.
_idede_, imperat. _de_, gather, pluck.
_isie_, imperat. _isia_, follow;
_itede_, imperat. _ide_, sting, bite.
_itulili_, imperat. _itu(li)_, split.
_ivori_, imperat. _ivo(ri)_, wipe.
_kosisi_, imperat. _kose_, turn.
_telele_, imperat. _te(le)_, come.
_yelele_, imperat. _ye(le)_, call.
2. Other irregular verbs are the following. Only those forms known
are entered.
_Aitodede_, to run: imperat. _attode_, infin. _aitode(me)_.
_ando_ and _ande_, to be there: fut. _andetsi_, imperat. _ande_,
subj. _ando_, and _ande_.
_bole_, to leave: past, _bo(le)_, imperat. _bo(le)_.
_ete_, to tell: past, _ete_ and _elete_, imperat. _eta_ and _ta_.
_faduatsiete_, to ache (head): fut. _faduatatsi_.
_iei_, to throw: fut. _iatsi_, imperat. _ia_.
_indi_, to give;, imperat. _i(nde)_, subj. _i(ndi)_.
_ingale_, to carry (on shoulder): past, _ingala_ and _inge_,
imperat. _inga_, subj. _ingo_.
_itede_ and _ito_, to lay down: past, _ito_ and _ita_, near past,
_itova_, imperat. _ito_.
_songe_, to go: pres. and past, _se_, near past, _sova_,
imperat. _so(nge)_, subj. _so_, interrog. _sona?_
_sue_, to walk, go: pres. _sue_, fut. _susuetsi_.
_utsisi_, to draw: fut. _utsist_, imperat. _ude_.
Note (1). The verbs _ando_ and _ito_ are not yet accurately understood.
(2). The verb _ete_ has a double conjugation, the initial _e_ being
retained or omitted at will. The past _elete_ is used in reporting
the words of another person.
(3). The verb _faduatsiete_ is a type of several verbs which end in
_ete_, preceded by the syllable _tsi_. All these appear to lose _tsi_
in the future, although some have both forms.
Ex. _kiovatsiete_, to cry (of black parrot): fut. _kiovatatsi_
and _kiovatsitatsi_.
_puatsiete_, to make a cracking noise: fut. _puatatsi_ and
_puatsiatsi_.
(4). The verb _sue_ in the meaning "go away" always has _ga_.
Ex. _nu ga sua? na ga sua_, are you going away? I am going away.
The verb _angege_, to go, in the past tense has the particle ga
prefixed to the verb instead of suffixed to the pronoun.
Ex. _na nul etsi ganga_, I went to your village.
XII. Notes on Some Verbs.
1. _Tede_ and _i_.
There is a difference in the meaning of the verbs _tede_, (_ete_)
and _i_, both used for "do" or "make." The first is used when the
object by which one obtains the action is indicated, the second is
used when the action only is expressed, and might then be translated
by the phrase "to go to work, to set about."
Ex. _olon'ete_, to snore, make a sound with the _olo_(_ne_ hole,
_i.e._, the nostrils, _ung'ul 'olo. na (melauk') i koitsi_, I shall
do the thing wrong.
2. _Gege, angege, engege, songe._
All of these have the general meaning of "go." Their differences are
not yet clearly understood. _Engege_ appears to mean "go up." _Songe_
is specially employed when the following phrase indicates a final
proposition, or an answer to the questions "Where do you come from?" or
"Where are you going?"
Ex. _nuni o' gega_, thou hast passed down there; _di engo_, let us
go up; _na song' em' aritsi_, I am going to see the village; _nu do
sona_? where have you been? (or, where do you come from?); _na bulitsi
sova_, I have been in the garden (or, I have come from the garden).
3. _Idede_.
This verb has a general meaning besides the special one "to gather."
Ex. _fang' idede_, to set a trap; _di yu molots' idoma_? should we
make a water-pipe?
4. _Ameme_.
This verb has the general meaning of passing, or making anything
pass, through an opening. The object which has the opening does not
take suffixes.
Ex. _kupa ulin' ama_, put the potatoes in the pot; _na ul' olol'
amene_, I passed it through the hole; _iso nu emana? andavete_,
does the smoke irritate you? you are weeping.
Adverbs.
I. Adverbs generally precede the verb which they modify. The exceptions
are the interrogative na? (is it not so?) which always comes at the
end of the sentence, and _-ta_ (at first), which follows the verb.
Ex. _aiti balava natsi_, to-morrow bread I shall eat; _aiti nu inditsi
na_? to-morrow I will give it you, shall I not? _kuku neta_, I eat
the tobacco at first.
Note.--This _ta_ appears to be almost a conjunction, and the phrase
might be translated "when I shall have smoked (eaten) the tobacco."
II. Adverbs of Place.
_do(le)?_ where.
_a(le)_), here.
_va(ie)_, there.
_ombatsi_, underneath.
_gisa(le)_, far.
_ime(li)?_ far.
_kugume_, near.
_tsi_, inside.
_val'enga_, outside.
_tu_, on, over
_ibe(le)_, down there.
_o(me)_, up there.
_yo(le)_, there above.
III. Adverbs of Time.
The adverbs of time are not very definite. For example _audati_,
"to-day, now," means also "in a few days" or "a few days ago." The
latter meaning is also attributed to _arima_, and the former to _aiti_.
_aida_? when?
_vomarima_, day before yesterday.
_arima_, yesterday.
_male(ke)_, formerly.
_malieke)_, formerly.
_audali)_, to-day, now.
_aiti(me)_, to-morrow.
_vomaiti_, day after to-morrow.
_talele_, often, for ever.
_dedi_, just now, later (near).
_ido(ve)_, not yet (with fut.) immediately.
_ulsienga_, later on, in the future.
_utsimata_, later on, in the future.
_utsinenga_, later on, in the future.
_kelavalage_, for a time.
_-ta_, at first.
_vo(ye_, again.
IV. Adverbs of Quantity.
_dovavemunge_? how much? how many?
_domamai_? how much? how many?
_avevemunge_, as much, so much, as many, so many.
_tale(le)_, many.
_apa(le)_, enough.
_kisiaka_, few, little.
_oko_, few, little.
_-ta_, very.
_ande_, very.
_boboi_, entirely, quite.
_gegeto_, few.
Note. When _apa_ is used with a numeral it precedes it. Ex. _apa
gegeto_, two are sufficient.
V. Adverbs of Affirmation, Negation and Interrogation.
_e_, yes.
_akai(ge)_, truly.
_g'akai_, truly.
_me_! what! certainly!
_ila_! I who knows?
_ua(ne)_, not, no.
_nà_? is it not (French, n'est ce pas?).
_óuo_! not at all, by no means.
_andal'ai(me)_? why?
Note. _Me_, _óuo_, and _ila_ are almost interjections.
VI. Adverbs of Manner and Likeness.
The adverbs of manner are often replaced by noun suffixes attached
to the verb, with the final _i_. (See Verbal Suffixes, p. 323).
_unoi_, together.
_akaumai(nge)_, further, beyond, besides.
_uneke_, only.
_ende_, also.
_elele_, quickly.
_dedi_, slowly
_fidefide_, continually.
_kela_, without reason, gratis.
Note. When _ende_ modifies a verb with subject in the third person,
it is preceded by the pronoun _ove_. Ex. _nau fud' ov' ende fufuli_,
my bones (they) also ache.
Prepositions and Postpositions.
I. Prepositions.
Only two prepositions are found in Fuyuge. These are _ise_, near,
and _ga_, by.
Ex. _aked' is' okid' ando_, the men are near the fire; _ganda_? _ga
ma_! by what do you swear? by the thread.
Note. _Ga_, in the sense of "by," is much used, and corresponds to
a kind of oath.
II. Postpositions.
1. All the postpositions are used as suffixes to the words which they
govern. When the noun to which they are suffixed has a double form,
the postposition is added to the short form.
Ex. _uli-tsi_ from _uli(ne)_ pot: _fatsi_ from _fa(le)_, ground.
There are however some exceptions.
2. When the postposition begins with a consonant, the final _e_
of a noun changes to _i_.
Ex. _kodigi-tsi_ from _kodige_, plate; _bulitsi_ from _bule_, garden.
3. The postpositions are often used as nouns.
Ex. _balava u tsi ido asi_, the inside of the loaf is still raw.
III. List of Postpositions.
_-ai(me)_, because of, for: _ovol' aim' andavete_, I weep for the pig.
_-a(le)_, with, by (instrumental): _isong' al' oki ya -andal' a? isong'
ale_, take the fire with the tongs--with what? with the tongs; _amul'
al' ul'ese_, the woman with her child; _uli sond' al' ale_, a pot
with a handle.
_-ala_, to, adherent to, along: _yo' ata yarima_, hang it on the
rattan; _enamb' ata malele yatsi_, I will take it along the road.
_-fendateme_, near (within bounds): _Sivu Alo fendatem' ando_, Sivu
is near Alo.
_-noi_, with (?): _yini danoi gatsi_, you will go with us two.
_-ongo_, before, at the side of (with an idea of inferiority):
_na nu ongo ando_, I am before thee (at thy service); _non' ongo_,
one beside the other.
_-enga_, from the side of, towards: _nani Ambov'enga g'anga_, I have
been (gone) towards Ambove.
_-kaine_, towards: _dedi yi kaine tsiati_, later on I will come
towards you.
_teti_, under: _sosoeteti ando_, he is under the bed.
_tsi_, to (movement, and time, rest), at, at the place of (Fr. chez):
_nani etsi andota, u bulitsi g'anga_, I am in the house, he has gone
into the garden; _naga Mambutsil' a tela_, I am come here from Mambo;
_kouatsi ma_, put it in the box; _tutsi etsiati_, he will come in
the night; _nu datsi sona_? who has he been with?
_-tu_, upon (to or at places on mountains): _kulumitu, ma_, put it
on the table; _Falitu g'anga_, he is gone to Faliba.
Note. _Ale_ in the sense of "with" is used when the second substantive
is considered as an accessory to the first. Ex. _an' al amu_, a married
man (man with a wife); _uli sondal' ale_, pot with a handle. There
are not yet enough examples to distinguish the two forms.
IV. Prepositional Phrases.
_u mome_, above: _kurum' u mome yarime_, hang it over the table; _u
bane_, behind; _mel' an' u ban' ando_, the child is behind the man;
_ul' umbo(le)_, in the middle of; _Veke ul' umbol' ando_, he is at Vee.
Conjunctions.
I. Copulative.
_-u(ne)_, and, with; _naga kitoval' u kene' ema_, I killed a black
and white parrot.
_Une_ is generally only used to connect two nouns, and is placed
between the two. But sometimes it comes after the second, especially
when meaning "with," and the first noun is then followed by the
personal pronoun. There are a few doubtful examples of _une_ joining
two phrases: _ake tale mu, Augustin' un' ando_, many men are with
Augustin.
II. Adversative.
_-ta_, yet, but: _nuni safa' ta nani kakava_, you are weak but I
am strong.
_Ta_, meaning "but," precedes the phrase which it governs: _nuni natsi,
ta nani fema_, you will eat, but I do not.
III. Sequence.
_-ta_, when (when a fact is accomplished, or will certainly happen),
lest: _aked' indiota, dinoi gatsi_, when the men arrive, we will
go together.
_Ta_ in this sense follows the verb, which is in the past if the action
depends on the person who speaks or is spoken to, in other cases in
the subjunctive: _kuku neta, etsi gatsi_, when I (or you) have eaten,
I will (or you will) go to the village; _mulamula angetota, gadiu_,
lest the medicine fall, tie it up.
_-tamai_, when (uncertain event): _oki finolitamai, na natatsi_,
when the fire blazes, warn me.
_Tamai_ always requires the subjunctive.
_-mai_, if: _Augusto bubulimai, dimuku e gaditsi_. If Augusto delays,
we ourselves will build the house.
_-umba_, so, like: _an' umba ne i_, give me (one) like that.
Interjections.
_mamu(la)_! admiration.
_ile_! sadness.
_fanimo(le)_, commiseration.
_fanikoe_! commiseration.
_-e_ (suffix), commiseration.
_segoa_! joy at another's misfortune.
_biu_! contempt.
_alaila_! a command for silence.
_faiamela_! expresses the recognition of an error.
Notes on Dependent Clauses.
1. A final proposition with the future is expressed in four ways.
a. By the infinitive preceding the verb which it governs: _na nul'
em' arim' an gatsi_, I will go to see thy village, lit, I thy village
to-see will-go.
b. By the simple future preceded by the verb: _na songe, Tsekari
aritsi_, I go, I shall see Tseka.
c. By the future preceding the verb: _ake Mambutsi itatsi m' ando_,
the men remain to sleep at Mambo.
d. By the suffix _-du(le]: Pe' Egidi yol' itadul andemai, puatsitatsi,_
If Père Egidi stays to sleep up there, he will fire a gun; _ake Baidane
(gatsi) ame boladu_, the men will go to Baidane to leave the girl;
_muto yetadu, Labao gatsi_; I will go to Yule Is to take the sheep,
(_muto_, Fr. mouton). The use of the verb "to go" is not certain.
2. A dependent sentence with the past is expressed in two ways.
a. By the simple past: _na so, fang' an_, I went to see the trap.
b. By the suffix _-ua_, with the omission of the verb: _Tsekan'
alilua_, I went to see Tseka, which might also be translated: _na sova,
Tsekan' ari_.
3. Causative sentences appear to be governed by the same rules as
the preceding.
Ex. _ame nu arim' undede_, the girl is afraid to see you; _andal'
un' arim' ete_, what has he seen to talk about.
4. Conditional sentences precede the principal and have their verb
in the subjunctive with the conjunction _-mai_ or _-tamai_. (See
p. 330, III.).
5. A dependent sentence expressing time also precedes the principal
sentence. It has its verb in the subjunctive or indicative, followed
by the conjunction _-ta_ or sometimes _-tamai_. (See p. 330, III.).
CHAPTER II
Note on the Afoa Language
By Dr. W. M. Strong
The vocabulary recorded below was obtained from a Fuyuge native who
spoke the Afoa language. He had travelled with me to the Afoa-speaking
villages on Mount Pitsoko and I could assure myself that he spoke the
language fluently. In spite of the vocabulary having been obtained
through a Fuyuge native there is very little similarity between this
and the Fuyuge vocabulary. It should be noted that the words for "I"
and for "thou" are substantially the same in the two languages.
I also obtained a short vocabulary from a native who came down the
coast to me, and found that this was substantially the same as the
Pitsoko vocabulary. The native had come from a village which appeared
to be situated on the slopes of Mount Davidson and on the inland side
of it. According to native accounts the Afoa language is spoken in
numerous villages which stretch from Mount Davidson to the head of
the St. Joseph River in the Mafulu district. All the Afoa villages
are situated north of the St. Joseph and its main branches.
[Dr. Strong gives only the pronoun: _nui,_ thou; and the
numerals: _koane,_ one; _atolowai,_ two; _atolowai-itima,_ three;
_atolowai-atolowai,_ four; _atolowai-atolowai-itima,_ five.
The Pronouns given by Father Egidi for Tauata ("Anthropos," II. 1907,
pp. 1009-1015) are:--
Singular. Plural. Dual.
lst Person, _nai_, _na_. _nanei_, _nane_. _nonei_, _none_.
2nd Person, _nui_, _nu_. _nunei_, _nune_ _nuvei_, _nuve_.
3rd Person, _omei_, _ome_. _otei_, _ote_. _olei_(?).
The Possessives are:--
Singular. Plural. Dual.
lst Person, _ne_, _neve_. _nane_,_nanene_. _none_.
2nd Person, _ni_, _nie_. _nune_. _nuvene_.
3rd Person, _ote_, _otene_. _otene_. _olene_.
The Interrogatives are: _te_? who? _te_? _teile_? what
thing? _te_? _tue_? which?
The Numerals, according to Father Egidi, are, _kone_, one;
_atolo_(_ai_), two; _atoloai-laina_, three; _talele_, _memene_, many;
_konekone_, few.
S. H. R.]
CHAPTER III
Note on the Kovio Language.
By Dr. W. M. Strong.
Substantially the same language is spoken in the whole of the
neighbourhood of Mount Yule. I have travelled all around this
mountain and the same interpreter was able to make himself understood
everywhere. The vocabulary recorded below was collected by means
of the Motuan from a native of Lopiko in the Inava valley. I have
also collected short vocabularies from the village of Inavarene in
the same valley, and from the Kwoifa district of the upper part of
the Lakekamu river. These vocabularies show close similarities with
that of Lopiko. The natives around the Pic Eleia also speak much the
same language.
The vocabulary of the language bears no resemblance to any other
language I am acquainted with. It is peculiar in that a word often ends
in a consonant preceded by a short vowel. There is also an unusual
consonant sound in the language. This sound seems to vary between a
"ch" and a "tch" sound.
The pronouns are as follows;--
First person: _na_.
Second person: _ni_.
Third person: _pi_.
These were obtained without much difficulty as well as the
corresponding possessives _nemai_, _nimai_, and _pimai_; but plurals
could not be obtained. Possibly the above are both singular and
plural. The possessive precedes the noun, _e.g._, _nemai tupumagi_,
my house. [129] A binary system of counting is shown in the following
numerals:--
One: _uniuni_.
Two: _karaala_.
Three: _naralavievi napuevi_.
Four: _naralavievi naralavievi_.
Five: _naralavievi naralavievi napuievi_.
Ten: _kowa_.
Eleven: _kowa uniuni_.
Twelve: _kowa karaala_.
Twenty: _kowakowa_.
Seven, eight, and nine were also translated by saying _naralavievi_
for each two, and _napuevi_ for one over. The numeral follows the noun,
e.g., _inai karaala_, two spears. [130]
CHAPTER IV
A Comparative Vocabulary of the Fuyuge, Afoa, and Kovio Languages
Prepared by Sidney H. Ray, M.A.
[From the MSS. of Rev. Father Egedi, Rev. P.J. Money, and
Dr. W.M. Strong. Words in square brackets from "Antropos," II.,
pp. 1016-1021. _Cf_. Appendix V.]
English: Adze
Mafulu: so(ve)
Kambisa: so(nda)
Korona: itau
Afoa: kealeve
Kovio: labian)ed
English: Ankle
Mafulu: sog' u' kodabe [131]
Kambisa: segikanan [132]
Korona: --
Afoa: --
Kovio: --
English: Areca-nut
Mafulu: kese
Kambisa: kesi
Korona: soroma
Afoa: iluve; [vonuve]
Kovio: koveo; [auliri-koyo]
English: Arm
Mafulu: bodo(le); matange (_shoulder_)
Kambisa: ia; kosa (_shoulder_)
Korona: ya
Afoa: kalab; [kala(pe)]
Kovio: malau; [malao]
English: Armlet
Mafulu: koio(ne) (_cane_); matsi(ne) (_shell_)
Kambisa: ino (_cane_)
Korona: --
Afoa: [torite; litsi]
Kovio: [loria]
English: Arrow
Mafulu: fod' u' komome
Kambisa: --
Korona: fode
Afoa: --
Kovio: [kilelupa]
English: Ashes
Mafulu: foye
Kambisa: hoi
Korona: --
Afoa: enamiro [133]; pita; [sepe]
Kovio: iziuvate; [itekamite]
English: Backbone
Mafulu: bane
Kambisa: bano
Korona: --
Afoa: [momo(pe) (_back_)]
Kovio: --
English: Bad
Mafulu: ko(ye)
Kambisa: --
Korona: ko
Afoa: k=o=ali
Kovio: kep)ip; [amifu]
English: Bag, Basket
Mafulu: anon(ne)
Kambisa: ha(_netted_)
Korona: --
Afoa: [lamui]
Kovio: [lamui]
English: Bamboo
Mafulu: bione; e(re) (_pipe_)
Kambisa: e
Korona: tobo [134]
Afoa: ila; [vioni; ila (_pipe_)]
Kovio: nelele; [pidele; nerele (_pipe_)]
English: Banana
Mafulu: ambe
Kambisa: --
Korona: haba
Afoa: pelai
Kovio: teri; [teli]
English: Barter
Mafulu: davani
Kambisa: --
Korona: --
Afoa: tvatava [135]
Kovio: --
English: Beard
Mafulu: anama(le)
Kambisa: hanama
Korona: --
Afoa: --
Kovio: --
English: Belly
Mafulu: ombo(le)
Kambisa: hombo (_stomach_)
Korona: obo
Afoa: aniami; [aniame (_abdomen_); kutote (_belly_)]
Kovio: dapoale; [data]
English: Belt (waist string)
Mafulu: ganinge; ganingame (_bark_); tafade (_ratan_)
Kambisa: misu
Korona: --
Afoa: [terite; afafe; teupe]
Kovio: [tabatsio; talakota]
English: Bird
Mafulu: nembe
Kambisa: neba
Korona: nebe
Afoa: kile
Kovio: id)ep; [ite]
English: Bite
Mafulu: angale (_of men_); itede (_of dog_)
Kambisa: --
Korona: --
Afoa: kanaiva
Kovio: --
English: Black
Mafulu: dube
Kambisa: --
Korona: duba
Afoa: lumatu
Kovio: alolamala; [tumuta].
English: Blood
Mafulu: tana(le)
Kambisa: --
Korona: tana
Afoa: ilive
Kovio: uiau-toro; [ueho].
English: Boat
Mafulu: --
Kambisa: --
Korona: asi [136]
Afoa: --
Kovio: --
English: Body
Mafulu: mule
Kambisa: --
Korona: --
Afoa: [kotsi(pe)]
Kovio: ulan-utoro ; [koki].
English: Bone
Mafulu: fude
Kambisa: --
Korona: ufudi
Afoa: kemiabi
Kovio: kateleru.
English: Bow, _n_
Mafulu: fode
Kambisa: --
Korona: fode
Afoa: --
Kovio: --
English: Bowels
Mafulu: taride; gige
Kambisa: --
Korona: --
Afoa: [kimu(ve)]
Kovio: [tsikamaki].
English: Branch
Mafulu: bodo(le); gobe (_young_)
Kambisa: --
Korona: uga
Afoa: ietami
Kovio: litaud
English: Breast
Mafulu: ouba
Kambisa: duda; kononda [137] (_chest_); bononga (_breast-bone_)
Korona: --
Afoa: talate [opipe]
Kovio: apiteu; [apetei (_woman's_)].
English: Bring
Mafulu: yetsia (_up_); yayeitsie (_down_)
Kambisa: --
Korona: neda
Afoa: ainakava
Kovio: [boale?].
English: Bury
Mafulu: mudi
Kambisa: --
Korona: --
Afoa: alota
Kovio: --
English: Butterfly
Mafulu: keneke
Kambisa: --
Korona: kaneke
Afoa: gotaubi
Kovio: --
English: By an Bye
Mafulu: dedi; ido(ve) (_not yet_)
Kambisa: gadavi
Korona: --
Afoa: [epe (_not yet_)]
Kovio: --
English: Cane
Mafulu: yokome; seene (_ratan_)
Kambisa: ongo
Korona: --
Afoa: --
Kovio: --
English: Charcoal
Mafulu: --
Kambisa: urugum
Korona: orugu
Afoa: (ena)imiti [138]
Kovio: --
English: Cheek
Mafulu: omenge
Kambisa: hanan
Korona: --
Afoa: --
Kovio: --
English: Chest
Mafulu: kavale
Kambisa: kononda
Korona: konode
Afoa: kaluvi
Kovio: lipat; [ulako].
English: Chief
Mafulu: ame(de)
Kambisa: --
Korona: --
Afoa: --
Kovio: --
English: Child
Mafulu: mele; ese (_son_); ame(le) (_girl_); ayame(le) (_small_)
Kambisa: isa; isoko (_boy_); amuri (_girl_)
Korona: isia
Afoa: lu [lu; pie (_boy_); epi (_girl_)]
Kovio: nekeotoro; [koemala; feimala (_boy_); nalemala; etaofu (_girl_)].
English: Chin
Mafulu: ana
Kambisa: ana
Korona: --
Afoa: [natau(pe)]
Kovio: [akumare].
English: Claw (_of bird_)
Mafulu: fodo(le)
Kambisa: --
Korona: bodo [139]
Afoa: kila karabe
Kovio: --
English: Cloth (_native_)
Mafulu: kogo(ve)
Kambisa: hudo
Korona: --
Afoa: [etape]
Kovio: [tsimika].
English: Cloud
Mafulu: unu(me)
Kambisa: --
Korona: --
Afoa: ulua; [ponive]
Kovio: unida; [lariatsi].
English: Club
Mafulu: gilise (_pineapple_); gadaibe (_disc_); kongomu (_wood_)
Kambisa: hadufa (_wood_)
Korona: hadoga (_pine-apple_)
Afoa: yetikwi
Kovio: ineri (_stone_)
English: Coconut
Mafulu: fofo(ne)
Kambisa: bao
Korona: fofo
Afoa: --
Kovio: teri.
English: Cold
Mafulu: yuyuma
Kambisa: --
Korona: dudure
Afoa: loola
Kovio: delea; [abatata].
English: Come
Mafulu: tsia
Kambisa: --
Korona: yeterun
Afoa: lai
Kovio: [imaro]
English: Crocodile
Mafulu: fua
Kambisa: --
Korona: fuai
Afoa: --
Kovio: --
English: Cuscus
Mafulu: --
Kambisa: ano [140]
Korona: --
Afoa: --
Kovio: --
English: Darkness
Mafulu: tu(be)
Kambisa: --
Korona: gerenama
Afoa: guviti
Kovio: dubare
English: Daylight
Mafulu: ev' ul' aveve [141]
Kambisa: --
Korona: --
Afoa: --
Kovio: --
English: Die
Mafulu: usangege
Kambisa: --
Korona: usaga
Afoa: lae-elu; [kelui]
Kovio: [nusuaka]
English: Dig
Mafulu: tsie
Kambisa: --
Korona: --
Afoa: amatita
Kovio: --
English: Digging-stick
Mafulu: itsive
Kambisa: --
Korona: iti
Afoa: --
Kovio: --