It seems to the writer just as likely that the name Julian's-bower

commemorates this popular hero as that it has any connection, as some

have maintained, with the invading Caesar or, as suggested by others

(see Chapter XI), with his tribune, Quintus Laberius Durus. One can

quite easily conjure up in imagination a game or ceremony in which the

fatigues of the pilgrim treading the long course of the labyrinth's

folds is rewarded by some form of refreshment on at length reaching the

secluded retreat of the hospitable saint.

"Surely they find St. Julians inn, which wayfaring men diligently

seek."

(_The Ancren Riwle_--Thirteenth century.)

When we turn from our native bowers to the Aegean _labyrinthos_,

transmitted practically intact from the ancient Greek to most modern

European languages, we are venturing on dangerous ground indeed, for

the derivation of this word has been the subject of much disputation

between rival schools of etymologists and philologists in recent years.

Down to a few decades ago we were content with the bald statement

of most dictionaries that it was probably correlated with the word

_laura_, meaning a passage, or mine,[5] though there was also a

suggestion that it might be of Egyptian origin, viz., that it was

derived from the name of Labaris (= Senusret III), erroneously

conceived by the scribe Manetho to be the founder of the Hawara pile.

Then Mr. Max Mayer put forward the suggestion that it might have some

connection with _labrys_, a word which, in some of the early languages

of Asia Minor, _e.g._, Lydia and Caria, denoted an axe, the axe

being the symbol associated with the god known as Zeus Labrandeus or

Zeus Stratios, the worship of whom was known to have taken place at

Labranda, in Caria. Coins from Mylasa, a neighbouring town, show this

god holding in his hand a double axe.

[5] "Coil-of-rope walk" according to Ruskin (_Fors Clav._).

The stir created by the discovery of double axes in abundance, with

every indication of their religious and symbolic use, during the course

of Sir Arthur Evans's explorations in the traditional home of the

Cretan labyrinth, can therefore be well understood. As a consequence

thereof every self-respecting dictionary nowadays gives pre-eminence

to the _labrys_ derivation of "labyrinth." At the same time it is well

to bear in mind that many learned scholars have seen great difficulty

in accepting this theory, mainly on account of the metathesis, or

change-over, of the _r_ and the _y_ (_u_ in Greek), which was stated to

be unexampled, and to the addition of the termination _-inthos_. With

regard to the latter it now seems to be generally agreed among scholars

that this termination occurs only in words which were assimilated

from the pre-existing peoples of the Aegean lands, whom the Greeks,

as northern invading hordes, overcame and superseded. The suffix is

preserved only, however, in extremely few common nouns (_terebinthos_

= the turpentine tree, _asaminthos_ = a bathing-place), and in a

similarly small number of place-names, such as _Tirynthos_ (Tiryns) and

_Corinthos_ (Corinth). It is the equivalent of the ending _-nda_ in

certain place-names in Asia Minor, _e.g._, _Labranda_.

The conjectures that the word was connected with _labros_, meaning

"great," or that it was derived from the old Egyptian _la-pe-ro-hunt_,

"the temple at the mouth of the reservoir," are hardly worth repeating.

The present position, then, is that the Labyrinth is the House of the

Double Axe, the implication being that the Cretan example was not, as

formerly believed, a miniature reproduction of the temple of Hawara,

but that the latter was actually given the title by analogy with the

building at Knossos.

As regards the use of the word in our own language, it was probably

well known to most of the churchmen of the early and middle ages,

through the medium of the classic authors accessible to them, but it

never passed into common speech. In Chaucer's works, _i.e._, in the

fourteenth century, we find both _maze_ and _labyrinth_ employed;

but whereas the latter evidently refers to the Cretan tradition,

the English word seems to denote some figure familiar to the poet's

readers--perhaps, we may conjecture, in the form of turf mazes.

Thus, in "The Hous of Fame" (line 826, etc.), he says:

"Tho gan I forth with him to goon

Out of the castel, soth to saye,

Tho saugh I stoude in a valeye,

Under the castel, faste by,

An hous, that _domus Dedali_

That _Laborintus_ cleped is,

Nas maed so wonderliche, y-wis

Ne half so queynteliche y-wrought";

and in his "Legend of Ariadne," one of his minor poems, we read (line

125, etc.):

"This wepen shal the gayler, on that tyde,

Ful privily within the prison hyde;

And, for the hous is krinkeled to and fro,

And hath so queinte weyes for to go--

For hit is shapen as the _mase_ is wroght--

Thereto have I a remedie in my thought,

That, by a clewe of twyne, as he hath goon,

The same way he may returne anoon,

Folwing alway the thread, as he hath come."

Seeing that the "hous" here referred to is the Cretan labyrinth

itself, the "mase" with which it is compared must be something

sufficiently familiar to Chaucer's audience to furnish them with a

ready illustration of the nature of the legendary structure which he is

describing and which elsewhere he calls The Labyrinth or the House of

Daedalus.

From very early times the classic authors used the word "labyrinth"

metaphorically, and the mediaeval writers followed them. For instance

Walter, a canon of St. Victor, towards the end of the twelfth century

wrote a work which he called "A Treatise Against the Four Labyrinths

of France," in reference to the great theological work in four books,

known as the "Book of Sentences," a long and very metaphysical

compendium of divinity, by Peter, Bishop of Paris.

In Renaissance times we find the word commonly used as a simile for the

difficulties of life or the vagaries of love.

In Shakespeare's "King Henry VI" (Pt. I, V, Sc. 3) the Earl of Suffolk,

after the exit of the gentle Margaret of Anjou, whose hand he has been

soliciting on behalf of his royal master, exclaims:

"O, wert thou for myself!--But, Suffolk, stay;

Thou mayst not wander in that labyrinth:

There Minotaurs and ugly treasons lurk."

We will notice further examples of this use of the word a little later,

in connection with book-titles.

In "Troilus and Cressida" (Act II, Sc. 3) Thersites bursts into

soliloquy before the tent of Achilles with:

"How now, Thersites! What, lost in the labyrinth of thy fury!"

Milton says that "Lethe, the river of oblivion, rolls her watery

labyrinth," and Pope that "Love in these labyrinths his slaves

detains"; but the occurrence of such expressions in writings of all

periods is too common to need further quotation. We might perhaps

point out that a slight shade of difference may be assumed to exist

between "labyrinth" and "maze," even when these words are used in

their metaphorical sense. We may take "labyrinth" to signify a complex

problem involving merely time and perseverance for its solution,

"maze," on the other hand, being reserved for situations fraught, in

addition, with the elements of uncertainty and ambiguity, calling for

the exercise of the higher mental faculties--in short, we may regard

the two words as having reference respectively to the unicursal and

multicursal types of plan (_see_ Introduction). A distinction of this

kind adds point to a sentence like that which occurs, for instance, in

Mr. Lytton Strachey's "Queen Victoria," where he tells us (p. 178) that

the Prince Consort "attempted to thread his way through the complicated

labyrinth of European diplomacy, and was eventually lost in the maze."

As a means of expressing complexities of outline or of inner structure,

natural or artificial, the word has been adopted by various branches of

science or art. Every student of anatomy knows the "labyrinth" of the

inner ear, every geological tyro has heard of those gigantic amphibians

of Carboniferous to Triassic times whose peculiarly lamellated teeth

have earned for them the title of "labyrinthodonts." Zoologists are

acquainted with those lowly protoplasmic forms of life which, on

account of the mazy net-like appearance assumed at one stage in their

life-history, are called "labyrinthulidea." Even the engineer finds it

convenient to make use of the word, as, for instance, when he speaks

of a "labyrinth-packing" for turbines, an arrangement which allows a

certain amount of lateral motion while ensuring steam-tightness.

We may remark in passing that the names of the artificer Daedalus

and of the winding river Meander have also done duty in scientific

nomenclature in some cases where it was desired to commemorate

labyrinthine characteristics; for example, a pretty little fungus

allied to the _Stereum_ so common on decaying wood has received the

generic title of _Daedalea_, on account of the mazy pattern displayed

by its spore-bearing surface, while the beautiful "brain-stone" coral

is known to the naturalist under the name of _Meandrina_.

Compound words formed with "maze," on the other hand, are usually of

an old-fashioned or local character, such as "Maze-Sunday," which

in Devonshire dialect signifies a Sunday given up to feasting; such

compounds are rarely formed for scientific or technical purposes. The

sheet glass which is obscured by a system of wrinkles on its surface

is, however, sometimes known as "maze-glass."

The word _maze_ is probably of Scandinavian origin. Its oldest

significance seems to be that of a state of bewilderment or confusion,

or of being wrapped in thought--a use which we nowadays regard as

metaphorical. In the Swedish and Norwegian languages are related words

which mean on the one hand to dream, or lounge, or to move about in an

idle or lazy manner, and on the other hand to chatter or indulge in

aimless talk.

Some dictionaries formerly stated that it was derived from an

Anglo-Saxon word _mase_, meaning "a whirlpool," but it has been shown

that there was no such word.

In various dialects it is still used in its original sense. One may

often hear from the older type of country folk such expressions as "It

fair mazed me to see it," giving one the feeling that the syllable

"a-" has been dropped, whereas it was never there. In Shakespeare the

expression frequently occurs. Titania, in "Midsummer Night's Dream"

(Act II, Sc. 2), says:

"... the spring, the summer,

The childing autumn, angry winter, change

Their wonted liveries; and the maz'd world,

By their increase, now knows not which is which."

Talbot of Shrewsbury, in his dire straits before the walls of Bordeaux

("King Henry VI," Pt. I, Act IV, Sc. 2), exclaims:

"O, negligent and heedless discipline!

How are we park'd and bounded in a pale,--

A little herd of England's timorous deer,

Maz'd with a yelping kennel of French curs!"

(See also "King Henry VIII," Act II, Sc. 4, line 185.)

That the word as here quoted has no identity with the word "amazed" is

clear from a comparison of its context with that of the latter in the

numerous instances of its employment by Shakespeare. The verb "to maze"

is found in Chaucer:

"'Ye maze, maze, gode sire,' quod she,

'This thank have I for I have maad yow see.'"

(_The Marchantes Tale_, l. 2387.)

In the sense of crazy, wild, or thoughtless, we find it in the dialect

expressions "Mazed-antic" and "Mazegerry."

As a metaphor it is employed in like manner to its Greek equivalent.

In "The Taming of the Shrew" Petruchio declares: "I have thrust myself

into this maze, Haply to wive and thrive as best I may." "Let us," says

Pope, in the "Essay on Man,"

"Expatiate free o'er all this scene of man,

A mighty maze! but not without a plan."

The term has no connection with the word which we see in, for instance,

Mr. Hall Caine's novel "The Deemster":

"Nine maze--not bad for the first night."

This is a variant of the word _mease_ and denotes a measure of 500

herrings!

Of the etymology of the term "Troy-town" some indications have already

been given in Chapter XVIII. We might, perhaps, in addition, hazard

the guess that the Sanskrit root _dru_ (= run) has some bearing on the

origin of the word so widely associated with the idea of a dance or

ceremonial, but the connection is too obscure to be very helpful.

We might further recall the ancient legend,[6] recorded in Welsh

chronicles going back many centuries before the Christian era, to the

effect that a great-grandson of Aeneas named Prydain, or Brutus, came

over to this country with the Trojan prisoners of war whom he had

helped to liberate from Greece, and with their aid built a city on the

banks of the Temus (Thames), which he called _Caerdroi-Newydd_ (New

City of Troy). This name became corrupted into _Troinovant_--hence the

"Trinobantes" of Caesar's time--and was later discarded in favour of

_Caerludd_, a name given in honour of Lludd, nephew of the Caswallon

who fought against Caesar. The Saxons afterwards corrupted the name

into _Lun-dun_.

[6] Accepted as a historic fact by Mr. E. O. Gordon in his

"Prehistoric London."

As Spenser says ("Faerie Queene," iii, 9):

"For noble Britons sprang from Trojans bold

And Troy-Novant was built of old Troyes ashes cold."

If any reliance could be placed on this old story the Corporation of

London might do well to embody the Labyrinth, or Troy-town, in their

armorial bearings, for what symbol could better typify the complexities

of our metropolis?

CHAPTER XXI

LABYRINTH DESIGN AND SOLUTION OF MAZES

There is no limit to the number of patterns which, without any

metaphorical extension of terms, we may legitimately describe as

coming within the scope of the words "maze" and "labyrinth." In common

speech we use either word to describe any artificial design or natural

pattern presenting a convoluted appearance, or any path or channel

of an intricate nature, but when we come to consider the matter more

carefully we feel the need for some definition. As we have seen, the

dictionaries do not help us much in this respect. Let us, therefore,

decide what limitations we feel compelled to observe in our use of the

terms from the point of view of designers or unravellers of mazes and

labyrinths.

In the first place we must limit ourselves to works of artifice,

_i.e._, we must exclude the "labyrinths" of nature, such as forests,

caverns, and so forth, and agree that any application of our terms to

such objects is to be regarded as strictly metaphorical.

Secondly, we must require, as a practical corollary to our first

condition, that there shall be an element of purposefulness in the

design. The purpose may be the portrayal of the imagined course of the

sun through the heavens, the symbolisation of the folds of sin or of

the Christian's toilsome journey through life, the construction of a

puzzle, or the mere pleasure to be derived from packing the maximum

of path into the minimum of space, but there must be an object of

some sort. The aimless scribblings of an infant, like the trail of an

ink-dipped fly, may in this connection be considered as the fortuitous

meanderings of nature rather than the conscious design of man. By

imposing this condition we exclude the Indian pictograph shown in Fig.

132, which, in the absence of any indication as to its significance,

can only by a loose extension of the term be called a labyrinth.

(Our use of the words "aim," "design," and "purpose" will be quite

clear to everybody but the sciolist dabbling in metaphysics.)

Thirdly, there must be a certain degree of complexity in the design,

a degree which it is manifestly impossible to define as it must be

considered in conjunction with other characteristics in any particular

case. In the case of a unicursal labyrinth, _i.e._, one in which there

is only one path, the complexity lies in the multiplicity of turnings

and the extent of the departure from pure geometrical figures such as

the meander, the zigzag, and the spiral; in the case of a puzzle-figure

it lies partly in this but partly also in the number and disposition

of branch-paths. It naturally follows that in a unicursal design there

cannot be absolute symmetry, although, with a little ingenuity, a very

pleasing _appearance_ of symmetry may be obtained.

Fourthly, there must be communication between the component parts of

the design; in other words, the path must be continuous. This does not

preclude the occurrence in the design of closed "islands," but only

makes it clear that such inclusions do not form part of the labyrinth

proper.

Fifthly, there must be communication between the interior and the

exterior. We might not altogether withhold the application of the term

"labyrinth" or "maze" in the case of a closed design, but we should

have to qualify it, _e.g._, by prefixing the word "closed." In the

case of the beautiful and intricate mosaic pavement found in the _Casa

del Labirinto_ at Pompeii mentioned on page 46, for example, although

we know that the pattern was intended to convey an allusion to the

Cretan labyrinth, we cannot look upon it as a true labyrinth design;

not only is there no communication with the exterior, but by its

repetition of purely geometrical design it fails to satisfy our third

condition.

If the reader chooses to formulate for himself a working definition

based on the above remarks he is at liberty to do so, but he may take

for granted that nobody else will accept it. However, he will have

gained, at any rate, a clearer conception of the matter than he would

perhaps have gathered from any dictionary.

We have seen that mazes and labyrinths may be roughly divided into

two types as regards the principle of their design, namely, into

_unicursal_ and _multicursal_ types, or, as some say, into "non-puzzle"

and "puzzle" types respectively. The word "unicursal" has hitherto

been chiefly used by mathematicians to describe a class of problems

dealing with the investigation of the shortest route between two given

points or of the method of tracing a route between two points in a

given figure without covering any part of the ground more or less than

once (_e.g._, the well-known "bridge" problems), but there is no reason

why we should not apply the adjective "unicursal" (= "single course"

or "once run") to denote those figures which consist of a single

unbranched path, using the term "multicursal" as its complement, or

antonym. We must not draw too hard a line between these two types; for

instance, we could not reasonably insist that the turf maze at Wing

(Fig. 60) is multicursal simply on account of the dichotomy of its path

to form the central loop. Where the loop is itself relatively large and

complex, as in the Poitiers example (Fig. 55), there are better grounds

for doing so, but it is plain that in such cases the point is one to be

decided by common-sense.

Let us consider a little further the various _forms_ of labyrinth

design and make some sort of a classification.

In the first place we may observe that a labyrinth (using this word,

for convenience, as embracing "maze") may be arranged in one plane, as

we commonly see it on a sheet of paper, or it may be disposed in two or

more intercommunicating planes, like the Egyptian labyrinth or a block

of flats. We may thus classify all labyrinths, for a start, as either

two-dimensional or three-dimensional. As the vast majority belong to

the first class and as, moreover, every subdivision of the first class

may be applied equally to the second, we need say no more concerning

the latter except to remark that the complexity of a garden maze may be

greatly increased, if desired, by introducing tunnels or bridges, thus

converting it into a three-dimensional maze.

Another general grouping of labyrinths would be into "compact" and

"diffuse" types, the former having, in a typical case, the whole of its

area occupied by the convolutions of its path and its bounding walls,

the latter having spaces between the bounding walls of the various

sections of the path, such spaces having no communication with the path

itself. Amongst unicursal labyrinths the Alkborough specimen (Fig.

59) exemplifies the compact type and the Pimperne maze (Fig. 63) the

diffuse type.

The Hampton Court maze (Fig. 111) may serve as the type of a compact

and the Versailles example (Fig. 88) that of a diffuse multicursal

labyrinth.

With regard to the nature of the path itself, we may distinguish

broadly between labyrinths with curved and those with straight paths,

allowing for an intermediate "mixed" group in which part of the path is

curved and part straight. Examples of each kind will be found amongst

the figures given.

Multicursal mazes, again, may be subdivided according to the manner of

branching of the path, _e.g._, according to whether the branches are

simple or subdivided (the occurrence of more than one branch at any

point may be considered as the case of a subdivided branch), whether

the branches do or do not rejoin the main path, forming "loops," and

whether--a rather important point as regards the solution of the

maze--the "goal" is or is not situated within a loop.

Finally we may create separate classes for those mazes in which there

are two or more equivalent routes between the entrance and the goal,

those which have two or more entrances, and those in which there is no

distinct goal (_e.g._, the Versailles maze) or in which there are two

or more equivalent goals.

We can represent the branch system of any labyrinth whatever in a very

simple manner by means of a straight-line diagram, wherein the paths of

the labyrinth are represented by lines, to scale if need be, branches

being shown to the left or right respectively of the main straight

line representing the shortest path from the entrance to the goal. It

will be seen that no account is taken of the actual orientation or of

changes of direction of any part of the path.

A unicursal labyrinth will thus be represented by a single straight

line. Figs. 136 and 137 represent, roughly to scale, the Hampton Court

and Hatfield mazes respectively and should be compared with those shown

in Figs. 111 and 87. Triangles and discs may be used, as shown, to

indicate entrances and goals respectively.

Such diagrams as these are just as useful as the actual plans of the

mazes for the purpose of serving as a clue for the visitor; in fact,

they are really more easily followed.

Amongst the many speculations that have from time to time been made

regarding the origin and significance of the design on the Knossian

coins, the suggestion was made by a contributor to _Knowledge_ about

thirty years ago--somewhat similar theories having been expounded by

a German writer a decade earlier--that this figure was a simplified

diagram comparable with the diagrams described above. According to this

conception the figure was intended as a clue to the actual labyrinth,

the designs on the coins being perhaps copied from those on "souvenir"

tokens issued by the priests or curators of the edifice, and indicated

the right path to be taken, all other paths being omitted. By splitting

the circular dividing walls so as to form a passage of the same

width as the path shown in the figure, a maze of much more intricate

appearance was arrived at, which, it was thought, might bear some

resemblance to the form of the original labyrinth.

[Illustration: FIG. 136.--Straight-line Diagram, Hampton Court Maze.]

[Illustration: FIG. 137.--Straight-line Diagram, Hatfield Maze.]

On the other hand, Dr. E. Krause, in a book of about the same

date, showed how the Knossian design and certain other unicursal

figures might be derived from a series of concentric circles, with

interruptions along a radial line like the figures in the northern rock

engravings described in Chapter XVII, by means of one or two simple

methods of cross-connection (Figs. 138 and 139).

Such speculations give food for thought, but we must remember that so

far they _are_ speculations and not statements of fact.

The use of the straight-line diagrams suggested above may be found

helpful not only as a means of facilitating the study of an existing

labyrinth, but also to some extent in designing a new one. It is not

necessary to describe here in detail how to design a maze:

"It is purely a matter of skill,

Which all may attain if they will,"

and, like most tasks requiring simply common-sense, patience, and

practice, it is much more trouble to explain than to perform. As

regards the design of hedge mazes, the fact that the circumstances are

hardly ever alike in any two actual cases gives plenty of scope for

individuality and ingenuity. The space allowed may be strictly limited,

or it may be of an awkward shape. The materials available for the walls

may vary widely in character according to the space they require for

their proper growth and maintenance, and thus affect the amount of

path-area.

[Illustration: FIGS. 138 and 139.--Derivation of Labyrinth Types from

Rock-engraving Figures. (After Krause.)]

There are one or two points which are of general application and should

be borne in mind. For instance, if the object of the designer is to

provide a maze which shall offer a fair amount of puzzledom without

imposing undue fatigue on the visitor, he must take care that the

nearest route from the centre to the exterior be neither too long nor

too short. If the space to be covered by the maze is large the tendency

to over-elaboration of the design must be avoided.

Another feature which is likely to spoil an otherwise good design is

the inclusion of long stretches of path without bend or branching;

these are tedious and annoying, especially when they have to be

retraced by reason of their leading into a _cul-de-sac_.

In a large maze it is well to relieve monotony by means of occasional

variations in the mode of treatment of the hedge, the introduction of

arbours, statues, etc.; but these should not be of such a character as

to defeat one of the main objects of the design by providing easy clues.

If the maze is intended to be seen at all from above, some attempt

should be made to introduce a symmetrical and artistic element into

its design. Usually some vantage-point is available from which an

attendant or expert can observe and direct over-bewildered visitors,

but if this point be accessible to the visitors themselves the hedges

should be provided with pinnacles or balks, here and there, to prevent

the observer from solving the puzzle by unfair means. This is the

case with, for instance, the Saffron Walden maze; at Hampton Court,

where there are no balks, only the attendant is permitted to mount the

rostrum.

The "solution" of mazes means the discovery of a route to their

"goal." (This word is preferable to "centre," as the object of quest

is not necessarily at the geometrical centre of the maze, but may be

considerably removed from it.)

It would be going too far to say the _shortest_ route, as this would

be discoverable only from the plan or by prolonged experience, but the

goal in any maze will on the average be reached more certainly and

quickly by observing a little method than by fortuitous wandering.

The subject of the solution of mazes has been examined by various

mathematicians, in their lighter moods, but we need not burden

ourselves with more than a few simple considerations.

In most cases it is not practicable to adopt a system of marking the

various paths as we reach them, but if this be permitted we can so

arrange our marks that we need never traverse any portion of the path

more than twice--_i.e._, once in each direction--so that in any finite

maze we must eventually arrive at the goal, though not necessarily by

the shortest route.

Using the word _node_ to signify a point of branching, and the terms

_odd_ and _even_ to describe respectively those nodes at which odd or

even numbers of paths are to be found, we see that there must be at

least three paths meeting at a point to form a node, for two paths

meeting at a point constitute only a change of direction of the path

without formation of branches, whilst the arrival of one path only at

a point also precludes the idea of "branching" at that point, and can

only occur at the end of a blind alley, at the entrance of the maze,

or at the goal. We find it convenient, however, to regard the latter

arrangement as an odd node of the lowest order, the lowest possible

order of even nodes being, of course, that at the meeting of four paths.

It will be clear that if the entrance and the goal are the only odd

nodes the maze will either be unicursal, in the sense in which we have

been using the term, or any branches must form loops on the main route;

in either case it will be possible to traverse the maze unicursally,

_i.e._, to thread every portion of the path without going over any part

twice.

Supposing that we are able to make what marks we like, without danger

of their removal in our absence, we can adopt the following plan:

On arriving at a node which, by the absence of marks, you know you have

not already visited, mark the path by which you have just arrived by

three marks; if you see by marks on other paths that you have already

been to that node, mark the arrival path with one mark only. If now

there are no unmarked paths at this node, it means that you have

explored this particular branch-system and must retrace your steps by

the path by which you have arrived. If, however, there are one or more

unmarked paths leading from the node, select one of them, and, as you

enter it, mark it with two marks.

We can now make certain of visiting every part of the maze if we make

it a rule that, on arrival at a node, we shall never take a path with

three marks unless there are no paths unmarked or with one mark only.

When we enter a one-mark path, we of course add the two marks which we

always make on leaving a node, and thus it becomes a three-mark path at

that node.

When it is impracticable to place marks, or even to use, like Theseus,

a clue of thread, it is still possible in the majority of cases to make

certain of finding the goal by the simple expedient of placing one

hand on the hedge on entering the maze, and consistently following the

hedge around, keeping contact all the time with the same hand. Blind

turnings present no difficulty, as they will only be traversed first in

one direction and then in the other. The traveller being guided by his

contact with the hedge alone is relieved of all necessity for making a

choice of paths when arriving at the nodes.

The only case in which this method breaks down is that in which the

goal is situated anywhere within a loop. Where this occurs the explorer

adopting the method described will discover the fact by finding himself

eventually back at the starting-point without having visited the goal.

He must then adopt different tactics, but unless it is practicable

to use a clue or a system of marks like that detailed above there is

no rule that will help him. One may, of course, thread the maze by

remembering a formula of some sort applicable to that particular maze,

_e.g._, in the case of Hampton Court, "Left, right, right, left, left,

left, left," but this is equivalent to having a plan of the maze.

Such mnemonics, unless perfectly retained, are apt to prove more of a

nuisance than a help.

Can anybody who has once yielded to the exuberant mirth of "Three Men

in a Boat" forget the predicament of the over-confident Harris when he

volunteered to conduct a party, strangers as well, through the Hampton

Court maze? "We'll just go in here," he said, "so that you can say

you've been, but it's very simple. It's absurd to call it a maze. You

keep on taking the first turning to the right. We'll just walk round

for ten minutes and then go and get some lunch." Poor Harris!

CHAPTER XXII

THE LABYRINTH IN LITERATURE

The romantic and mysterious flavour of the words "maze" and "labyrinth"

has induced many a writer of fiction to adopt one or the other as the

theme of a story, or as the setting of some of the action in a story,

or else to use the name as an attractive symbolical title for a work.

We have several times already had occasion to refer to instances

of this kind in the course of our survey, but the reader may have

sufficient patience to support the enumeration of a few more, not by

any means exhaustive, examples.

In most cases where the words are used in book-titles it is perhaps the

allegorical rather than the romantic element which is in requisition,

though truly the two are never far apart.

The Spanish poet Juan de Mena, in the fifteenth century, was inspired

by Dante's "Divina Commedia" to compose a ponderous allegorical poem

which he named "El Laberinto." This was published in Seville in

1496 and was a queer mixture of theology, astrology, and universal

history. In it the poet is shown as being guided by a beautiful woman,

symbolising Divine Providence, through three vast concentric circular

regions, representing respectively the past, the present, and the

future. These are somehow involved with the seven planets, after which

the seven divisions of the poem are named.

No doubt there were at that time many folk to whom such a work made a

strong appeal, but it was evidently not the kind of book that we should

nowadays choose to take away for a holiday.

A few years after its publication a French bard, Jean Bouchet by name,

jealous perhaps for the reputation of his native art, cast upon the

astonished world a mythical epic of between four and five thousand

verses, entitled "Le Labyrinthe de Fortune." In this case the guide

is a female representing Illusion, and her aim seems to have been to

impress the poet, and through him the less gifted mortals, with the

total instability and evanescence of everything pertaining to humanity.

An "allegorical labyrinth" printed at Lyons in 1769--the period, it

will be remembered, at which some of the finest cathedral labyrinths

were destroyed--must have been the ancestor of some of the Sunday

School pictures of our early youth. It depicted "the spiritual

labyrinth ornamented with four channels of grace representing (_a_) the

four rivers of the Earthly Paradise and the happy state of Man before

the Fall; (_b_) by divers convolutions, the various miseries with which

human life has since been beset; (_c_) by the fact of the labyrinth

terminating at the same point as that from which it starts, we see how

Man, being formed of earth, returns, as to his first principle, by the

decay of the body; (_d_) the health-giving waters of these channels

represent the grace of God in which the depraved soul finds its

remedy." This pious chart is signed "BELION _fecit_."

The curious jumble of crude imagery shown in Fig. 140 is reproduced

from the heading to a long set of allegorical verses in German,

published about 1630. The King referred to in the title is thought to

be Frederick I of Bohemia.

[Illustration: Fig. 140. Allegorical Labyrinth. (German Print, _circ._

1630)]

When touching upon the question of etymology we made reference to

the theological "Treatise against the Four Labyrinths of France," by

Walter of St. Victor. We find the word used in this sense of verbal

or mental entanglements in theological matters as the title of a book

written some five centuries later by Thomas Carwell (_alias_ Thorold).

The full title of this work, which was printed in Paris in 1658, is:

"Labyrinthus Cantuarensis; or Doctor Lawd's Labyrinth. Beeing an answer

to the late Archbishop of Canterburies relation of a conference between

himself and Mr. Fisher, etc. Wherein the true grounds of the Roman

Catholique religion are asserted, the principall controuersies betwixt

Catholiques and Protestants thoroughly examined, and the Bishops

meandrick windings throughout his whole worke layd open to publique

view."

"Labyrinthus," according to Hazlitt's Bibliographical Collections, was

the name of a Latin comedy performed at Cambridge before King James I.

Perhaps this had some connection with that play which Pepys mentions in

his Diary on May 2, 1684: "By coach to the King's Playhouse to see 'The

Labyrinth' ... the poorest play, methinks, that ever I saw, there being

nothing in it but the odd accidents that fell out, by a lady's being

bred up in man's apparel and a man in a woman's."

In some cases the use of the word "labyrinth" in a book-title seems to

suggest that the term was regarded as an equivalent for "Thesaurus"

or "Compendium of Knowledge" in respect of any particular branch of

learning. This is the case in the "Gardener's Labyrinth" of Didymus

Mountayne (Thomas Hill), to which we referred in Chapter XIII. The

title has no reference to the discourse on mazes which occupies a

small section of the book, but simply means the gardener's book of

instructions or _vade mecum_. Much the same meaning is conveyed also

by the title of a rather earlier book, the "Labyrinthus Medicorum

Errantium" or "Labyrinth of Lost Physicians," which was one of the

last works of the great Swiss doctor and alchemist Paracelsus, and

was published in 1553, twelve years after his death. The Polish

educational reformer Komensky, better known as Comenius (1592-1671),

likewise published a "Labyrinthus" of this kind. An English translation

of it was printed early in the present century under the title of "The

Labyrinth of the World and the Paradise of the Heart."

The "Labyrinthus" or "Laborintus" ascribed to the monk Eberhard of

Bethune, who wrote in A.D. 1212 or thereabouts, is an elaborate and

critical treatise on poetry and pedagogics; it is alternatively

entitled "De Miseriis Rectorum Scholarum," and its reiterated plaints

on the woes of the schoolmaster should find an echo in the heart of

many a present-day instructor of youth.

"_Love_ in these labyrinths his slaves detains," sang Pope; but he was

only making use of an old and well-worn metaphor, which we mention at

the moment because it has so often figured in book-titles. In 1593 Dr.

G. Fletcher, uncle of the dramatist, wrote a poem of ingenious form

entitled "A Lover's Maze." A similar title, "Love in a Maze," was given

by Shirley to one of his plays, a performance of which was witnessed by

Pepys on May 22, 1662. "The play hath little in it," says Pepys, "but

Lacy's part of a country fellow, which he did to admiration." In 1611

a suite of poems entitled "Le Labyrinthe d'Amour" was published by a

French poet, who modestly veiled his identity behind the initials "H.

F. S. D. C." A century and a half later another French writer, equally

retiring--his initials were "T. M."--wrote an _opéra comique_ of the

same name.

One would almost think that there was something shameful or dangerous

in allowing one's identity to be revealed in connection with works

bearing such titles, for we find the same desire for anonymity in the

writer of some poems entitled "The Maze" which appeared in 1815, headed

by a quotation from Cowper:

"... to and fro,

Caught in a labyrinth you go."

That the maze or labyrinth has not lost its favour as either a

descriptive or a metaphorical book-title is testified by the numerous

modern examples of its use, amongst which we may mention Mrs. Henry

Wood's "Within the Maze," "The Maze of Scilly," by E. J. Tiddy, "The

Maze," by A. L. Stewart, "The Labyrinth," by R. Murray Gilchrist

(perhaps in this case the reference is to the rambling old House with

Eleven Staircases which features largely in the book), and finally,

as an instance of undeniable descriptiveness, "The Physiology of the

Human Labyrinth," by S. Scott. We have already made mention of O. W. F.

Lodge's play, "The Labyrinth," when speaking of Fair Rosamond (Chap.

XIX). The same title has recently been bestowed on one of a series of

fanciful prose sketches by Mr. Martin Armstrong published collectively

as "The Puppet Show."

The Italian aviator-poet Gabriele d'Annunzio, whose inconvenient

conception of patriotism has proved such a source of embarrassment

to his country since the war, has adopted as a most attractive and

appropriate cover-design for his novel "Forse che si, forse che no"

("Perhaps yes, perhaps no") a conventional square unicursal labyrinth,

the path of which is occupied by several repetitions, in block

capitals, of the title of the book. The title on the wrapper of a

recent novel by Miss Isabel Ostrander is accompanied by an effective

design in which a female figure is seen against a background consisting

of a plan of the Hampton Court maze.

Mr. Rudyard Kipling, in that curious collection of inconsequential

whimsicalities which he calls the "Just so Stories," shows a queer sort

of labyrinthine contrivance in his illustration to the story of "The

Crab that Played," referring to it in the text as "the Big MizMaze."

Lest any reader who happens to be unacquainted with Sir A. T.

Quiller-Couch's novel "Troy Town" should be misled by the title into

antiquarian expectations, we may as well remark that it has no more

connection with "turf mazes" than had the famous racehorse of the

same name that came to a sad end in 1920--even less, in a manner of

speaking. It has reference to the same Cornish seaport as his "Mayor

of Troy," that Mayor who was so popular with the townsfolk that in the

next year they made him an Ex-Mayor.

The vogue of allegory and extravagant symbolism which flourished in the

sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was evidenced by the appearance of

numbers of little books of "emblems," mainly based upon those of Andrea

Alciati (1492-1550), and, as might well be expected, the labyrinth

furnished many an inspiration to the compilers of these works. The

emblem books of the Dutchman Jacob Cats, for example, and of our own

poet Francis Quarles (1592-1644), were, like those of Alciati himself,

enormously popular and ran through very many editions, not only in the

native tongues of their authors but in most of the languages of Europe.

We have already, in Chapter XII, drawn attention to a labyrinth-emblem

in the collection of the French writer Claude Paradin. A labyrinth of a

different type appears in the "Emblems" of Quarles (_e.g._, in the 1635

edition, bk. iv, no. 2). In this case we are shown a woman walking away

from the centre of what looks like a tall hedge maze, which has its

path on the top of the hedge! With one hand she holds a staff and in

the other a cord, the distant end of which is held by an angel located

at the summit of a round tower some way off. A winding path proceeds

from this tower to the gateway of the labyrinth. Here and there one

sees unfortunate beings who are slipping from the wall into the deep

crevasses below. A quotation from the Psalms, in Latin and in English,

accompanies this figure: "Oh that my Wayes were directed to keep Thy

Statutes." The labyrinth shown in most of the other emblem-books, where

one occurs at all, is a very poor affair and looks rather like a low,

flat fortress or an inverted cake-tin. A more realistic arrangement,

however, appears in the collection of Jacob Cats.

The Hampton Court maze has more than once figured in literature. One

appearance we have already noticed at the end of the preceding chapter;

another, of a totally different character, we cull from the _British

Magazine_ for 1747. Few people, one would imagine, look upon a visit

to this popular resort as an occasion for melancholy meditations, or

for chanting moral dirges, but a foreigner might well be excused for

reading the following lines as a justification of the reproach that

Englishmen take their pleasures sadly.

_Reflections on Walking in the Maze at Hampton Court._

"What is this mighty labyrinth--the earth,

But a wild maze the moment of our birth?

Still as we life pursue the maze extends,

Nor find we where each winding purlieu ends;

Crooked and vague each step of life we tread,--

Unseen the danger, we escape the dread!

But with delight we through the labyrinth range,

Confused we turn, and view each artful change--

Bewildered, through each wild meander bend

Our wandering steps, anxious to gain the end;

Unknown and intricate, we still pursue

A certain path, uncertain of the clue;

Like hoodwinked fools, perplex'd we grope our way

And during life's short course we blindly stray,

Puzzled in mazes and perplex'd with fears;

Unknown alike both heaven and earth appears.

Till at the last, to banish our surprise,

Grim Death unbinds the napkin from our eyes.

Then shall Gay's truth and wisdom stand confest,

And _Death_ will shew us _Life_ was but a jest."

This genial gem should be engraved on brass and stuck up at the

entrance to ensure that visitors, especially those of tender age, may

enter the maze in the right spirit!

Scarcely more cheerful is the view regarding mazes taken by "The Poet"

in Alfred Austin's "The Garden that I Love," where he speaks of

"tragic gardens, with dark avenues of intertwisted ilexes

immeasurably old, where there might be lurking the emissary of an

ambitious d'Este; gloomy labyrinths of mediaeval yew concealing the

panther-spring of a vindictive Sforza or the self-handled stiletto of

a fratricidal Borgia...."

And again:

"_Had I a garden, claustral yews

Should shut out railing wind,

That Poets might on sadness muse

With a majestic mind._"

If space permitted, or if any useful purpose were served, a good

deal more might be written concerning the Labyrinth in relation to

Literature. Similarly, the Labyrinth in Art might form the subject

of a fairly bulky volume. A considerable amount of space could be

taken up with the speculations that have been made as to the probable

relationship of the Knossian design to the Cross, the Swastika--with

its variants, the Triskelion and the Tetraskelion--the Circle, the

Spiral, and so forth; but the reader who thirsts for discussions

of this nature must be referred to more specialised archaeological

literature. The main points of interest with regard to the use of the

labyrinth figure in Art have already been presented, and most of the

lines along which the labyrinth idea has been elaborated have been

indicated, either in the text or in the illustrations. Before finally

taking leave of our theme, however, there are yet a few miscellaneous

aspects of it at which we may take a glance.

CHAPTER XXIII

MISCELLANEA AND CONCLUSION

In the _Annales Archéologiques_ for 1857 it was stated that M.

Bonnin, of Evreux, had collected no less than 200 designs of mazes or

labyrinths, representative of all sorts of nations and periods, and

the editor promised to make a selection of these for reproduction as

soon as the text to accompany them should be ready. The editor of the

_Annales_ incidentally referred to an early sixteenth-century painting

on wood, in the palace of the Marquis Campana, which represented the

legend of Theseus and showed a labyrinth similar to that of St. Maria

in Aquiro at Rome. This also was to have been illustrated at the same

time. The matter seems to have rested there, however, for no subsequent

reference appeared.

As an instance of the unlikely places in which the employment of

labyrinth figures for decorative or symbolic purposes are sometimes

found, we may quote an entry which occurs in an inventory of the

contents of a house at Duffus, Morayshire, dated May 25, 1708, from

which it would appear that household napery, at that time, was

sometimes patterned with the labyrinth:

"_In the Nurserie._ A large neprie press, wherein there is six pair

Scots holland sheits ... three fyn towels and five of the walls of

troy."

Mr. Albert Way, in his notes to Dr. Trollope's memoir on Labyrinths in

1858, after referring to the popularity of mazes and "Troy-towns" in

Scotland, mentions a labyrinth incised on the stone bench in one of the

window recesses of the hall at Craigmillar Castle.

According to a Swedish publication of 1877, labyrinths have been found

in West Gothland engraved on church bells!

The hedge maze is, of course, the chief embodiment of the labyrinth

idea as a medium of amusement, but it is far from being the only form

in which the principle subserves this purpose.

We have already referred to the practice, noted in various parts of

England and Wales, of cutting "Troy-towns" in the turf. Most of us

are, moreover, familiar with the schoolboy pastime of drawing mazes on

paper, or on slates in the days before they were banished on hygienic

grounds; the object of the designer in this case differing from that

of the Troy-town constructors in that it consists of providing as

difficult a puzzle as one's ingenuity at the moment can devise, whereas

the latter merely laid out a conventional unicursal figure for the

purpose of performing a ceremonial or playing a game thereon, like the

squares for nine-men's morris or the diagram for hop-scotch.

An ingenious development of the hedge maze principle is the

construction of indoor mazes lined with mirrors, by means of which

the perplexity of the visitor is very greatly increased. Such "mirror

mazes" often find a place in fairs and exhibitions.

[Illustration:

[_Photo: W. H. M._

Fig. 141. Sea-Side Sand Maze.]

[Illustration:

[_Photo: W. H. M._

Fig. 142. Sea-Side Sand Maze.]

Another method of utilising the puzzle-maze idea, and one which

constitutes a valuable asset to the parent or nurse in charge of young

children at the sea-side, is that of scratching maze-figures on the

sands, of sufficient dimensions to enable little feet to perambulate

the paths. Figures 141 and 142 show some of the mazes constructed

on the sands of a well-known southern resort in the summer of 1920.

The examples shown were made in a quiet corner of the beach and were

"snapped" before the children had discovered them; otherwise,

although no doubt prettier pictures would have resulted, the mazes

would have been invisible.

[Illustration: FIG. 143.--Temporary Maze at Village Fête. (W. H. M.)]

Figure 143 shows the plan of a small temporary maze constructed by

the writer for a garden fête held in aid of local church funds in the

grounds of Mr. Kenneth Goschen, at Eastcote, Middlesex, on May 25,

1921. It was formed of galvanised-wire netting supported on six-foot

fir stakes and thickened with elm foliage. At the entrance was

displayed a conventional labyrinth design, slightly modified to convey

the misleading suggestion that it was a key to the maze, and below this

were the following lines:

Beware the dreadful Minotaur

That dwells within the Maze.

The monster feasts on human gore

And bones of those he slays.

Then softly through the labyrinth creep

And rouse him not to strife.

Take one short peep, prepare to leap

_And run to save your life!_

At the goal was placed a chair facing an embowered mirror.

Some readers may remember the publication many years ago of highly

coloured lithographs of mazes, of bizarre design, generally emanating

from the Continent and sold for a penny or twopence. An old scrap-book

seen by the writer contains some specimens of this nature, published

in Brussels. In some the "nodes" are occupied by various objects

which, according to the printed instructions, have to be visited in a

given order. One design, generously tinted in all the colours of the

spectrum, is labelled "Le Jardin Chinois," although there is nothing

distinctively Chinese about it except the absence of all resemblance

to anything European. One may still purchase in the toy-shops coloured

labyrinths of this kind, mounted on cardboard, with spaces at various

points of the path for the accommodation of counters, which are moved

progressively in accordance with the throws of dice by the competing

players.

Some very ingenious applications of the labyrinth idea have been

evolved by modern designers of toys and games.

[Illustration: FIG. 144.--Maze Toy by A. Brentano. (After Patent

Specification.)]

Perhaps the most popular toy of this nature on the market is that

of the "Pigs in Clover" type, consisting of a series of concentric

interrupted circular walls, the innermost of which constitutes the goal

into which the player strives to roll all the marbles--usually three in

number--which are seen through the glass cover (Fig. 144). This toy was

patented by A. Brentano in 1889. Some skill is required to get all the

marbles into the central compartment at the same time. Another toy of

this character is seen in Fig. 145. It consists of a rather complicated

maze formed of ridges, between which the player rolls a ball or a

globule of mercury from the point marked A to that marked B, or _vice

versa_. This was patented by S. D. Nix in 1891.

A somewhat similar arrangement, but with the addition of magnetism as

the motive force, is that devised by J. M. Arnot in 1894, and shown in

Fig. 146. In this case the maze is not flat but is in the form of a

shallow dome; the balls are of iron and are rolled not by tilting the

box but by moving a magnet beneath it.

[Illustration: FIG. 145.--Maze Toy by S. D. Nix. (After Patent

Specification.)]

R. A. Cuthbert and W. Bevitt patented in 1889 a toy in which a ball,

called "The Man in the Maze," is rolled about inside a small closed

box, the internal partitions of which cannot be seen but are indicated

on the outside of the case. The "Man" is invisible during his journey.

At about the same time a somewhat similar toy was brought out by J.

Proctor, in which, however, the travelling ball can be watched through

the glass top, the puzzle element in this case consisting of the use

of circular holes of two sizes for communicating between adjacent

compartments, one size being just large enough to permit of the passage

of the ball, the other just too small (Fig. 147).

[Illustration: FIG. 146.--Maze Toy by J. M. Arnot. (After Patent

Specification.)]

[Illustration: FIG. 147.--Maze Toy by J. Proctor. (After Patent

Specification.)]

The most complex puzzle of the kind so far produced is that patented by

H. Bridge in 1906 and shown in Fig. 148. The ball in this case is made

to pass through channels formed between projections of labyrinthine

pattern fixed to a base and others fixed to the transparent top, which

can be moved relatively to the base. The toy may be of a circular

pattern or rectangular. In the former case the top is rotated, in the

latter it is slid from side to side. The patent also covers cases in

which the toy is constructed on the "skeleton" principle, the use of a

ring in place of a ball, and the combination of more than two mazes.

[Illustration: FIG. 148.--Maze Toy by H. Bridge. (After Patent

Specification.)]

It now remains for some inventor of Einsteinian proclivities to devise

one in several dimensions!

An interesting little study in what one might call "Labyrinth

Psychology" was carried out by an Austrian biologist in connection with

his researches on "The Evolution of Efficiency in the Animal Kingdom,"

in 1917. This was a series of experiments to test the efficiency of

animals in learning to thread a labyrinth in search of food. Figs.

149, 150 and 151 show three stages in the education of a rat in this

respect, the dotted line representing the track followed by the animal

from the entrance to the food-containing centre of a simple form of

labyrinth.

[Illustration: FIGS. 149, 150 and 151.--Path of Rat in Labyrinth; three

stages. (Szymanski.)]

Some sort of game, known as "Labyrinthe," enjoyed a passing favour in

France in the eighteenth century. An advertisement of May 8, 1869,

referring to one offered for sale by a Parisian upholsterer named

Lechevin, describes it as "un jeu de labyrinthe a 11 cases doré d'or

moulu, avec tableau dans chaque case," but this does not tell us much

concerning the nature of the pastime.

A card game of similar name was played in this country half a century

ago; it was a kind of bezique.

In France the name "Labyrinthe" is also given to a children's game

in which the majority of the players hold hands so as to form a chain

of arches which are threaded by two runners called respectively _le

tisserand_ and _la navette_--"the weaver" and "the shuttle."

A visitor to the Latin Convent on the summit of Mount Carmel,

Palestine, in 1874, described a "verbal labyrinth" which he saw

displayed on a board hanging on the wall of an inner staircase. It

was called "The Labyrinth of St. Bernard," and consisted of a number

of words or short phrases arranged in a square, as shown below. By

selecting the words in the proper order five maxims are obtained "by

which man may live well." The first of these maxims, commencing with

the word at the foot of the left-hand column, is: _Noli dicere omnia

quae scis quia qui dicit omnia quae scit saepe audit quod non vult_.

The remaining four injunctions may be read by similarly utilising the

words in the bottom row with those in the second, third, fourth, and

fifth rows respectively:

LABYRINTHUS A DIVO BERNARDO

COMPOSITUS QUO BENE VIVIT HOMO

---------------------------------------------------------

DICERE SCIS DICIT SCIT AUDIT NON VULT

---------------------------------------------------------

FACERE POTES FACIT POTEST INCURRIT NON CREDIT

---------------------------------------------------------

CREDERE AUDIS CREDIT AUDIT CREDIT NON EST

---------------------------------------------------------

DARE HABES DAT HABET MISERE NON HABET

QUAERIT

---------------------------------------------------------

JUDICARE VIDES JUDICAT VIDET CONTEMNIT NON DEBET

---------------------------------------------------------

NOLI OMNIA QUIA OMNIA SAEPE QUOD

QUAE QUI QUAE

---------------------------------------------------------

As a sample of a verbal labyrinth this seems to be very simple and

straightforward in comparison with the average Act of Parliament.

Let us turn now, for a brief space, to a question which, although

bearing upon matters dealt with earlier in the book, has been too

little investigated to warrant more than a nodding reference in our

more serious chapters--the question of place-names.

The occurrence of a suggestive place-name is, as previously hinted,

very slender evidence by itself on which to form an opinion of the

former existence of a maze in the locality. There is always the

possibility that the name may be a corruption of some ancient word of

very different significance, perhaps the name of some person, or that

it may have been bestowed fancifully or in respect of some resemblance

to another place.

In the absence of fuller information we will limit ourselves to the

bare mention of such names as convey a suggestion of possible maze

sites, merely remarking any cases in which evidence in one direction or

the other has come to notice.

The district known as Maze Pond, familiar to Londoners in the

neighbourhood of the Borough, and to which we made reference in Chapter

XV, takes its name from the ancient manor of the Maze, which was in the

holding of Sir John Burcestre in the fifteenth century. An old token

bears the inscription, "Michael Blower, at ye Maze, Southwarke." What

kind of maze, if any, formerly existed in the locality we do not know.

Maze Hill has sometimes been assumed to derive its name from a maze

which is supposed to have existed in the park of the former royal

palace of Greenwich (see p. 136), but the name was formerly spelt in

a different manner and may have quite another origin. In Hasted's

"History of Kent," 1778, it is referred to as Mease Hill, and it has

been suggested that this may have come from the Celtic word _Maes_,

meaning "field." There is a Maze Green in Hertfordshire, near Bishops

Stortford. Possibly there was formerly a turf maze in the vicinity

like that on Saffron Walden common, not very far away, but we have no

evidence to that effect.

A few miles west of Lisburn, in Ireland, are two places named

respectively "The Maze" and "Mazetown," the former a small village in

Antrim, the latter a racing centre just over the county border in Down.

"Troy-town," as we have seen, also occurs as a place-name. In Dorset

there is one near Dorchester and another near Bere Regis. These are

alleged to be the sites of former turf mazes, of which, however, there

are no authentic records. In Kent there is one near Hastingleigh, and

the name also occurs at Rochester.[7] The latter is said to commemorate

a former owner or builder of property in that part of the town, whose

name happened to be Troy. A part of Peckham also used to be known as

Troy-town.

[7] See also p. 91.

The word "Troy" alone is also of fairly frequent occurrence, as for

instance near Stalybridge, Lancs, and near Londonderry; Troy Michell

and Troy Hall are found in Monmouthshire, and the latter name also

at Blackburn, Lancs, but such names are no more likely to have any

connection with ancient maze sites than is the flourishing city of

similar name in the United States, the probability being that in all

these cases it is the famous Troy of the Iliad that furnished the

inspiration. The name of Troy-town may in some cases have been given on

account of irregularity or intricacy of design, for the word is found

in certain local dialects as a synonym for a state of confusion, an

untidy house being said to be "just like Troy-town."

It is surely uncommon for the word "Labyrinth" itself to be found as a

place-name, but in February 1911 Captain Scott pitched his camp in an

Antarctic spot which, on account of the fantastically sinuous nature of

its surroundings, he decided to name "Labyrinth Camp."

We must now draw to a close.

Enough has perhaps been said to give some idea of the variety and

extent of the different ways in which the labyrinth idea has developed

and in which it has been employed, but it would obviously be wrong to

assume that the last word on the subject has now been pronounced.

As regards the early history of the idea and of the terms associated

with it we have seen that the boundaries of our knowledge are still

misty and ill-defined, a circumstance that only gives zest to the study

of the subject.

We see that our enquiry has taken us into realms far removed from

everyday experience and in which we feel the need of special training

in order to weigh the facts presented. It has given us glimpses of the

workshop of the archaeologist, the anthropologist, and the etymologist.

The study of later developments has led us into curious by-paths of

art and literature--classical, mediaeval, renaissance, and modern--and

we see that even now the labyrinth idea has not entirely ceased to

exercise its allurements or to evoke the spirit of invention.

There is still room for a good deal of research and for the possibility

of highly interesting discoveries in respect of almost every phase of

the labyrinth's past history.

With regard to its future developments, much as we should have liked

to close our review with a vindication of utilitarian interest, and

although one can never safely prophesy to what uses the ingenuity

of men may put any given principle, we could not hope to sound an

expectant note without creating an impression of fatuity. Lest this

statement be taken to mean that our enquiry has, therefore, had no

practical aim, let us hasten to repeat once more the hope expressed in

our introductory chapter to the effect that a perusal of this little

book will at least ensure a revival of interest in, and consequently

the preservation of, those few relics of rustic revelry and

prehistoric magic which yet remain with us in the shape of the turf

labyrinths.

As Mr. A. H. Allcroft, in his "Earthwork of England" (1908), has truly

remarked, when speaking of the Asenby maze: "It is marvellous that

the memory of such things, once prominent features of rural life, can

die out so rapidly as it does." And yet, who can deny that they are

worthy of at least as much care and interest as many of the obvious

and commonplace antiquities upon which the guide-books lavish their

encomiums?

We need not emulate the misguided enthusiasm of those who are unable

to discover a merit in a bygone practice without plunging into an

indiscriminate advocacy of its revival--an enthusiasm which inevitably

brings discredit upon its object--but let us at any rate see to it that

no more of these rare and interesting heirlooms are lost to us through

ignorance or neglect.

APPENDIX

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF MAZES AND LABYRINTHS

(TOGETHER WITH NAMES OF PERSONS WHO HAVE FURNISHED THE WRITER WITH

FIRST-HAND INFORMATION)

NOTE.--_Names of Authors are also arranged alphabetically in the Index,

which contains detailed references to the sections of the Bibliography._

I. GENERAL

TROLLOPE, E. "Ancient and Mediaeval Labyrinths," with notes by ALBERT

WAY, in _Archaeological Journal_, Vol. XV, 1858. Also in _Reports

of the Associated Architectural Societies_ in 1858, and appended

to a paper on the Caerleon mosaic in the _Proc. Monmouth and

Caerleon Antiquarian Association_, 1866.

(Mainly concerned with church labyrinths and British turf mazes.)

DE LAUNAY, R. "Les Fallacieux Détours du Labyrinthe" in _Révue

Archéologique_, Series V, 1915-16.

(A bold and striking essay, chiefly concerned with the labyrinth

as the architectural expression of a sun-myth.)

FRAZER, Sir J. G. "The Golden Bough," Pt. III, "The Dying God," 1911.

(In the section dealing with the octennial tenure of the

kingship the labyrinth is treated from the point of view of the

anthropologist and folk-lorist.)

COOK, A. B. "Zeus. A Study in Ancient Religions," 1914.

(The labyrinth, particularly that of Crete, is studied from the

point of view of the classical archaeologist.)

KRAUSE, ERNST. "Die Trojaburgen Nordeuropas" and "Die Nordische

Herkunft der Trojasage," Glogau, 1893. Also "Tuiskoland der

Arischen Stämme und Götter Urheimat," 1891.

(A study of classic and northern mythologies with special

reference to solar rites. The labyrinth is held to be

distinctively northern, the classic legends being derivative.)

MASSMANN, H. F. "Wunderkreise und Irrgarten," Leipzig Basse, 1844.

(This work is mentioned in a German encyclopaedia, but the

writer has not been able to obtain access to a copy. Written

by a mathematician, it probably deals with the subject from a

corresponding aspect.)

DAREMBERG, SAGLIO & POTTIER. "Dictionnaire des Antiquités," 1904,

Vol. III.

(The article "Labyrinthe" gives very full references to the

occurrence of labyrinth figures on ancient monuments.)

_Dictionary of Architecture_ (1867). Arts. "Maze" and "Meander."

_Encyclopaedia Britannica._ Art. "Labyrinth." By THOS. MOORE, F.L.S.

(1821-87) (with especial reference to hedge mazes).

(Several other encyclopaedias, American, French, German and

Italian, also contain good articles on the subject, notably

Larousse, La Grande Encyclopédie, The New International

Encyclopaedia, and Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie, Vol. II,

1894-7.)

"_Country Life._" Two well-illustrated anonymous articles in issues

of January 24 and March 14, 1903.

* * * * *

There is a popular article on Mazes by G. S. TYACK in W. ANDREWS'S

"Ecclesiastical Curiosities," 1897; and a chapter of E. O.

GORDON'S "Prehistoric London," 1914, treats of the matter in so

far as it supports the theory of the Trojan origin of London

(Troy-Novant).

II. FORM, AND MATHEMATICAL PRINCIPLES

BALL, W. W. R. "Mathematical Recreations and Essays," 1905, pp.

174-80.

TARRY, G. "Le Problème des Labyrinthes," in _Nouvelles Annales de

Mathématiques_, Vol. XIV, 1895, pp. 187-90.

LUCAS, E. "Récréations Mathématiques," 1882-94.

WOLTERS, P. "Darstellungen des Labyrinths," in _Sitzungsberichte der

phil., &c., Classe der k.b. Akademie zu München_, 1907.

MEYER, W. "Ein Labyrinth mit Versen" in _Sitz. der phil., &c., Classe

der k.b. Ak. zu München_, 1882, Bd. II, Heft. I, pp. 267-300, and

_Nachtrag_ on p. 400.

KRAUSE, E. "Die nordische Herkunft der Trojasage," 1893.

(Shows how typical labyrinth figures may be derived from

Northumbrian rock engravings.)

REINACH, S. "Cultes, Mythes, et Réligions," 1906, Vol. II, pp. 234,

etc.

(Derivation of swastika, triskelion, etc.)

DUDENEY, H. E. "Amusements in Mathematics," 1917, pp. 127-37.

INWARDS, R., on the Labyrinth on the Coins of Knossos in _Knowledge_,

October 1892.

III. THE CLASSIC LABYRINTHS

(i) THE EGYPTIAN LABYRINTH

HERODOTUS. ii. 148-9.

DIODORUS SICULUS. I. iv. 61, 66.

STRABO. XVII. i. 37.

POMPONIUS MELA. "De situ orbis."

PLINY. "Hist. Nat." xxxvi. 19.

PETRIE, W. M. FLINDERS. "The Labyrinth, Gerzeh, and Mazghuneh"

(London School of Archaeology in Egypt, University College, Gower

St.), 1912. Also "Kahun, Garob, and Hawara," 1890, and "Hawara,

Biahmu, and Arsinoë," 1889.

HOW, W. W., and WELLS, J. "A Commentary on Herodotus," 1912, Vol. I.

p. 240, etc.

MYRES, J. L., in _Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology_, III. p.

134.

PERROT & CHIPIEZ. "Histoire de l'Art dans l'Antiquité" I. ("Egypte").

FERGUSSON'S "History of Architecture," 1893, Vol. I. pp. 110-12.

LEPSIUS, K. R. "Denkmäler," 1859, Vol. I. pl. 46-8.

EBERS, G. M. "L'Egypte, du Caire à Philae," 1868, p. 174.

WIEDEMANN, A. "Herodots Zweite Buch," 1890, p. 522, etc.

CANINA, L. "L'Architettura Antica," 1839-44, Sec. I. (Egiziana), Tav.

122.

JOMARD, E. F. "Description de l'Egypte," 1807. Vol. IV. p. 478.

(Embodies results of Napoleon's expedition.)

POCOCKE, R. "A Description of the East," 1743, p. 61, etc.

LUCAS, P. "Voiage de la Haute Egypte," 1705. Vol. II, p. 261, etc.

CARERI, J. F. GEMELLI. "A Voyage round the World," 1699. Bk. I. Ch.

vi. (in Churchill's Collection, 1732, Vol. VI).

(ii) THE CRETAN LABYRINTH

VIRGIL. "Aeneid," V. v. 588.

PLINY. "Hist. Nat." xxxvi. 19.

OVID. "Metamorphoses," VIII. v. 159.

DIODORUS SICULUS. IV. iv. 77.

APOLLODORUS. III. i. 3, xv. 8.

PLUTARCH. "Life of Theseus."

MEURSIUS, J. (GRAEVIUS, J. G.). "Creta, Cyprus et Rhodus." Amsterdam,

1675.

(Gives very comprehensive references to the Cretan Labyrinth in

classical and mediaeval literature.)

EVANS, Sir A. J. "Excavations at Knossos," in _Annals of the British

School at Athens_, Vol. VIII, 1902. "Mycenaean Tree and Pillar

Cult" in _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, Vol. XXI, 1901. "The Tomb

of the Double Axes at Knossos" in _Archaeologia_, Vol. LXV, 1914.

"The Palace of Minos at Knossos," Vol. I, 1921. Article in _The

Times_ of July 14, 1922, p. 11.

ROUSE, W. H. D. "The Double Axe and the Labyrinth" in _Journal of

Hellenic Studies_, Vol. XXI, 1901.

HALL, H. R. "The Two Labyrinths" in JOURNAL OF HELLENIC STUDIES, Vol.

XXV, 1905. "Aegean Archaeology," 1912.

BURROWS, R. M. "Discoveries in Crete," 1907.

GLASGOW, G. "The Discoveries in Crete" in "_Discovery_," Vol. I, 1920.

(A general review to date.)

MOSSO, A. "The Palaces of Crete," 1907.

HAWES, C. H. and H. B. "Crete the Forerunner of Greece," 1909.

COOK, A. B. _Op. cit._, 1914.

BAIKIE, J. "The Sea-Kings of Crete," 1920.

FRAZER, Sir J. G. _Op. cit._, 1911.

SPRATT, T. A. B. "Travels in Crete," 1865.

SIEBER, F. W. "Reise nach der Insel Kreta in 1817," 1823.

HOECK, C. "Kreta," 1823-29.

COCKERELL, C. R., R.A. "Travels in Southern Europe," 1810-17. Edited

by his son, S. P. COCKERELL, 1903. Ch. xi.

(Cavern of Gortyna.)

SAVARY, C. E. "Lettres sur la Grèce," 1788 (Trans. in _Annual

Register_, 1789, Pt. II. pp. 90-98).

TOURNEFORT, G. P. DE. "Voyage du Levant," 1717 (Trans. by J. OZELL,

1718).

CAUMONT, LE SEIGNEUR DE ("Nompar II"). "Voyage d'oultremer en

Jhérusalem," 1418, Brit. Mus. Egerton MSS. 890, fol. 2, ed. by

MARQUIS DE LA GRANGE and printed Paris, 1858, p. 42.

_Florentine Picture Chronicle_, XV. Century. Brit. Mus. Prints 197d 3

fol. 50-51.

_Italian Engraving_, School of _Maso Finiguerra_. Brit. Mus. A. II.

10b.

(iii) THE ETRUSCAN, LEMNIAN, ETC., LABYRINTHS.

STRABO. VIII. vi. 369.

(Labyrinth of the Cyclops, Nauplia.)

PLINY. "Hist. Nat." xxxvi. 19, 4.

DENNIS, G. "The Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria," 1848.

CANINA, L. "L'Architettura Antica," 1839-44, Sec. II. Tav. 159.

QUATREMÈRE DE QUINCY, A. C. "Restitution du Tombeau de Porsenna,"

1826.

MÜLLER, K. O. "Die Etrusker," 1828, Vol. IV. 2, 1.

IV. THE LABYRINTH IN ANCIENT ART

(i) COINS

WROTH, W. W. "Catalogue of Greek Coins," 1886, Pl. IV., V., VI.

HEAD, B. V. "Historia Nummorum," 1887, pp. 389-91.

(ii) POTTERY

DEECKE, W., in _Annali dell' Instituto di Correspondenza

Archeologica_, 1881.

(Tragliatella Vase.)

REINACH, S. "Vases Peints," 1899, p. 345.

PERROT ET CHIPIEZ. "Histoire de l'Art dans l'Antiquité," Vol. VII. p.

118.

WALTERS, H. B. "History of Ancient Pottery," 1905, Vol. I.

(Frontispiece shows Theseus kylix, by DURIS.)

ELDERKIN, G. W. "Meander or Labyrinth" in _Journ. Amer. Arch._ XIV,

1910, pp. 185-190.

(Meander figures on Theseus Vases.)

(iii) MOSAIC PAVEMENTS, ETC. (_See also_ CHURCH LABYRINTHS, _Appendix

V._)

ARNETH, J. C. VON. "Archäologische Analekten," 1851-3, Tafel V.

(Salzburg mosaic.)

_Archäologische Zeitung_, 1848, p. 99.

(Mosaics at Orbe and Bosséaz, Switzerland.)

MILLIN, A. L. "Voyage dans le Midi de la France," 1807, Pl. 34.

(Mosaic at Aix, near Marseilles.)

_Mittheilungen der Antiquarischen Gesellschaft zu Zurich_. Bd. XVI,

1841, etc., Pl. 29.

(Mosaic at Cormerod, Switzerland.)

CREUZER, G. F. "Abbildungen zu Symbolik und Mythologie der älter.

Volker," 1819, Taf. LV, No. 1 (Salzburg).

CAUMONT, A. DE. "Abécédaire d'Archéologie." 1886 Ed. Vol. III.

(Mosaic at Verdes, Loir-et-Cher.)

ZAHN, W. "Schönsten Ornamente aus Pompeji, etc.," 1828, Vol. II, Taf.

50.

(Mosaic in Casa del Labirinto, Pompeii.)

COMARMOND, A. "Description du Musée Lapidaire de la Ville de Lyons,"

No. 273.

(Inscription relating to a labyrinth.)

GUÉRIN, V. "Voyage Archéologique dans la Régence de Tunis," 1862,

Vol. I, p. 109.

(Mosaic at Susa.)

DOUBLET, G., in _Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Inscriptions_,

1892, pp. 318-329. (Mosaic at Susa.)

_Révue Archéologique_, 1884, p. 107. (Mosaic at Brindisi.)

CAETANI-LOVATELLI, E. "Miscellanea Archeologia," 1891, and in _Nuova

Antologia_, Vol. XXVIII, 1890.

(General review.)

COLLIER, C. V., in _Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries_, Vol.

XX, No. II, February 9, 1905, pp. 215-19.

(Mosaic at Harpham, Yorks, and mention of one in Northants.)

MORGAN, O., in _Proceedings of Monmouth and Caerleon Antiquarian

Association_, 1866.

(Mosaic at Caerleon.)

RICH, A. "A Dictionary of Roman and Greek Antiquities," 1893, pp.

481-2.

(iv) MISCELLANEOUS

EVANS, Sir A. J. "The Palace of Minos," 1921, Vol. I, pp. 121 _et

seq._ and p. 357.

(Origin of Labyrinth Figure.)

PETRIE, W. M. F. "Egyptian Decorative Art," pp. 42, 43.

(Meanders.)

_Real Museo Borbonico_, XIV, 1852, Tav. a.

(Labyrinth graffito on pillar of house at Pompeii. This figure is

reproduced in E. Breton's "Pompeia," and elsewhere.)

OZANAM, A. F. "Documents inédits," 1850, Section "Graphia aurae urbis

Romae."

(Labyrinth embroidered on emperor's robes.)

DE LAUNAY, R. _Op. cit._

(Interpretation of _tholos_ of Epidauros, etc.)

KABBADIAS, P. "Fouilles d'Epidaure," 1893.

(_Tholos_ of Temple of Aesculapius.)

MÜLLER, K. "Tiryns Vorbericht über die Gräbungen, 1905-1912,"

in _Athen. Mittheilungen_, XXXVIII, 1913, p. 78, etc.

(Labyrinth-like structure in masonry.)

MAFFEI, P. A. "Gemmae Antiche," 1709, Pt. IV, pl. 31.

(Labyrinth engraved on a gem.)

V. LABYRINTHS IN CHURCHES

(i) GENERAL

AMÉ, E. "Les Carrelages Émaillés du Moyen Age," 1859.

(Has a good chapter on the French church labyrinths, with

coloured plates.)

GAILHABAUD, J. "L'Architecture du V^{me} au XVII^{me} siècle," 1858.

DURAND, J. "Les Pavés Mosaïques en Italie et en France," in _Annales

Archéologiques_, XIV-XVII, 1855-7.

DESCHAMPS DES PAS, L. "Le Pavage des Églises," in _Ann. Arch._ XII,

p. 147.

VIOLLET-LE-DUC, E. E. "Dictionnaire Raisonné de l'Architecture

Française du XI^{e} au XVI^{e} siècle," Art. "Labyrinthe."

WALCOTT, M. E. C. "Sacred Archaeology," 1868.

MÜNTZ, E. "Etudes Iconographiques," 1887, p. 15 _et seq._

(Italian examples.)

(ii) PARTICULAR LOCALITIES

CAMPI, P. M. "Dell' Hist. Eccles. di Piacenza," 1651-62.

(S. Savino, Placentia.)

CIAMPINI, G. G. "Vetera Monimenta," 1690-9, Vol. II, pl. 2.

(S. Michele Maggiore, Pavia.)

GÉRUZEZ, J. B. F. "Descrip. Hist. et Stat. de la Ville de Rheims,"

1817, Vol. I, p. 316.

(Rheims Cathedral. "Penitential" theory of church labyrinths.)

DEBRAY, M. "Notice sur la Cathédrale d'Arras," 1829.

WALLET, E. "Descrip. d'une Crypte et d'un Pavé mosaïque de l'Église

Saint Bertin à St. Orner," 1834.

DAIRE, L. F. "Histoire de la Ville d'Amiens," 1782, Vol. II, p. 92.

(Amiens Cathedral.)

TURNER, DAWSON. "Tour in Normandy," 1820, Vol. II, pp. 206-7.

(Caen. Guard-Chamber of Abbey.)

AUBER, C. A. "Histoire de la Cathédrale de Poitiers," 1849, Vol. I,

Pl. I, Fig. 6.

(Poitiers Cathedral. Mural sketch.)

DIDRON, A. N. "Voyage Archéologique dans la Grèce chrétienne," in

_Annales Archéologiques_, Vol. I, 1844, p. 177.

(Labyrinth figure in Convent of St. Barlaam.)

ROBOLOTTI, F. "Dei Documenti Storiei Litterarj di Cremona," 1857,

Tav. II.

(Cremona Cathedral.)

PRÉVOST, M., in _Révue Archéologique_ IV, 1848, and VIII, 1851-2, pp.

566-7.

(Church of Reparatus, Orléansville, Algeria.)

DOUBLET DE BOISTHIBAULT, in _Révue Archéologique_, VIII, 1851-2, pp.

437-47.

(Chartres Cathedral.)

AUS'M WEERTH, E. "Mosaikboden in St. Gereon zu Cöln," 1874.

(Churches in Cologne and Pavia.)

RUSKIN, J. "Fors Clavigera," Fors 23. (Lucca.)

_Proceedings of Architectural Societies of Northampton, York, etc._

Vols. XIX-XX, 1887-8.

(Church at Alkborough.)

_The Builder_, Vol. XVI, 1855, p. 90.

(Notre Dame de la Treille, Lille.)

_Annales Archéologiques_, Vol. XVI, 1855, p. 211.

(Notre Dame de la Treille, Lille.)

_Manuscript. Bibliothèque Barberini_, XLIV, p. 35.

(Pavia.)

_Manuscript. Villard de Honnecourt._ "Album," ed. by J. B. A. Lassus,

1858, Plate XIII.

(Chartres.)

VI. HEDGE MAZES, FLORAL LABYRINTHS, ETC.

(i) CLASSICAL REFERENCES

(Roman Topiary Work and Ornamental Gardening)

PLINY. "Hist. Nat.," XV. 30; XVI. 33; XXXVI. 13.

PLINY THE YOUNGER. Epist. V. 6.

(ii) GREAT BRITAIN (GENERAL)

HYLL, T. (_Didymus Mountayne._) "The Profitable Art of Gardening,"

3rd edition, 1579, pp. 9, 15.

ISLIP, A. "The Orchard and the Garden," 1602, p. 48.

(Gathered from Dutch and French sources.)

LAWSON, W. "A New Orchard and Garden," 1631.

(Afterwards embodied in K. MARKHAM'S "A New Way to Get Wealth,"

1648, etc.)

PARKINSON, J. "Paradisus in soli," 1629, Ch. II.

MEAGER, L. "The Compleat English Gardener," _circ._ 1685.

_Harley Manuscripts._ Brit. Mus. Harl. 5308 (71, a, 12).

(A seventeenth-century gardener's manuscript book, with two

mazes.)

LONDON, G., and WISE, H. "The Compleat Florist," 1706 afterwards

published by J. CARPENTER as "The Retir'd Gardener." (Primarily a

translation of French works by L. LIGER and F. GENTIL.)

LANGLEY, BATTY. "New Principles of Gardening," 1728.

(Numerous maze designs.)

SWITZER, S. "Ichnographia Rustica," 1742, Vol. II, p. 218.

FULLMER, S. "Gardener's Companion," 1781, p. 105.

HOME, H. (Lord KAMES.) "Elements of Criticism," 1796, Vol. II, p. 348.

(Criticism of mazes in gardens.)

WALPOLE, H. "Essay on Modern Gardening," 1785.

ROBINSON, W. "The English Flower Garden," 1921.

MacARTNEY, MERVYN. "English Houses and Gardens of the Seventeenth and

Eighteenth Centuries," 1908.

(Article on hedges and mazes.)

BROWN, A. J., in _American Homes and Gardens_, VII, November 1910,

pp. 423-5.

(iii) GREAT BRITAIN (PARTICULAR LOCALITIES)

LAW, E. "History of Hampton Court Palace," 1900, Vol. III, pp. 74-7.

ROCQUE, J. "Engraving of Hampton Court," 1736.

(Shows the "Troy-town," as well as the Maze and a spiral garden.)

DEFOE, D. "Tour through Great Britain," 1738.

(Hampton Court "Wilderness.")

_Daily Chronicle_, February 22, 1921.

(Revenue from Hampton Court Maze.)

_Parliamentary Surveys._ Survey No. 72, 1649. Transcribed by John

Caley, F.R.S., in _Archaeologia_, Vol. X, 1792.

(Maze at Wimbledon.)

KIP, J. "Britannia Illustrata," 1720.

(Mazes at Wrest House and Badminton.)

WILLIAMS, W. "Oxonia depicta," 1732.

(Trinity College labyrinth.)

VALLANCE, AYMER. "The Old Colleges of Oxford," 1913, p. 77.

(Trinity College labyrinth.)

AUBREY, J. "Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme," 1686-7.

(Mazes in Southwark and Tothill Fields, Westminster. The 1881

edition has an editor's note _re_ maze on Putney Heath.)

_Churchwardens' Accounts_, St. Margaret, Westminster, 1672.

(Tothill Maze.)

_Collectanea Topographica_, Vol. VIII, 1843, pp. 253-62.

(Maze in Southwark.)

STRICKLAND, A. "Lives of the Queens of England," 1851, Vol. I, p. 264.

(Southwark.)

WROTH, W., and A. E. "The London Pleasure Gardens of the Eighteenth

Century," 1896.

CRISP, Sir F. "Guide for the use of visitors to Friar Park," 1914.

(Maze and Dial Garden at Henley-on-Thames.)

NESFIELD, W. H. "Estimate and Plan for R.H.S. Gardens," 1860 (S.

Kensington). Also plan in R.H.S. "Official Guide," 1864.

HUTCHISON, A. F. "The Lake of Menteith," 1899.

(Queen Mary's Bower.)

TRIGGS, H. INIGO. "Formal Gardens in England and Scotland," 1902.

(Mazes at Arley Hall and Belton House figured.)

ELGOOD, G. S., and JEKYLL, G. "Some English Gardens," 1904, p. 127.

(Maze at Arley Hall.)

(iv) FRANCE

ANDROUET DU CERCEAU, J. "Les Plus Excellents Bastiments de France,"

1576, and other architectural works.

(Mazes at Charleval, Gaillon, etc.)

ESTIENNE, C. "La Maison Rustique," 1573, Vol. II, ch. vi, p. 68.

(Translated by R. SURFLET as "The Country Farme," 1600.)

BETIN, P. "Le Fidelle Jardinier," 1636, p. 24.

PERRAULT, C. "Labyrinte de Versailles," 1677.

(With plan and many illustrations by S. LE CLERC.)

PANSERON, S. "Receuil des Jardins Français," 1723.

(With many plates.)

BLONDEL, J. F. "Cours d'Architecture," 1771-7, Vol. I, p. 17; Vol.

IV, p. 72; Vol. VIII, Plates 18, 19.

(Mazes at Choisy and Chantilly.)

HAVARD, H. "Dictionnaire de l'Ameublement," etc., 1887-90. Art.

"Labyrinthe."

(Mazes at Baugé and Les Rochers.)

STEIN, H. "Les Jardins de France," 1913, Plates 88, 89.

TRIGGS, H. INIGO. "Garden Craft in Europe," 1913, pp. 21, 81, 141.

(Mazes at the Tuileries, Hôtel St. Paul, and Sceaux.)

(v) ITALY

SERLIO, S. "Libri Cinque d'Architettura," 1537; English edition, 1611.

DUPÉRAC, S. "Vues et Perspectives des Jardins de Tivoli," 1573.

(Labyrinths at Villa d'Este.)

EVELYN, J. "Memoirs," _s.a._ 1646.

(Labyrinth at Vicenza.)

TRIGGS, H. INIGO. "The Art of Garden Design in Italy," 1906, p. 51.

(Mazes at Castellezo dei Arconati, Milan.)

SKIPPON, Sir PHILIP. "A Journey through part of the Low Countries,

Germany, Italy, and France," 1663.

(Labyrinth at Vicenza.)

(vi) HOLLAND AND BELGIUM

DE VRIES, J. V. "Hortorum Viridariorumque Formae," 1583, Plates

14-16, 22-7.

COMMELYN, C. "Nederlantze Hesperides," 1676.

(Several designs for mazes.)

HARRIS, W. "A Description of the King's Royal Palace and Gardens at

Loo," 1699.

VISSCHER, N. "De Zegepraalende Vecht," 1719.

(Maze at Gunterstein.)

TRIGGS, H. INIGO. "Garden Craft in Europe," 1913, pp. 173, 192.

(Mazes at Sorgvliet and Enghien.)

FOUQUIER, M. "L'Art des Jardins," 1911, p. 120.

(Maze at Enghien.)

(vii) OTHER COUNTRIES

BOECKLER, G. A. "Architectura Curiosa," 1664, Pt. IV.

(Numerous plates contain labyrinth designs.)

LAUREMBERG, P. "Horticultura," 1632, Plates 15-22.

_Daily Mail_, September 23, 1899.

(Art. on "Puzzle Gardens" gives account of curious allegorical

labyrinth at Anhalt; also describes mazes at Barcelona.)

MOLLET, A. "Le Jardin de Plaisir," 1651.

(Sweden.)

TRIGGS, H. INIGO. "Garden Craft in Europe," 1913, p. 280.

(Maze at the Alcazar, Seville.)

SKIPPON, Sir P. "A Journey through part of the Low Countries," etc.,

1663.

(Munich.)

MOULTON, R. H., in _Architectural Record_ (_New York_), October 1917,

p. 400.

(American replica of the Maze at Hampton Court.)

WARREN, C., in _Country Life_ (_Garden City_), VIII, September 1905,

pp. 527-8.

(Cedar Hill Maze, U.S.A.)

The following kindly furnished the writer with recent information

regarding the mazes at the localities indicated:

H. COLLAR, Esq., Curator, Museum, Saffron Walden (Saffron

Walden); H. WALLIS CHAPMAN, Esq., Jordans, Bucks (Sudeley

Castle); W. EMERTON, Esq., Grantham (Belton House); E. M.

JACKSON, Esq., M.A., Manningtree (Mistley Place); G. KERRY

RIX, Esq., Somerleyton (Somerleyton Hall); R. POGMORE, Esq.,

Mansfield (Debdale Hall).

VII. TURF LABYRINTHS

(i) General

TROLLOPE, E. _Op. cit._ 1858.

AUBREY, J. "Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme," 1686-7. Ed. by J.

BRITTEN, F.L.S., 1881.

(Mazes at Pimperne, West Ashton, Cotswold Downs, Southwark, and

Tothill Fields. Editor adds note _re_ maze on Putney Heath.)

AUBREY, J. "History of Surrey," Ed. 1719, Vol. V, p. 80.

(Suggestion of Scandinavian origin of mazes.)

STUKELEY, W. "Itinerarium Curiosum," 1776, pp. 31, 97.

(Discussion of origin of mazes.)

ROBERTS, P. "Cambrian Popular Antiquities," 1815, p. 212.

("City of Troy" in Wales.)

_Cymmrodorion Society, Transactions of_, 1822, pp. 67-9.

("Idrison" on Caer Troiau. Refers to solar theory.)

TYACK, G. S. Art. "Mazes" in W. ANDREWS' "Ecclesiastical

Curiosities," 1897.

JOHNSON, W. "Folk-Memory," 1908.

(ii) PARTICULAR LOCALITIES

DE LA PRYME, A. (1671-1704). "Diary." Ed. Surtees Society, 1870.

(Alkborough and Appleby.)

_Churchwardens' Accounts_, Louth, 1544.

(Louth.)

HUTCHINS, J. "History and Antiq. of the County of Dorset," 1774, Vol.

I, p. 101 (Pimperne); Vol. II, p. 468 (Leigh).

HUTCHINS, J. 3rd ed., 1861, pp. 292-3.

(Saffron Walden, Somerton, Tadmarton Heath, Hereford Beacon,

Hilton, and Breamore. Figs. of mazes at Pimperne, Sneinton, and

Clifton, Notts.)

"Annalia Dubrensia," 1636, reprinted by A. B. Grosart, 1877.

(Cotswold Hills, near Chipping Campden.)

CAMDEN, W. "Britannia." Ed. by GOUGH, 1789. Plate opposite p. 288.

(Saffron Walden, Sneinton, and Clifton.)

HOARE, Sir R. C. "Ancient Wilts," 1812-21, Vol. I, p. 238.

(Breamore.)

WILLIAMS-FREEMAN, J. P. "Field Archaeology, Hants."

(Breamore.)

ACKERMANN'S "Repository of Arts," Vol. XIII, 1815, p. 193.

(Hull.)

HATFIELD, S. "Terra incognita of Lincolnshire," 1816.

(Alkborough.)

ALLEN, T. "History of Lincolnshire," 1834, Vol. II, p. 219.

(Appleby.)

WRIGHT, T. "Hist. and Topog. of the County of Essex," 1835, Vol. II,

p. 124.

(Comberton.)

BRAYBROOKE, Lord. "Audley End and Saffron Walden," 1836, _esp._ MS.

insertion of 1859 in Saffron Walden Museum.

(Saffron Walden.)

TROLLOPE, E. _Op. cit._ 1858.

(Sneinton, Wing, Ripon, Boughton Green, and many others.)

GORDON, E. O. "Prehistoric London," 1914.

(Greenwich, or Blackheath.)

_Notes and Queries._

3 ser., X, 1866, p. 283. BARKLEY, C. W. (Comberton and Leigh.) Also

in 4 ser., II, 1868.

3 ser., X, 1866, p. 283. J. F.

(Alkborough, Holderness, and Sneinton.)

8 ser., IV, 1893, p. 96. VENABLES, E., and others.

(Kent.)

9 ser., V, 1900, p. 445. PAGE, J. T.

(Boughton Green.)

10 ser., X, 1908, p. 96. HARLAND-OXLEY, W. E.

(Tothill Fields.)

12 ser., IV, 1918, p. 160. AUSTIN, G.

(Egton and Goathland.)

_The Times_, April 18, 1870.

(St. Martha's Hill, Guildford.)

_The Times_, April 5, 1920.

(Juliberry's Grave, Godmersham.)

BARNES, W., in _Dorset Nat. Hist, and Antiq'n. Field Club

Proceedings_, Vol. IV, 1882.

(Leigh, Dorset.)

FERGUSON, R. S. "A Labyrinth on Rockcliffe Marsh," in _Cumberland

and West'd Antiq'n and Arch'l. Society Transactions_, Vol. VIII,

1883-4, p. 69.

(Burgh and Rockcliffe.)

_Assoc'd Arch'l. Societies of Northampton, York, etc., Proceedings_,

Vols. XIX-XX, 1887-8.

(Alkborough.)

MAYNARD, G. N. "The Labyrinths or Mazes at Saffron Walden," in _Essex

Field Club Proceedings_, 1889.

SHORE, T. W., and NISBETT, H. C. "Ancient Hampshire Mazes," in

_Hampshire Field Club Proceedings_, Vol. III, Pt. III, 1896, p.

257.

(Breamore and Winchester.)

HILL, A. D., in _Wilts Arch'l, and Nat. Hist. Magazine_, 1897, p. 98.

(Breamore and West Ashton.)

TREVES, Sir F. "Highways and Byways in Dorset," 1906.

(Leigh.)

ALLCROFT, A. H. "Earthwork of England," 1908, p. 602.

(Asenby.)

_Cambs and Hunts Arch'l. Society Proceedings_, Vol. III, 1914, p. 224.

(Hilton.)

IRONS, E. A. "The Turf Maze at Wing," in _Rutland Arch'l. and Nat.

Hist. Society Transactions_, Vol. XIII, 1915.

(Wing.)

The following kindly supplied the writer with recent information

regarding the mazes at the localities indicated:

E. J. BULL, Esq., Carlisle (Rockcliffe Marshes); J. C. DENTON,

Esq., Cambridge (Comberton); D. H. GEDDIE, Esq., F.R.Hist.S.,

Borough Librarian, GRIMSBY (Horncastle); O. W. GODWIN,

Esq., Troy Farm, Somerton, Banbury (Somerton); Rev. F. J.

W. TAVERNER, M.A., Wing, Oakham (Wing); Rev. J. J. WALKER,

B.A., Boughton, Northants (Boughton Green); Rev. GEO. YORKE,

Alkborough, Lincs (Alkborough).

VIII. STONE LABYRINTHS

(For Rock Engravings, _see_ "Miscellaneous")

WORM, O. "Danicorum Monumentorum Libri Sex," 1651, p. 213.

(Denmark.)

RUDBECK, O. "Atlantica," 1695-8, Tab. 35, Fig. 134.

(Sweden.)

VON BAER, C. E., in _Bull. Hist. Phil, de l'Acad. de St.

Petersbourg_, Vol. I.

ASPELIN, J. R. "Steinlabyrinthe in Finnland," in _Zeitschrift für

Ethnologie_, Vol. IX, 1877, p. 439. (Also _Virchow_, p. 441, and

_Friedel_, p. 470.)

KRAUSE, E. "Die Trojaburgen Nordeuropas," 1893.

IX. THE LABYRINTH IN NON-EUROPEAN COUNTRIES

(i) AMERICAN INDIANS

COTTON, H. S. "Is the House of Tchuhu the Minoan Labyrinth?" in

_Science_ (New York), N.S. XLV, June 29, 1917, p. 667.

FEWKES, J. W. "A Fictitious Ruin in the Gila Valley, Arizona," in

_American Anthropologist_, N.S. IX, 1907, p. 510.

FEWKES, J. W., in _Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections_, 1920, Vol.

72, No. I, pp. 47-64.

(Pictograph from Mesa Verde.)

(ii) INDIA

BELLEW, H. W. "From the Indus to the Tigris," 1873-4.

(Circular figures on ground, which may be allied to labyrinth

designs.)

(iii) ZULUS

_Folk Lore_, Vol. 23, 1912. Review of "Some Zulu Customs and

Folk-lore," by L. H. SAMUELSON.

(Reference to maze figures on the ground.)

X. MISCELLANEOUS

HOMER. "Iliad," xviii. 590, etc.

(Ariadne's Dance.)

PLINY. "Hist. Nat.," xxxvi. 85.

(Maze Games.)

VIRGIL. "Aeneid," v. 545-603.

(Troy Game.)

SUETONIUS. "Nero," vii.

(Troy Game.)

PALLAS, P. S. "Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen des russischen

Reichs," 1778, Vol. III.

(Siberian Crane Dance.)

STRUTT, J. "Sports and Pastimes of the People of England," 1830, p.

317.

NEIDHART VON REUENTHAL, ed. MORITZ-HAUPT, 1858, pp. 154-186.

(Troy-Aldei and Troyerlais.)

BENNDORF, O. "Das Alter des Trojaspiels," in W. REICHEL'S "Über

Homerische Waffen," 1894, pp. 133-9.

(Troy Game.)

_Folk Lore_, Vol. 24, 1913. Presidential Address of W. CROOKE, p. 34.

(Magic Ceremonies.)

_Folk Lore_, Vol. 29, 1918. "Collectanea," pp. 238-47.

(Serbian Troy Dances.)

_Notes and Queries._

4 ser., V, 1870.

(Troy Game in England.)

5 ser., I, 1874, p. 104.

("Labyrinth of St. Bernard," Mt. Carmel.)

8 ser., IV, 1893, p. 96, and V, 1894, pp. 37, 96, 351.

("Troy-town" place-names and Troia Nova.)

GORDON, E. O. "Prehistoric London," 1914.

(London as New Troy.)

LAMBERTUS ARDENSIS. "Historia Comitum Ardensium et Guisnensium, A.D.

800-1200," in "Reliquiae Manuscriptorum" of Petrus de Ludewig,

1727, Bk. IV, ch. 127, p. 549.

(Labyrinthine building in French Flanders.)

_Fonds Latin._ MS. No. 13013. Ninth-century "Comput" of St. Germain.

(Labyrinth figure.)

HENRY OF CLAIRVAUX, in _Hoveden's Chronicle_, under year 1178.

(Reference to Labyrinth. ? Metaphorical.)

BROMPTON, J. "Chronicon," under year 1151, in Sir R. TWYSDEN'S

"Historiae Anglicanae Scriptores X," 1652.

(Rosamond's Bower.)

HIGDEN, R. "Polychronicon," 1381-94. Ed. C. BABINGTON, 1886. Bk.

VIII, ch. 26.

(Rosamond's Coffer.)

LANG, A. "Magic and Religion," 1901.

(Prehistoric Rock Engravings.)

TATE, G. "The Ancient British Sculptured Rocks of Northumberland,

etc.," in _Berwickshire Naturalists' Club Proceedings_, Vol. V,

1864, p. 137, etc.

(Labyrinthoid figures on rocks.)

LUKIS, F. C., in _Journal of British Arch'l. Assn._, Vol. III, 1848,

pp. 269-79.

(Engraved stones on Gav'r Innis, Brittany.)

BICKNELL, C. "A Guide to the Prehistoric Rock Engravings in the

Italian Maritime Alps." _See_ figure reproduced in C. BUCKNALL'S

paper in _Bristol Nat. Society Proceedings_, 1912, Plate II, Fig.

3.

(Labyrinthoid figure.)

LAW, E. "Masterpieces of the Royal Gallery of Hampton Court," 1904.

(Maze by TINTORETTO and alleged portrait of "Fair Rosamond.")

EARP, F. R. "Descriptive Catalogue of Pictures in the Fitzwilliam

Museum," 1902, p. 14, Fig. 133.

(Painting of man with labyrinth.)

DUNBAR, E. D. "Social Life in Former Days," 1865, 1st series.

(Labyrinth design on Towels.)

BERTHELOT, M., in _La Grande Encyclopédie_, Art. "Labyrinthe," final

section.

(Labyrinth figure used by Alchemists.)

DURAND, J. _Op. cit._ 1857, p. 127.

(Labyrinth painted on wood.)

ALCIATI, A. "Emblemata," 1531, etc.

(Labyrinth Emblems.)

CATS, J. "Emblèmes touchant les Amours et les Mœurs," 1618, etc.

(Labyrinth Emblems.)

PARADIN, C. "Devises Héroïques et Emblèmes," 1621, etc.

(Labyrinth Emblems.)

QUARLES, F. "Emblems," 1635, etc.

(Labyrinth Emblems.)

Also many other Emblem books.

MOLLET, J. W. "Dictionary of Words used in Art and Archaeology,"

1883. Art. "Minotaur."

(Labyrinth as heraldic crest.)

NORDSTROM, S., in _Svenska Fornminnes föreningens Tidskrift_, Vol.

III, 1887, p. 227.

(Labyrinth designs on bells.)

MASON, G. "An Essay on Design in Gardening," 1795.

(Appendix on Bowers.)

BRAND'S "Popular Antiquities." Ed. W. C. HAZLITT, 1905.

(Art. on "St. Julian.")

WRIGHT, J. "The English Dialect Dictionary," 1902. Vol. III, p. 389.

("Julian's Bower" variants.)

MEILLET, A., in _French Quarterly_, Vol. II, No. 1, 1920.

(Etymology of "Labyrinth.")

HAVARD, H. "Dictionnaire de l'Ameublement," etc., 1887-90. Art.

"Labyrinthe."

(Game of "Labyrinthe.")

_German Engraving_, with verses, _circ._ 1630. Brit. Mus. 1750, c.

1/28.

BELGIAN LITHOGRAPHS of Toy Mazes. "Les Labyrinthes" and "Jardin

Chinois," _circ._ 1872. Brit. Mus. "Misc. Collections," 1881, c.

3, 69-71.

_Patent Specifications._ (Toy Mazes.)

ARNOT, J. M. No. 14764, August 1, 1894.

BRENTANO, A. No. 6204, April 11, 1889.

BRIDGE, H. No. 2613, February 2, 1906.

CUTHBERT, R. A., and BEVITT, W. No. 7381, March 26, 1898.

NIX, S. D. No. 16092, September 22, 1891.

PROCTOR, J. No. 9428, April 23, 1898.

INDEX

Ackermann, R., 78, 229

Addison, J., 169

Aegean, 20, 174

Aegeus, 17, 19

Aeneas, 98, 181

Aesculapius, Temple of, 51, 222

Aesop, 117

Agar, M., 145

Aix, near Marseilles, 48, 65, 220

Albano, 39

Alcazar, Seville, 125, 227

Alciati, A., 198, 234

Algeria, Pavement Labyrinth, 54, 223

Alkborough, Lincs, Church Labyrinth, 70, 72, 223

-- -- Turf Labyrinth, 71-73, 78, 84, 185, 229

Allcroft, A. H., 77, 213, 231

Allegorical Labyrinths, 133, 194, 198, 234, 235

Allen, T., 73, 229

Alpine Rock Engravings, 153, 234

Altieri, 127

Amé, E., 222

Amenemhat III, 13, 14

America, Hedge Mazes in, 142, 228

_American Homes and Gardens_, 224

American Indians, Maze Figures of, 97, 98

Amiens, 60, 61, 223

Amulet, Egyptian, 43

Amusement, Maze Arrangements for, 41, 65, 129, 202-208, 235

_Ancren Riwle_, 175

Andrews, W., 3, 216

Androgeos, 18

Androuet du Cerceau, J., 113, 114, 121, 226

Anhalt, 133, 227

_Annales Archéologiques_, 201, 222, 223

_Annalia Dubrensia_, 82, 229

d'Annunzio, G., 197

Apollo, 44, 45

Apollodorus, 23, 218