Community, Clan, and Village Systems and Chieftainship
Communities, Clans, and Villages.
The native populations of the Mafulu area are scattered about in
small groups or clusters of villages or hamlets; and, as each cluster
of villages is for many purposes a composite and connected whole,
I propose to call such a cluster a "community." Friendships, based
on proximity and frequent intercourse and intermarriage, doubtless
arise between neighbouring communities, but otherwise there does
not appear to be any idea in the minds of the people of any general
relationship or common interest between these various communities of
the area. Each community regards the members of every other community
within the area as outsiders, just as much so as are, say, the Ambo
people to the north and the Kuni people to the west. If a community,
or group of communities together, were the subject of an attack from
either Ambo or Kuni natives, each of these being people whose language
is different--as regards the Kuni utterly different--from that of the
Mafulu, there would apparently be no thought of other Mafulu-speaking
communities, as such, coming to assist in repelling the attack. Hence
in dealing with the question of inter-village relationship, I have
to fix my mind mainly upon the community and its constituent parts.
Concerning the situation as between one community and another,
as they regard themselves as quite distinct and unrelated, the only
question which seems to arise is that of the ownership of, and rights
over, the intervening bush and other land. The boundaries between
what is regarded as the preserve of one community, within which its
members may hunt and fish, clear for garden purposes, cut timber, and
collect fruit, and that of an adjoining community are perfectly well
known. The longitudinal boundaries along the valleys are almost always
the rivers and streams, which form good boundary marks; but those
across the hills and ridges from stream to stream are, I was told,
equally defined in the minds of the natives, though no artificial
boundary marks are visible. These boundaries are mutually respected,
and trouble and fighting over boundary and trespass questions are,
I was told, practically unknown, the people in this respect differing
from those of Mekeo.
A community comprises several villages, the number of which may vary
from, say, two to eight. But the relationship between all the villages
is not identical. There is a clan system, and there is generally more
than one clan in a community. Often there are three or more of such
clans. Each clan, however, has its own villages, or sometimes one
village only, within the community, and two clans are never found
represented in any one village, [56] or any one clan spread over two
or more communities.
Fig. 3 is a diagrammatic illustration of a typical Mafulu community,
the circles representing villages of one clan, the squares those of
another clan, and the triangle being the sole village of a third clan.
I have said that the entire community is for many purposes a composite
whole. In many matters they act together as a community. This is
especially so as regards the big feast, which I shall describe
hereafter. It is so also to a large extent in some other ceremonies
and in the organisation of hunting and fishing parties and sometimes
in fighting. And the community as a whole has its boundaries, within
which are the general community rights of hunting, fishing, etc.,
as above stated.
But the relationship between a group of villages of any one clan
within the community is of a much closer and more intimate character
than is that of the community as a whole. These villages of one
clan have a common _amidi_ or chief, a common _emone_ or clubhouse,
and a practice of mutual support and help in fighting for redress
of injury to one or more of the individual members; and there is a
special social relationship between their members, and in particular
clan exogamy prevails with them, marriages between people of the same
clan, even though in different villages, being reprobated almost as
much as are marriages between people of the same village.
The Mafulu word for village is _emi_, but there are no words
signifying the idea of a community of villages and that of a group
of villages belonging to the same clan within that community. As
regards the latter there is the word _imbele_, but this word is used
to express the intimate social relationship existing between the
members of a clan, and not to express the idea of an actual group of
villages. Communities and villages have geographical names. The name
adopted for a community will probably be the name of some adjoining
river or ridge. That adopted for a village will probably be the name
of the exact crest or spot on which it is placed, the minuteness of
the geographical nomenclature here being remarkable. Clan-groups of
villages, forming part of a community, have, as such, no geographical
names, but a member of one such group will distinguish himself from
those of another group by saying that he is a man of----, giving the
name of the chief of the clan occupying the group.
I was assured that, when there are two or more villages of a clan with
a common chief and emone, they have originally been one village which
has split up, an event which undoubtedly does in fact take place;
while on the other hand the several villages of a clan, presumably
the outcome of a previous splitting-up of a single village, will
sometimes amalgamate together into one village, which thus becomes
the only village of the clan. But two villages of different clans
could never amalgamate in this way. The following are examples of
these village changes:--
Near to the Mafulu Mission station is a community called Sivu, which
includes seven villages occupied by three clans, as follows [57]:--
1. Voitele Belonging to a clan whose chief, Jaria, lives
at Amalala, where the clan _emone_ is.
2. Amalala
3. Kodo-Malabe
4. Motaligo
5. Malala Belonging to a clan whose chief, Gito-iola, lived
at Malala, where the clan _emone_ is. (He has
recently retired in favour of his eldest son,
Anum' Iva, who is the present chief, and also lives
there.)
6. Gelva
7. Seluku Being the only village of a clan whose chief, Baiva,
has recently died. His eldest son, who has succeeded
him, is an infant. There is no regency.
Also near the Mission station is a community called Alo, which includes
four villages occupied by two clans, as follows:--
1. Asida Belonging to a clan whose chief, Amo-Kau, lives
at Asida, where the _emone_ is.
2. Kotsi
3. Ingomaunda
4. Uvande Being the only village of a clan whose chief
is Iu-Baibe.
Referring to these villages, in the year 1899 the clan now occupying
the four villages Voitele, Amalala, Kodo-Malabe and Motaligo had only
a single village, Kaidiabe, the clan's chief being the above-mentioned
Jaria. Then there was a Government punitive expedition, following
the attack of the natives upon Monseigneur de Boismenu (the present
Bishop of the Mission of the Sacred Heart in British New Guinea) and
his friends, who were making their first exploration of the district,
in which expedition a number of natives, including the brother of
the chief, were killed. After that the village was abandoned, and
the three villages of Voitele, Amalala and Motaligo arose in its
place. Subsequently after a big feast, which was held at Amalala in
the year 1909, that village put out an offshoot, which is the present
village of Kodo-Malabe. Also in the year 1909 the village of Uvande
was represented by seven villages, all belonging to one clan under
the chieftainship of Iu-Baibe, the names of which were Ipolo, Olona,
Isisibei, Valamenga, Amada, Angasabe and Amambu; but after the feast
above mentioned the people of that clan all abandoned their villages,
and joined together in forming the present village of Uvande.
The chief, that is the true chief, of a clan has his house in one of
the villages of the clan, and if, as sometimes occurs, he has houses
in two or more of these villages, there is one village in which is
what is regarded as his usual residence, and this is the village in
which is the _emone_ of the clan.
As regards the relative predominance of the various clans of a
community and their respective chiefs in matters affecting the whole
community (_e.g.,_ the arranging and holding of a big feast), there
is no rule or system. The predominance will probably, unless there
be a great disparity in the actual size or importance of the clans,
and perhaps even to a certain extent notwithstanding such a disparity,
fall to the clan whose chief by his superior ability or courage or
force of character, or perhaps capacity for palavering, has succeeded
in securing for himself a predominating influence in the community.
The word _imbele_ and certain other words are used to designate the
closeness or otherwise of the connection between individuals. _Imbele_
signifies the close connection which exists between members of one
clan, and a man will say of another member of his clan that he is
his _imbele_. The word _bilage_ signifies a community connection,
which is recognised as being not so close as a clan connection;
and a man will say of another, who is outside his own clan, but is a
member of his own community, that he is his _bilage_. The expression
_a-gata_ signifies absence of any connection, and a man will refer
to a member of another community, Mafulu, Kuni, Ambo, or anything
else (there is no distinction between these in the use of the term)
as being _a-gata_, thereby meaning that he is an outsider.
This brings me to the question of the use by me of the term "clan" to
designate the intimate association above referred to. To begin with,
there is a considerable difference between the situation produced by
the clan system, if it may be regarded as such, of Mafulu and that of,
say, Mekeo, where one finds several clans occupying one village, and
where members of one clan may be scattered over several more or less
distant villages; though this latter difference might perhaps arise in
part from natural geographical causes, the flat lowlands of the Mekeo
people being highly favourable to inter-village communication over
their whole areas, and to the holding of their recognised and numerous
markets, whilst it may almost be assumed that such intercommunication
would be more restricted, at all events in days gone by, among the
Mafulu inhabitants of the mountains.
Then again in Mafulu there are no clan badges, nor are there any
realistic or conventional representations of, or designs which can
to my mind be possibly regarded as representing, or having had their
origin in the representation of, animals, birds, fishes, plants,
or anything else. As regards this, however, it may be mentioned
that the Mafulu people are very primitive and undeveloped, and have
not in their art any designs which could readily partake of this
imitative character, their artistic efforts never producing curves,
and indeed not going beyond geometric designs composed of straight
lines, rectangular and zig-zag patterns and spots.
Also I was unable to discover the faintest trace of any idea
which might be regarded as being totemistic, or having a totemistic
origin. In particular, although enquiry was made from ten independent
and trustworthy native sources, I could not find a trace of any system
of general clan taboo against the killing or the eating of any animal,
bird, fish, or plant. It is true that there are various temporary
food taboos associated with special conditions and events, and that
there are certain things the eating of which is regarded as permanently
taboo to certain individuals; but the former of these restrictions are
general and are not associated with particular clans or communities,
and the latter restrictions relate separately to the individuals only,
and apparently are based in each case on the fact that the food has
been found to disagree with him; though whether the restriction is
the result of mere common sense based upon individual experience,
or has in it an element of superstition as to something which may be
harmful to the individual concerned, is a point upon which I could
not get satisfactory explanation.
Again, still dealing with the question of totemism, I may say that
the community and village names (as already stated, there are no
clan names) do not appear to be referable to any possible totemistic
objects. There is no specific ancestor worship, in connection with
which I could endeavour to trace out an association between that
ancestor and a totemistic object, and there is no special reverence
paid to any animal or vegetable, except certain trees and creepers,
the fear of which is associated with spirits and ghosts generally,
and not with ghosts of individual persons, and except as regards
omen superstitions concerning flying foxes and fireflies, which are
general and universal among all these people, and except as regards
the possible imitative character of the Mafulu dancing, which, if
existent, is probably also universal.
Moreover, I was told that now, at any rate, the people regard their
_imbele_ or clan relationship as a social one, as well as one of
actual blood, a statement which is illustrated by the fact that,
if a member of one clan leaves his village to reside permanently in a
village of another clan, he will regard the members of the latter clan,
and will himself be regarded by them, as being _imbele_, although he
does not part with the continuing _imbele_ connection between himself
and the other members of his original clan.
On the other hand the association between members of a clan
is exceedingly close, so much so that a serious injury done by
an outsider to one member of a clan (_e.g._, his murder, or the
case of his wife eloping with a stranger and her family refusing to
compensate him for the price which he had paid for her on marriage)
is taken up by the entire clan, who will join the injured individual
in full force to inflict retribution; and, as already stated, the
members of a clan share in one common chief and one common _emone_,
intermarriage between them is regarded as wrong, and apparently each
group of villages occupied by a single clan has in origin been a single
village, and may well have a common descent. I think, therefore, that
I am justified in regarding these internal sections of a community
as clans.
Chiefs, Sub-Chiefs and Notables and Their Emone
At the head of each clan is the _amidi_, or chief of the clan. He is,
and is recognised as being, the only true chief.
He is the most important personage of his clan, and is treated
with the respect due to his office; but, though he takes a leading
part in all matters affecting the clan, he is not a person with any
administrative or judicial functions, and he has no power of punishment
or control over the members of the clan. In public ceremonial matters
of importance, however, he has functions which rest primarily upon him
alone, and he does, in fact, always perform these functions in his own
village; and on the occasion of a big feast (as to which see below),
he does so in whatever village of the clan that feast may be held.
The chief lives in one of the villages of the clan, but may have
houses in other villages of that clan also. In the village in which
he mainly resides is his _emone_ or club-house, which is the only
true _emone_ of the clan; and for the upkeep and repair of this he is
responsible. This is the ceremonial _emone_ in his own village, and
is always the one used in connection with the ceremony of a big feast
in any village of the clan; and, if the feast be held in a village
other than that in which is his then existing _emone_, another one is
built in that village in lieu of his former one in the other village.
There is not in connection with these chiefs and their ceremonies any
distinctive difference in importance between the right and the left
as regards the positions occupied by them on the _emone_ platform or
the structure of the _emone_, such as is found among the Roro people.
Next in rank to the chief, and at the head of each village of the clan,
there is a sub-chief, or _em' u babe_, this term meaning "father of the
village." He is not regarded as a true chief, but he is entitled, and
it is his duty, to perform in his own village all the functions of the
chief, except those connected with the big feast. He and the similar
sub-chiefs of the other villages of the clan are the persons who take
the prominent part in supporting the chief in any ceremonial function
concerning the whole clan in which the latter may be engaged, and in
particular at the big feast. The _em' u babe_ is usually a relative
of the chief, and at all events is an important personage. He also
has in his own village his _emone_, which is the principal _emone_
of that village, and is used for all ceremonial functions in that
village except the big feast, but it is not regarded as being a true
_emone_. The chief holds in his own village of residence both his
office of _amidi_ and that of _em' u babe_, there being no other
person holding the latter office in that village.
Next in rank to the sub-chiefs come a number of _ake baibe_, which
means "great men." These are the leading people--the aristocracy--of
the clan. There are no distinctive social grades of rank among
them. Their number is often very large in proportion to the total
number of male inhabitants of a village; indeed sometimes almost
every member of a village will claim to belong to this class. These
people are in no sense office-bearers, and have no special duties
to perform, though on a ceremonial occasion they are entitled to
have their importance borne in mind. Each of them also is entitled
to have an _emone_ (here again not a true _emone_) in his village,
but in fact their numbers often make this practically impossible,
and you rarely see more than two or three _emone_ in one village.
The above are all the chiefs and notables of the clan. There is no
such thing as a war chief.
Aristocracy in its various forms is not a condition to which a man
attains on getting older--it is attained by inheritance.
The office of the chief is hereditary in the male line by strict
rules of descent and primogeniture. On the death of a chief his office
descends to his eldest son, or if that son has died leaving children,
it descends to the eldest son of that son, and so on for subsequent
generations. Failing the eldest son or male issue in the male line
of the eldest son, the office devolves upon the late chiefs second
son or his male issue in the male line. And so on for other sons
and their issue. Failing such male issue the office passes to a
collateral relation of the late chief on his father's side (_e.g._,
the late chief's next eldest brother or that brother's son, or the
late chief's second brother or that brother's son), the ascertainment
of the devolution being based upon a general principle of nearest
male relationship in the male line and primogeniture. [58]
The chief holds his office for life, but he may in his lifetime
resign it in favour of the person entitled to succeed him, and this
in fact often occurs. He cannot, however, on the appointment of
his successor still continue in office himself, so as to create a
joint chieftainship, as is done in Mekeo. He, as chief, is subject
to no special taboo, and there is no qualification for office,
other, of course, than hereditary right; but no chief can perform
the functions of his office, or build for himself an _emone_,
until he has married. There is no ceremony on the chiefs accession
to office on the death of his predecessor; but there is a ceremony
(to be described hereafter) on a chief's abdication in favour of his
successor. Cases have, I was told, occurred in which a man has in
one way or another forced himself into the position of chief, though
not qualified by descent, and has thus become a chief, from whom
subsequent chieftainship descent has been traced, but I could learn
nothing of the circumstances under which this had occurred. Also it
has happened that, when a chief has been weak, and has not asserted his
position, a sub-chief has more or less usurped his power and influence,
without actually upsetting his chieftainship or supplanting him in
his performance of ceremonial duties.
If the chief on acquiring office by inheritance is a child, or not
qualified to act (_e.g._, unmarried), he is nevertheless chief; but
some person will usually act as his guardian, and perform his functions
for him until he has qualified. This person will probably be one of the
young chief's eldest male paternal relations (_e.g._, the eldest living
brother of the last previous chief), and will presumably be a person
of consequence; but he will not necessarily be one of the sub-chiefs.
All the above observations concerning the hereditary nature of a
chief's office and subsequently explained matters apply also to the
case of a sub-chief, except that there is no ceremony on his resigning
office in favour of his successor, and that the usurpation of the
office of a sub-chief, of the occurrence of which I found no record,
would perhaps be more difficult of accomplishment. In the event of
a village throwing off an offshoot village, or itself splitting up
into two villages, the then existing sub-chief of the original village
would continue his office in it or, in case of a division, in one of
the villages resulting from the split, and the other village would have
for its sub-chief some one of the _ake-baibe_ of the original village,
probably the one who was most active in organising the split. On
the other hand, if several villages united into one, one only of
their sub-chiefs could be sub-chief of the village arising from the
amalgamation, and the others would sink to the rank of _ake-baibe_.
The observations concerning the hereditary nature of a chiefs rank
also apply to the _ake-baibe_. I have no information concerning them
on the other points; but these are not so important as regards these
people, who have no official position and have no duties to perform.
There are, as will be seen hereafter, a number of persons who are
employed from time to time to perform various acts and functions of a
ceremonious or superstitious character, notably the man who has the
important duty of killing pigs at feasts; but these men are not by
virtue of their offices or functions either chiefs or sub-chiefs, or
even notables or important personages. It is in each case a matter of
the specific personal power which the man is believed to possess. Any
of them might happen to be an important personage, and the pig-killer,
whose office is a prominent one, would probably be one; though in his
case muscular strength would, I understand, be an important element
of qualification. [59]