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HISTORY
OF
ANCIENT ART
BY
DR. FRANZ VON REBER
DIRECTOR OF THE BAVARIAN ROYAL AND STATE GALLERIES OF PAINTINGS
PROFESSOR IN THE UNIVERSITY AND POLYTECHNIC OF MUNICH
Revised by the Author
_TRANSLATED AND AUGMENTED_
BY
JOSEPH THACHER CLARKE
WITH 310 ILLUSTRATIONS AND A GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS
NEW YORK
HARPER & BROTHERS, FRANKLIN SQUARE
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1882, by
HARPER & BROTHERS,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.
_All rights reserved._
The application of the historic method to the study of the Fine Arts,
begun with imperfect means by Winckelmann one hundred and twenty years
ago, has been productive of the best results in our own days. It has
introduced order into a subject previously confused, disclosing the
natural progress of the arts, and the relations of the arts of the
different races by whom they have been successively practised. It has
also had the more important result of securing to the fine arts their
due place in the history of mankind as the chief record of various
stages of civilization, and as the most trustworthy expression of the
faith, the sentiments, and the emotions of past ages, and often even of
their institutions and modes of life. The recognition of the
significance of the fine arts in these respects is, indeed, as yet but
partial, and the historical study of art does not hold the place in the
scheme of liberal education which it is certain before long to attain.
One reason of this fact lies in the circumstance that few of the general
historical treatises on the fine arts that have been produced during the
last fifty years have been works of sufficient learning or judgment to
give them authority as satisfactory sources of instruction. Errors of
statement and vague speculations have abounded in them. The subject,
moreover, has been confused, especially in Germany, by the intrusion of
metaphysics into its domain, in the guise of a professed but spurious
science of æsthetics.
Under these conditions, a history of the fine arts that should state
correctly what is known concerning their works, and should treat their
various manifestations with intelligence and in just proportion, would
be of great value to the student. Such, within its limits as a manual
and for the period which it covers, is Dr. Reber’s _History of Ancient
Art_. So far as I am aware, there is no compend of information on the
subject in any language so trustworthy and so judicious as this. It
serves equally well as an introduction to the study and as a treatise to
which the advanced student may refer with advantage to refresh his
knowledge of the outlines of any part of the field.
The work was originally published in 1871; but so rapid has been the
progress of discovery during the last ten years that, in order to bring
the book up to the requirements of the present time, a thorough revision
of it was needed, together with the addition of much new matter and many
new illustrations. This labor of revision and addition has been jointly
performed by the author and the translator, the latter having had the
advantage of doing the greater part of his work with the immediate
assistance of Dr. Reber himself, and of bringing to it fresh resources
of his own, the result of original study and investigation. The
translator having been absent from the country, engaged in archæological
research, during the printing of the volume, the last revision and the
correction of the text have been in the hands of Professor William R.
Ware, of the School of Mines of Columbia College.
CHARLES ELIOT NORTON.
CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS, _May_, 1882.
In view of the great confusion which results from an irregular
orthography of Greek proper names, a return to the original spelling of
words not fully Anglicized may need an explanation, but no apology: it
is only adopting a system already followed by scholars of the highest
standing. The Romans, until the advent of that second classical revival
in which the present century is still engaged, served as mediums for all
acquaintance with Hellenic civilization. They employed Greek names, with
certain alterations agreeable to the Latin tongue, blunting and
coarsening the delicate sounds of Greek speech, much in the same manner
as they debased the artistic forms of Greek architecture by a mechanical
system of design. The clear ον became _um_, ος was changed to _us_, ει
to _e_ or _i_, etc. This Latinized nomenclature, like the Roman triglyph
and Tuscan capital, was exclusively adopted by the early Renaissance,
until, with the increasing knowledge of Greek lands and works of art,
names were introduced which do not happen to occur in the writings of
Roman authors. These were either changed in accordance with the more or
less variable standard in use during the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries, or were adopted in their Greek form without change, the
latter method being more and more generally employed. This has gradually
led to a partial revision of Greek names and their spelling. Zeus and
Hermes, Artemis and Athene, have resumed, as Greek deities, their
original titles;--Suni_um_ and Ass_us_ have been changed to Sunion and
Assos; while other names have only been reformed in part, as in the case
of the unfortunate Polycleitos, who at times appears as Polycl_e_tos,
and at times as Polycleit_u_s. Confusion and misunderstanding cannot but
result from this unreasonable triple system of Latinized, Anglicized,
and Greek orthography. Peirithoos may be sought in alphabetically
classified works of reference under Per and Pir as well as under Peir.
Πέργαμον, Pergamon, is written Pergamum, Pergamus, and Pergamos, in the
two latter forms being naturally confused with the Cretan Πέργαμος,
Pergamos, which, in its turn, is Latinized to Pergamus. In the present
book the Greek spelling of Greek names has been adopted in all those
cases where the word has not been fully Anglicized; that is to say,
changed in _pronunciation_, when it would sound pedantic to employ its
original form, as, for instance, to speak of the well-known Pæstum and
Lucian as Poseidonia and Loukianos. The English alphabet provides,
however, two letters for the Greek κάππα, and the more
familiar _c_ has been employed, as in Corinth, acropolis, etc., except
in cases where the true sound is not thereby conveyed,--namely, before
_e_, _i_, and _y_,--when the _k_ is substituted. Moreover, the final αι
is transformed to _æ_, according to the universal usage of our tongue.
JOSEPH THACHER CLARKE.
CONTENTS.
EGYPT.
PAGE
The Delta. The Oldest Monuments, if
not the most Ancient Civilization of
the World 1, 2
Changeless Continuity of Life and
Art 2
ARCHITECTURE.
The Age, Purpose, and Architectural
Significance of the Pyramids 3-5
The Pyramids of Gizeh 5-7
Variety of Pyramidal Forms 8, 9
The Pyramids of Saccara, Meydoun,
Dashour, Abousere, and Illahoun 9-12
Table of Dimensions 12
The Younger Pyramids of Nubia. Truncated
Pyramids 12
Rock-cut Tombs 13
Development of Column from Pier 14
The Tombs at Beni-hassan 14, 15
Development of the Lotos-column 16, 17
The Invasion of the Hycsos. Restriction
of the Prismatic Shaft. Extended
Application of the Floral Column
in the New Theban Empire 18, 19
The Calyx Capital 20, 21
Piers with Figures of Osiris and Typhon.
Entablature 21
Cavern Sepulchres 22
Temple Plan, Obelisks 23
Peristyle Court 25
Hypostyle Hall 26, 27
The Dwellings of Kings and Priests 28
Peripteral Temples 29
Rock-cut Temples 30
The Monuments at Abou-Simbel 31, 32
Palatial and Domestic Architecture 33
Interiors 34
The Labyrinth 35
Unimportant Character of Secular Architecture 36
SCULPTURE.
Fundamental and Changeless Peculiarities 36
Conventional Types 37
The Formation of the Head 38
Head-dresses. Conjunction of Human
Trunks and Animal Heads 39
The Body. Lack of Progressiveness
and of History 40
Animal Forms 41
Materials 42
Reliefs 43
Coilanaglyphics 44
The Variety and Interest of the Subjects
Illustrated 45
PAINTING.
Intimate Relation to Sculpture. Hieroglyphics 46
Painting as an Architectural Decoration.
Retrospect 47
CHALDÆA, BABYLONIA, AND ASSYRIA.
The Traditional Age. The Land and
People 48
Building Materials. Clay and Bitumen 49
Perishable Character of the Monuments.
Hills of Rubbish Recognized as
Cities 50
ARCHITECTURE.
_Chaldæa._
The Ruins of Mugheir, or Ur 50
Warka and Abou-Sharein 51
The Principle of the Arch 52
Political History 53
_Babylon._
The Fabulous Account of Herodotos 54
The Temple Pyramid at Borsippa 56
Palace Structures. The Hanging Gardens
of Semiramis 57
Private Dwellings. Works of Engineering 58
_Assyria._
Nineveh 59
The Discoveries of Layard and Botta 60
The Hills of Coyundjic and Nebbi-Jonas 61
Royal Dwellings 62
The Palace at Kisr-Sargon 63-65
Terrace Pyramids 66
Lighting and Roofing 66, 67
The Restriction of Columnar Architecture 68
The Forms of Small Columns 69-71
Vaulted Construction 71
The Pointed Arch 72
The General Appearance of the Palaces 73
Sacred Architecture 74
Terrace Pyramids 75
The Cella 76
The Dwellings of the Priests 77
Altars and Obelisks 78
Domestic Architecture 79, 80
SCULPTURE.
Little Represented in Chaldæa 81
Babylonian Seals and Gems 82
Enamelled Tiles 83
Statues 85
Conventional Types 85, 86
Cherubims 87
Mural Reliefs 87-89
Variance from Egyptian Sculpture 90
Historical Reliefs 91-93
Religious Representations 94
Formal Landscapes. Bronzes 95, 96
PAINTING.
Upon Tiles and Stucco 96
Colors 97
The General Appearance of Assyrian
Architecture, as Decorated by Reliefs
and Paintings 98
PERSIA.
Historical Considerations 99
The Artistic Poverty of the Medes.
The Achæmenidæ. Their Chief
Cities 100
ARCHITECTURE.
Persepolis 101, 102
The Characteristic Differences of Persian
and Mesopotamian Building 102
The Introduction of Columns 103
Columnar Forms 103, 104
Capitals 105-107
The Entablature 108
Plan of the Palace of Darius 109-113
Its State of Preservation 110
Illumination 110, 111
Upper Stories 111-113
The Palace and Hall of Xerxes 114
The Propylæa 115
The Harem 116, 117
The Disposition of the Terrace 117
Fire Altars 118
Funeral Monuments 119-121
Tomb of Cyrus 119
Tombs of the Later Achæmenidæ 120
Tombs of Subjects 121
Domestic Architecture 121
SCULPTURE.
Its Dependence upon the Art of Assyria 121
Egyptian and Hellenic Influences 122
Mythological and Ceremonial Representations 123-125
The Sculptured Decoration of Palaces
and Terraces 126, 127
Rarity of Historical Scenes 128
PAINTING.
Chiefly Ornamental 128
General Harmony of the Three Arts 129
PHŒNICIA, PALESTINE, AND ASIA MINOR.
Extensive Artistic Influence of Mesopotamia
in Point of Distance as well
as of Time 130
The Seleucidæ. The Sassanidæ 131, 132
_Phœnicia._
Explorations in Recent Times 132, 133
The Chief Cities 133
ARCHITECTURE.
Ruins at Amrith 134, 135
The Monuments known as El-Meghazil 135-137
The Grotto Tombs of Central Phœnicia.
Sarcophagi at Jebeil 137, 138
Domestic Architecture 138
SCULPTURE.
Work of Driven Metal (Sphyrelaton) 139
Bronzes 139, 140
Inlaid Work. Ivory Carvings. Glass 140
Influence of the Sphyrelaton upon
Sculptural Style 141
Stone-cutting 142
The Decisive Influence of both Egypt
and Mesopotamia 143
_Palestine._
The Dependence of the Jews in Artistic
respects upon Egypt 143
The Tabernacle 143-147
Its Disposition 144, 145
Its Columns. The Horns of the Altar.
The Seven-armed Candlestick 145, 146
The Holy of Holies. Cherubim 146, 147
Solomon’s Temple 147-156
Untrustworthiness of Biblical Accounts 147
Construction of the Building. Its Site 148
The Brazen Laver 149
“Jachin and Boaz” 149-151
The Tower 151, 152
Interior. Upper Story 153, 154
Materials 154
Decoration. The Molten Sea. The
Mercy-seat and Cherubim 155
The Destruction and Rebuilding of this
Temple 156
Its Architectural Character 157
Rock-cut Tombs 157, 158
_Cyprus and Carthage._
The Rock-cut Tombs at Paphos 160
The Temple of Aphrodite at Golgoi.
Cesnola’s Discoveries 161, 162
The Ruins of Carthage 163
_Malta, the Balearic Isles, Sardinia_ 163
_Asia Minor._
An Independent Art Found only in Lycia,
Phrygia, and Lydia 164
The Rock-cut Tombs of Lycia. The Timbered
Dwelling Carved in Stone 165, 166
The Monument of the Harpies at Xanthos 167
Lycian Sarcophagi 168
Temple Façades Imitated upon Cliffs 169
The Rock-cut Tombs of Phrygia 171, 172
The Tumuli of Lydia 173, 174
HELLAS.
The Ægean Sea the Centre of Greek
Civilization 175
The Dorians and the Ionians 176
The Development of Poetry Earlier than
that of Art 177
ARCHITECTURE.
The Tholos of Atreus 179-183
The Phœnician Character of its Decoration 183
The Grave at Menidi 183
The Treasure-houses of the Pelopidæ 184
Tumuli 185
The Common Modes of Burial 186
Pyramids 186, 187
Primitive Fortifications. Tiryns 187
Mykenæ 188
Gateways and Portals 189-193
The Agora of Mykenæ 192
Primitive Temple Cellas without Columns 192, 193
The Structure upon Mt. Ocha. Timbered
Roofs and Ceilings. The Origin
of the Doric Entablature 195-197
The Decorative Painting of Woodwork 197
The Doric Column 197-199
Its Egyptian Prototype 198
The Development of the Temple-plan 199-202
The Temple in Antis 199
Prostylos 200
Amphiprostylos. Peripteros 201
Stone Construction 202
The Entasis 203
The Capital 204
The Inclination of the Columns 205
The Details of the Entablature 206-209
Polychromy 210
Curvatures 211, 212
The Pteroma and Ceiling 213
Illumination 214
Archaic Doric Temples 215
The Progress of this Style. Selinous 216
Corinth 217
Acragas 219
Olympia. Ægina 222
The Supremacy of Athens 223
The Theseion 224
The Parthenon 225
The Propylæa 226
Phigalia 227
Eleusis 228
The Ionic Style. Its Intimate Relation
to Oriental Architecture 229, 230
The Capital 231-233
The Entablature 234
Its Want of Historical Development 235
Phigalia 236
The Ionic Monuments of Asia Minor 237-240
The Ionic Monuments of Attica 240-245
The Temple upon the Ilissos 241
The Propylæa 242
The Erechtheion 243-245
Caryatides 245
The Corinthian Capital 246-249
The Temple of Olympian Zeus in Athens 249
Monumental Tombs 250
The Mausoleum of Halicarnassos 251, 252
The Monument of the Nereides at Xanthos 252
The Choragic Monument of Lysicrates 253
The so-called Tower of the Winds at
Athens 253
The Stoa 253-255
The Palæstra 255
The Gymnasion 256
The Stadion and Hippodrome 257
The Theatre and Odeion 258-260
Domestic Architecture. Palaces 260, 261
The Boundless Luxury of the Diadochi 261
SCULPTURE.
The Unrivalled Perfection of the Art.
Its Fundamental Deviation from the
Principles of Egyptian Sculpture 264, 265
Its Dependence upon Western Asia 266
Empaistic Work. Xoana 267
Dædalos 268
The Homeric Shield of Achilles. Its
Workmanship and Artistic Importance 269-271
Pseudo-Hesiodic Shield of Heracles 272
The Gate of the Lions at Mykenæ 273, 274
Schliemann’s Excavations upon the
Acropolis of Mykenæ 274, 275
The Chest of Kypselos. The Throne of
Apollo at Amyclæ 276-278
The Introduction of Bronze Casting.
Marble-cutting and Chryselephantine
Work 278-281
The Potter Boutades 278
Glaucos. Rhoicos and Theodores 279
Boupalos and Athenis 280
Dipoinos and Skyllis 281, 282
The First Metopes at Selinous 283, 284
Archaic Statues at Miletos 285
Reliefs at Assos. The Apollo of Thera 286
The Stele of Aristion 287, 288
The Second Metopes at Selinous 290
Archaistic Works 291, 292
The Gable Sculptures of the Temple of
Ægina 293-296
The School of Ægina: Callon and Onatas 296, 297
The School of Attica: Hegias, Critios,
and Nesiotes 297
Canachos 298
Agelades 299
Calamis 300
Pythagoras 301
Myron 302, 303
The Progress of Athens after the Persian
Wars 303
Pheidias 304-315
The Athene Parthenos 310-313
The Panathenaic Frieze 313-315
The Metopes 316
The Scholars of Pheidias. Agoracritos 316, 317
The Gable Sculptures of the Temple of
Olympia 317, 318
The Victory of Paionios 319
The Scholars of Myron 320
The Phigalian Frieze 321
Callimachos and Demetrios 322
Polycleitos 322-326
The Third Metopes at Selinous 327, 328
The Extent of the School of Attica and
Argos. Kephisodotos 329
Scopas 330-333
The Niobids 331, 332
Praxiteles 333
The Scholars of Scopas and Praxiteles.
The Sculptures of the Mausoleum of
Halicarnassos 334
The Hermes of Olympia 335, 336
The Venus of Melos 338, 339
Silanion and Euphranor 340
Lysippos 340-344
The School of Lysippos 344, 345
The Sculpture of the Hellenistic Period 346, 347
The Altar at Pergamon 347, 348
The so-called Dying Gladiator 348, 349
The School of Pergamon 349, 350
The School of Rhodes. The Laocoon 351-353
The Farnese Bull 353-355
The Apollo Belvedere 356-358
The Introduction of Greek Sculpture
into Rome 358-360
The Borghese Gladiator 361
The Belvedere Torso 362
The Hellenic Renaissance in Rome 363-366
PAINTING.
Lack of all Remains 366
Its Early Development Fictitiously Related
by Pliny. Eumaros. Kimon 367
Polygnotos 368, 369
The Scenography of Agatharchos. Of
Apollodoros 370
Zeuxis 371, 372
Parrhasios 373, 374
Timanthes 374
The School of Sikyon: Eupompos,
Pamphilos 375
Melanthios. Pausias 376
The School of Thebes and Athens: Nicomachos,
Aristides, Euphranor 377, 378
Nikias 378
Apelles 379-382
Protogenes 383
Antiphilos. Ætion. Asclepiodoros.
Theon 384
Hellenistic Painting. Timomachos 385
Trivial and Obscene Subjects. Mosaic. Sosos 386
ETRURIA.
Relationship to the Arts of Greece 387
ARCHITECTURE.
The so-called Cyclopean Walls. Arched
Gates 388
Vaulted Canals 389
Cemeteries. Tumuli. The Tomb of
Porsena 390
Imitations of Dwellings upon Tombs 391, 392
Grotto Sepulchres 392
Imitations of Temple Façades upon
Cliffs 393, 394
Norchia 394, 395
The Etruscan Temple 396, 397
The Dwelling-house 397
Its Court 398, 399
Lack of Progressive Architectural History 399, 400
SCULPTURE.
Museums. The Oldest or Decorative
Period. Phœnician Importations 400
The Influence of Western Asia Superseded
by that of Greece 401, 402
The Sarcophagus of Cære 402
Realism. Sculpture in Marble 403
The Bronze Chariot from Perugia 404
The Capitoline Wolf. Engraved Mirrors 405
Height of Etruscan Art. Hellenistic Influences 406
Sculptured Sarcophagi 406, 407
Terra-cottas and Bronzes 408
The Similarity of late Etruscan to Roman
Sculpture 408, 409
PAINTING.
Its Development Similar to that of
Sculpture. The Ornamental and Dependent
Period 409
Realistic Characteristics 409, 410
The Wall-paintings of Cære and Corneto 409, 410
The Influence of Greece 411
Artistic Manufactures 411, 412
Sgraffiti. The Importance of Etruscan
Art 412
ROME.
The Conditions of Civilization Similar
to those of Etruria 413
ARCHITECTURE.
Primitive Walls 414, 415
Gates. Vaulted Canals 416
Temples: their Tuscan Character. The
Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus 417
Hellenic Influences 418
Prostylos and Pseudo-peripteros 419, 420
The Tuscan Order 420
The Doric Order 420, 421
The Ionic Order 421, 422
The Corinthian Order 423, 424
The Composite Capital 424
Constructive Advances. Arching and
Vaulting 425
Aqueducts and Sewers 425, 426
Baths 426-429
The Baths of Agrippa. The Pantheon 427
The Baths of Caracalla and of Diocletian 428, 429
The Circus, Theatre, and Amphitheatre 430-436
The Theatre of Marcellus 433
The Flavian Amphitheatre (Colosseum) 436
Funeral Monuments 436, 437
Commemorative Columns 437
Triumphal Arches 438-440
Public Buildings. Basilicas 441-443
Dwellings 444
Private Courts of Justice the Prototypes
of the Christian Basilica 445-447
SCULPTURE.
Lack of Statues during the Earliest
Period. Decorative Work 447, 448
The Influence of Etruria 448
The Influence of Greece 449
Rise of Sculpture after the Samnite
War 449, 450
Importations of Statues from Greece 451
Coponius 452
Portrait Sculpture 453-455
Iconic Statues 453
The Horses of St. Mark’s 454
Shortcomings of Roman Reliefs 456, 457
Historical Representations 457-459
Trajan’s Column 458
The Arch of Titus 459
The Monument of Antoninus Pius 460
The Degeneration of Sculpture 461
Portraiture 461, 462
The Arch of Constantine 463
PAINTING.
The Earliest Paintings by Greek Artists.
The Temple of Ceres 464
Fabius Pictor 464, 465
Pacuvius and Metrodoros 465
Battle-scenes 465, 466
Panel-painting. Collections 466
Wall Decorations after the Alexandrian
Fashion 466-470
The Golden House of Nero 467
Landscapes. Architectural Ornamentation 468, 469
Mosaics 470, 471
From Herculaneum and Pompeii 471
Conclusion 471, 472
The Christian Paintings of the Catacombs 472
GLOSSARY 473
INDEX 479
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
EGYPT.
FIGURE PAGE
1. The Pyramids of Gizeh 1
2. The Great Pyramid of Gizeh. Section
N. and S., looking West 6
3. Section of the Great Pyramid of
Saccara 9
4. The Pyramid of Meydoun 10
5. Southern Stone Pyramid of Dashour 11
6. Section of the Middle Pyramid of
Abousere 13
7. Egyptian Wall-painting. Transport
of a Colossus 14
8. Section and Plan of the Northernmost
Rock-cut Tomb at Beni-hassan 15
9. Second Rock-cut Tomb at Beni-hassan 16
10. Pier Decoration from the Tombs of
Sauiet-el-Meytin 17
11. Lotos-column of Beni-hassan 18
12. Column from Sedinga 19
13. Lotos-columns from Thebes 20
14. Calyx Capital from Carnac 21
15. Capitals from Edfou 22
16. Osiris Pier 23
17. Royal Grave near Thebes 24
18. Southern Temple of Carnac 25
19. Temple of Edfou 26
20. Great Temple of Carnac 27
21. Section of the Hypostyle Hall,
Great Temple of Carnac 28
22. Chapel upon the Platform of the
Temple of Dendera 29
23. Temple of Philæ 30
24. Façade of the Rock-cut Temple of
Abou-Simbel 31
25. Hall of the Rock-cut Temple of
Abou-Simbel 32
26. Egyptian Wall-painting. Interior
of a House 33
27. Labyrinth of the Fayoum 35
28. Egyptian Profile. Greek Profile 38
29. Husband and Wife. (Munich Glyptothek.) 39
30. The Schoolmaster of Boulac 40
31. Lion of Reddish Granite. (British
Museum.) 41
32. Egyptian Wall-painting. Sculptural
Work 43
33. Egyptian Wall-painting. Lance-maker 44
34. Egyptian Wall-painting. Prisoners
of Different Nationalities 45
CHALDÆA, BABYLONIA, AND ASSYRIA.
35. Relief from Corsabad. Assyrian
Shrines 48
36. Temple at Mugheir (Ur) 49
37. Ruins of Warka 51
38. Patterned Wall. Warka 51
39. Tomb at Mugheir 52
40. Bors-Nimrud. Temple-terrace at
Borsippa 54
41. Plan and Elevation of the Temple at
Borsippa 56
42. Plan of Babylon 59
43. Plan of Nineveh 61
44. Plan of the Palace of Kisr-Sargon,
Corsabad 63
45. Ornamented Pavement from the
Northern Palace of Coyundjic 64
46. Cornice of the Temple Substructure
at Corsabad 66
47. Plan of the Northwestern Palace of
Nimrud 67
48. Relief from Coyundjic 68
49. Plan of the Palace of Esarhaddon
at Nimrud 69
50. Various Capitals and Bases, from
Assyrian Reliefs 70
51. Table, from an Assyrian Relief 71
52. Mouth of a Tunnel under the N. E.
Palace, Nimrud 72
53. Tunnel under the S. E. Palace,
Nimrud 72
54. View of an Assyrian Palace, Restoration 73
55. Terraced Pyramid, from a Relief,
Coyundjic 74
56. Plan and Section of the Terraced
Pyramid, Nimrud 75
57. Relief from the Northern Palace,
Coyundjic 76
58. Entrance to One of the So-called
Temples, Nimrud 77
59. Obelisk from Nimrud 78
60. Assyrian Dwellings. Relief from
Coyundjic 79
61. Tent-like Dwelling. Relief from
Coyundjic 80
62. Susa. Relief from Coyundjic 81
63. Babylonian Seal, and its Impression 82
64. Wall Decoration of Enamelled
Tiles 83
65. Statue of a King, from Nimrud 84
66. Winged Lion, ” ” 85
67. Winged Bull, ” ” 85
68. Lion, ” ” 86
69. King and Warrior. Relief from
Corsabad 88
70. Heads. Reliefs from Nimrud 89
71. Temple. Relief from Corsabad 90
72. A Besieged City. Relief from
Nimrud 91
73. Wounded Lioness. Relief from
Coyundjic 92
74. Transportation of Stone. Relief
from Coyundjic 93
75. Transport of a Cherubim 94
76. Glazed Terra-cotta, from Nimrud 97
PERSIA.
77. Restoration of the Palace of Darius,
Persepolis 99
78. Plan of Persepolis 101
79. Fragment of a Base from Pasargadæ 103
80. Persian Columns with Bull Capitals 104
81. Spiral Ornaments upon Chairs 105
82. Columns from the Eastern Portico
of the Hall of Xerxes 106
83. Rock-cut Tomb of Darius 107
84. Entablature of the Palace of Darius 109
85. Plan of the Palace of Darius at
Persepolis 110
86. Persian Door-casing 112
87. Relief from the Portal of the Hall
of a Hundred Columns 113
88. Propylæa of Xerxes at Persepolis 115
89. Altar Pedestals at Pasargadæ 118
90. The Tomb of Cyrus 119
91. Relief from a Portal, Persepolis 124
92. Relief from the Stairs of the Palace
of Darius 127
PHŒNICIA, PALESTINE, AND ASIA MINOR.
93. Rock-cut Tombs at Myra 130
94. Temple Cella (El-Maabed) at Amrith 134
95. The Monuments El-Meghazil at
Amrith 136
96. Façade of a Rock-cut Tomb at Jebeil 138
97. From a Relief at Saida 141
98. From the monument El-Meghazil
at Amrith 141
99. From Rock-cut Relief at Mashnaka 142
100. The Mosaic Tabernacle 143
101. Relief at Thabarieh 146
102. Vase Discovered in Cyprus 150
103. Hypothetical Plan and Section of
Solomon’s Temple 151
104. Rock-cut Tomb at Siloam 158
105. Rock-cut Tomb at Hinnom 158
106. Tomb at Paphos in Cyprus 160
107. Cyprian Pilaster Capitals 161
108. Votive Figure from Cyprus 162
109. Cyprian Head 163
110. Rock-cut Tomb at Antiphellos 164
111. Rock-cut Tomb at Antiphellos 165
112. Rock-cut Tomb at Myra 166
113. The so-called Monument of the
Harpies at Xanthos 167
114. Sarcophagus at Antiphellos 168
115. Rock-cut Tomb at Telmissos 169
116. Details of Columns from Telmissos,
Myra, and Antiphellos 170
117. The so-called Tomb of Midas 171
118. Phrygian Rock-cut Tomb near Doganlu 172
119. The so-called Grave of Tantalos 174
GREECE.
120. View of the Athenian Propylæa.
Restoration 175
121. Plan and Section of the Tholos of
Atreus 179
122. Restoration of the Tholos of
Atreus. Portal 180
123. Fragments of an Engaged Column
from the same 181
124. The Pyramid of Kencreæ 186
125. Plan of the Acropolis of Tiryns 188
126. The Gate of the Lions at Mykenæ 189
127. The Smaller Gate at Mykenæ 189
128. Portal from Samos 190
129. Gateway of Phigalia 190
130. Portal upon Delos 191
131. Gate of Missolonghi 192
132. Gate of Messene 192
133. Gate of Thoricos 193
134. Gate of Ephesos 193
135. Interior of a Structure upon Mount
Ocha, Eubœa 194
136. Elevation of the Corner of the
Middle Temple, Selinous 203
137. Entablature of the Parthenon 206
138. Scheme of the Doric Entablature 207
139. Plan and Elevation of the so-called
Temple of Theseus 208
140. Painting over the Pteroma of the
same 209
141. Coffered Pteroma Ceiling, Selinous 211
142. Coffered Ceilings from the Parthenon 212
143. Plan of the Middle Temple, Selinous 213
144. Capital from the Northern Temple, Selinous 216
145. Capital from the Middle Temple,
Selinous 216
146. Capital from the Temple at Assos 216
147. Capital from the Eastern Plateau,
Selinous 217
148. Capital from the Temple of Zeus,
Selinous 217
149. Capital from the Temple of Heracles,
Acragas 217
150. Capital from the Temple of Theseus,
Athens 218
151. Capital from the Portico of Philip,
Delos 218
152. Capital from the Temple of Demeter,
Pæstum 218
153. Plan of the Great Temple at
Pæstum 219
154. Plan, Section, and Elevation of the
Temple of Zeus, Acragas 220
155. Entablatures of the Older and of
the Present Parthenon 221
156. Plan of the Temple of Zeus at
Olympia 222
157. Plan of the Parthenon 225
158. Plan and View of the Propylæa,
Athens 226
159. Plan of the Temple of Apollo,
Bassæ 227
160. Plan of the Temenos at Eleusis 228
161. Ionic Order of the Mausoleum at
Halicarnassos 232
162. Plan of the Normal Ionic Capital 233
163. Plan of the Corner Ionic Capital 233
164. Ceiling of the Peripteros of the
Mausoleum. Restored 235
165. Base and Capital from Bassæ 236
166. Base from the Heraion at Samos 237
167. Base from the Temple of Apollo
Didymæos, Miletos 237
168. Base from the Temple of Athene,
Priene 237
169. Base from the Propylæa, Cnidos 237
170. ” ” Temple of Wingless
Victory, Athens 237
171. Ruins of the Temple at Aphrodisias 239
172. The Temple upon the Ilissos 241
173. Plan of the Erechtheion 242
174. Northwestern View of the Erechtheion 243
175. Order of the Eastern Portico of
the Erechtheion 244
176. Corinthian Capital from Bassæ 248
177. ” ” from the Temple
of Apollo, Miletos 248
178. Corinthian Capital from the Tower
of the Winds, Athens 248
179. Tomb at Mylassa 251
180. The Mausoleum at Halicarnassos.
Restoration 252
181. The Monument of the Nereides at
Xanthos 253
182. Plan of the Stoa Diple at Thoricos 254
183. Plan of the Stadion at Messene 256
184. Plan of the Hippodrome at Olympia 257
185. Plan of the Greek Theatre, according
to Vitruvius 258
186. The Theatre at Segesta. Restored 259
187. The Cover of Dodwell’s Vase.
(Munich.) 271
188. The Relief over the Gate of the
Lions, Mykenæ 273
189. Steles from the Acropolis of Mykenæ 275
190. Golden Mask from Mykenæ 276
191. Figures from the Vase of Clitias
and Ergotimos 277
192. Metope Relief from Selinous 284
193. Statues from Miletos 285
194. The Apollo of Thera 286
195. Archaic Relief from Sparta 287
196. The Stele of Aristion 288
197. A Stele found at Orchomenos 290
198. Head of a Warrior, Selinous 291
199. Archaistic Artemis, from Pompeii 292
200. Central Figures from the Western
Gable, Ægina 294
201. Harmodios and Aristogeiton 297
202. Apollo, after Canachos 298
203. The Discos-thrower 302
204. Statuette of the Athene Parthenos 305
205. Fragment Imitated from the Shield
of Athene Parthenos 306
206. Coins of Elis 307
207. Demeter and Persephone, from the
Parthenon 311
208. Aphrodite and Peitho, from the
Parthenon 312
209. Fragment from the Frieze of the
Cella of the Parthenon 314
210. Figure from the Temple of Zeus,
Olympia 316
211. Figure from the Temple of Zeus,
Olympia 317
212. Head of Apollo, from the Temple
of Zeus, Olympia 318
213. Metope from the Temple of Zeus,
Olympia 319
214. The Victory of Paionios, Olympia 320
215. From the Frieze of the Temple at
Phigalia 321
216. Copy of the Doryphoros, Naples 323
217. Amazon, after Polycleitos 325
218. Head of Hera, Naples 326
219. The Ludovisi Juno, Rome 326
220. Metope from the Eastern Plateau,
Selinous 328
221. Eirene and Ploutos, after Kephisodotos 329
222. The Apollo Kitharoidos 330
223. Niobids. (Florence.) 331
224. Head of Niobe 332
225. Fragment of the Frieze at Halicarnassos 334
226. Head of Eros. (Vatican.) 335
227. The Hermes of Praxiteles 336
228. The Head of the Hermes 337
229. The Venus of Melos 338
230. Copy of the Apoxyomenos of Lysippos 341
231. The Farnese Hercules 343
232. The Zeus of Otricoli 344
233. Boreas, from the Tower of the
Winds 346
234. Notos, from the Tower of the
Winds 346
235. Coins of the Diadochi 347
236. The Dying Gladiator 348
237. The Laocoon 352
238. The Farnese Bull 354
239. The Wrestlers 356
240. The Apollo Belvedere 357
241. The Artemis of Versailles 359
242. The Borghese Gladiator 361
243. The Belvedere Torso 362
244. Group from the Villa Ludovisi 364
245. The Capitoline Centaur 365
ETRURIA.
246. The Campana Tomb at Veii 387
247. The Gate of Falerii 388
248. Canal of the Marta 389
249. Restored Plan and Elevation of
the Tomb of Porsena 391
250. Ceiling of a Tomb at Cervetri 392
251. Plan and Section of a Tomb at
Cervetri 393
252. Interior of a Tomb at Cervetri 394
253. Temple Tomb at Norchia 395
254. Elevation of the Etruscan Temple,
according to Vitruvius 397
255. Tomb at Corneto 398
256. Etruscan Sarcophagus 399
257. Bust from the Grotto dell’ Iside in
Vulci 402
258. Sarcophagus of Terra-cotta from
Cære 403
259. Etruscan Relief 404
260. The Capitoline Wolf 405
261. Etruscan Stone Sarcophagus 407
262. Painting from Cære 410
ROME.
263. The Janus Quadrifrons in the
Forum Boarium 413
264. Gateway in the Walls of Norba 414
265. Remains of the Servian Wall 415
266. The Cloaca Maxima 417
267. Plan of the Temple of Fortuna
Virilis 419
268. Plan of the Temple of Antoninus
and Faustina 419
269. Tuscan Column from the Coliseum 420
270. The Temple at Cori 421
21. View of the Temple of Fortuna
Virilis 422
272. Corinthian Capital from the Pantheon 424
273. Composite Capital 424
274. Section of the Aqua Marcia Tepula
and Julia 426
275. Section of the Pantheon, in its
Present Condition 427
276. Section of the Pantheon. Restoration
by Adler 428
277. Plan of the Baths of Caracalla 429
278. Chief Hall of the Baths of Caracalla 430
279. Plan of the Circus of Romulus 431
280. Scheme of the Roman Theatre,
according to Vitruvius 432
281. Theatre of Marcellus, Rome 433
282. Plan of the Flavian Amphitheatre 434
283. Section of the Auditorium of the
Flavian Amphitheatre 435
284. Façade and Section of a Rock-cut
Tomb at Petra 438
285. Triumphal Arch of Titus 439
286. ” ” Septimius Severus 440
287. Section of the Primitive Roman
Basilica 442
288. Plan of the Primitive Roman Basilica 442
289. Plan of the Basilica of Maxentius 443
290. Section of the House of Pansa in
Pompeii 444
291. Plan of the House of Pansa in
Pompeii 444
292. The Flavian Palace 445
293. Court of the Palace of Diocletian
at Spalatro 446
294. Fragment of the Cista Prænestina 447
295. Janus Bifrons upon an Ancient
Roman Coin 448
296. Statue of Isis. (Museum of Naples.) 450
297. Relief of Mithras. (In the Louvre.) 451
298. Vertumnus (Silvanus). (In Berlin.) 452
299. Relief of Bonus Eventus. (British
Museum.) 453
300. Statue of Augustus. (In the Vatican.) 454
301. Equestrian Statue of Nonius Balbus,
Jun. 455
302. Relief from the Arch of Titus in
Rome. 458
303. Relief of Trajan, from the Arch of
Constantine in Rome. 450
304. Relief upon the Pedestal of the
Column of Antoninus Pius 460
305. Victory, from the Arch of Constantine 463
306. Wall-painting from the Aurea
Domus of Nero 466
307. Ceres. Pompeian Wall-painting 467
308. Wall-painting from Herculaneum 468
309. Landscape-painting from Pompeii 469
310. Wall-painting of Decorative Architecture,
Pompeii 470
[Illustration: Fig. I.--The Pyramids of Gizeh.]
EGYPT.
It is a curious chance that the most ancient monuments of human
civilization should stand upon a land which is one of the youngest
geological formations of our earth. The scene of that artistic activity
made known to us by the oldest architectural remains of Africa and of
the world was not Upper Egypt, where steep primeval cliffs narrow the
valley of the Nile, but the alluvion of the river’s delta. It would be
difficult to decide whether the impulse of monumental creativeness were
here first felt, or whether the mere fact of the preservation of these
Egyptian works, secured by the indestructibility of their construction
as well as by the unchangeableness of Egyptian art, be sufficient to
explain this priority to other nations of antiquity--notably to
Mesopotamia. Although no ruins have been found in Chaldæa of earlier
date than the twenty-third century B.C., it is not at all impossible
that remains of greater antiquity may yet come to light in a country
which is by no means thoroughly explored. Nor should we deem the oldest
structures now preserved to be necessarily those first erected. The
perishable materials of the buildings which stood in the plains of the
Euphrates and Tigris, generally sun-dried bricks with asphalt cement,
were not calculated to insure long duration, or to prevent their
overthrow and obliteration by the continual changes in the course of
these rivers, through the silting and swamping of their valleys. Yet,
though tradition would incline us to _assume_ that Chaldæan civilization
and art were the more ancient, the oldest monuments _known_ exist upon
the banks of the Nile.
The changeless blue of the Egyptian sky, the strictly regular return of
all the natural phenomena connected with the Nile, that wonderful stream
of the land’s life, are entirely in accord with the fixedness of
Egyptian civilization in all its branches. Though the high state of
advance which we first find in Egyptian art, three thousand years before
the Christian era, must necessarily have been preceded by less perfected
degrees, it is wholly impossible to perceive such stages of development
in any of the monuments known. After Egypt had attained a certain height
of civilization, its history, during the thousands of years known to us,
shows none of those phases of advance or decline, of development in
short, to be observed in Europe during every century, if not during
every decade.
The Egyptian completed buildings and statues begun by his remote
ancestors without the slightest striving for individual peculiarity. He
commenced new works in the same spirit, leaving them for similar
execution by his great-grandchildren. Numberless generations thus
dragged on without bequeathing a trace of any peculiar character and
ability. It is only by the cartouches of the kings in the hieroglyphic
inscriptions that it is possible to separate the dynasties, and to group
into periods of a thousand years or more, works of art which seem from
their style to belong to one and the same age. What gigantic revolutions
have affected the civilization of Europe during the fourteen centuries
elapsed since the overthrow of the Roman Empire, and how slight are the
appreciable changes during the nearly equal number of years of the
ancient dynasties of Memphis--the period of the pyramids, or again of
the Theban kingdom--from the seventeenth dynasty to the rule of the
Ptolemies!
The true age of the monuments of Lower Egypt has not long been known.
When Napoleon I. fired the spirits of his troops before the Battle of
the Pyramids by the well-known words “Forty centuries look down upon you
from the heights of these pyramids,” he must have been aware that,
according to the conceptions of the archæological science of the time,
he was exaggerating. In fact, however, he was far behind the truth. The
pyramids of Abousere, possibly also those of Dashour, are of the third
dynasty (3338 to 3124 B.C., according to Lepsius), those of Gizeh of the
fourth dynasty of Manetho (3124 to 2840 B.C.). These are structures
which have stood for five thousand years. The pyramids of Cochome,
referred to as the first dynasty of Manetho, are still older, dating
from a time nearly coincident, according to Biblical authority, with the
creation of the world itself (3761 B.C.).
It is true we are still so far from chronological certainty that dates
often differ astonishingly. Osburn, for instance, places the fourth and
fifth dynasties as late as the period between 2228 and 2108 B.C., and
notably the two kings of the fourth dynasty, Shofo and Nu-Shofo, about
2170 B.C. The first twelve dynasties of Memphis, dated by Lepsius about
3892 to 2167, and by Osburn as late as 1959 B.C., are now known
principally by their monumental tombs. Among these, the sepulchres of
the kings are prominent in like manner as the ruler in an absolute and
theocratic monarchy is elevated above his subjects.
The enslaved people labored upon the monuments of their masters, often
during the entire lifetime of these latter. It may be seen from
contemporary wall-paintings that the discipline maintained during the
work of construction was not lacking in strictness, but it was certainly
not that excessive oppression generally imagined. A body of over one
hundred thousand workmen sorely oppressed might, even in Egypt, have
been difficult to manage by a hated despot. It was principally during
the annual inundations of the Nile that the kings employed and fed the
poorer classes, at that time, perhaps, unable otherwise to subsist.
During other seasons the rulers could not have taken the tillers of the
soil from fields and flocks without great injury to their own interests.
It is no mark of a selfish despotism, which builds without reference to
the welfare of land and subjects, that the kings removed their enormous
sepulchral piles from the vicinity of their residences--from the
valuable alluvion of the Nile to the barren edge of the desert. They
thus, as Plato recommends, occupied no place with dwellings of the dead
where it would be possible for the living to find nourishment. The
fertile ground of the valley was not encumbered by the colossal
pyramids, which were so numerous in ancient Egypt that Lepsius found the
remains of sixty-seven in the forty-eight kilometers alone between Cairo
and the Fayoum, on the western bank of the river. Supposing only five
score such pyramids, with an average area of one hundred ares each, two
elevenths of that of the great pyramid of Gizeh, to have stood in the
narrow valley of the Nile, what an enormous loss in the grain production
of that most fertile but limited land would so great a reduction of
arable surface have caused during the past five thousand years!
The fundamental motive of the pyramid is the funeral mound. A small
upheaval above the natural level of the ground results of itself from
the earth displaced by the bulk of the buried body. Our present practice
of interment clearly illustrates this. Increased dimensions elevate the
mound to an independent monument. Many nations, some of a high degree of
civilization, have contented themselves with such imposing hills of
earth over the grave,--tumuli, which, from the manner of their
construction, assumed a conical form. Others placed the mound upon a low
cylinder, thus better marking its distinction from accidental natural
elevations. The Egyptians and the Mesopotamians rejected the cone
entirely, and formed, with plane surfaces upon a square plan, the highly
monumental pyramid. Peculiar to the former people are the inclined sides
which give to the pyramid its absolute geometrical form, as opposed to
the terraced structures of Chaldæa. The sand of the desert ebbed and
flowed fifty centuries ago as constantly as in our time, when the
sphinx, after being uncovered to its base, has been quickly hidden again
to the neck. Rulers, unwilling that their gigantic tombs should be thus
submerged, were obliged to secure to them great height, with inclined
and unbroken sides, upon which the sand could not lodge.
The typical pyramid of Gizeh, near Cairo--the monument of Cheops
(Shofo, Suphis), the first or second king of the fourth dynasty--rises
above the broad necropolis of Memphis, by far the largest and one of the
most marvellous works of mankind. (_Fig._ 1.) With a ground-line mean of
232.56 m., the great pyramid attained an altitude of 148.21 m., of which
the entire apex is now overthrown, leaving a height of about 138 m.[A]
The original intention of the builders was doubtless an absolutely
square plan. The greatest difference in the length of the ground-lines
of the base is 0.45 m. The angle of the upward inclination of the sides
has been found, by measurements at various points, to average 51° 51´
43´´. The entire pyramid is solidly built of massive blocks, pierced by
a few narrow passages which lead to small chambers. (_Fig._ 2.) Like
most of these monuments, the entrance is situated somewhat above the
ground; it opens to a passage which descends with a gentle inclination.
The shaft is covered with stones leaning against each other, so as to
present the great resistance of a gable to the superimposed mass. In
passing out of the masonry it is continued into the natural rock under
the same angle, 26° 27´. Near the point of separation it meets with
another passage, which ascends with an inclination of 26° 6´ to the
centre of the structure, sending off a nearly horizontal branch at
half-way. All three shafts lead to grave-chambers, the highest being the
most important. As the ascent continues above the horizontal branch, its
importance is emphasized by the passage being increased from 1.2 or 1.5
m. high to a corridor 8.5 m. in height, roofed by gradually projecting
blocks, and having upon its floor a slide to facilitate the transport of
the sarcophagus. Thereupon follows a horizontal vestibule, closed most
securely by four blocks of granite which fell like portcullises. Only
three of these had been let down; the fourth remained in its original
position, the lower grooves never having been cut to allow its descent.
The upper chamber, of polished granite, but otherwise not ornamented, is
10.48 m. long, 5.24 m. broad, and 5.84 m. high.[B] It is ceiled
horizontally with nine colossal lintels of granite, a detail which
seemed at first surprising, as other voids of far less width were more
firmly covered, either by projecting and gradually approaching stones,
as in the ascending corridor; or with blocks leaned together so as to
form a gable, as in the other passages, and in the middle chamber,
called that of the Queen. Yet it was for the security of this upper
chamber that the greatest care proved to have been taken. The weight of
the half-height of the pyramid remaining above it was by no means
allowed to rest upon its horizontal lintels. There are above them five
low relieving spaces separated by four stone ceilings similar to the
first; mighty blocks are inclined over all these to a gable triangle. In
case of rupture the horizontal beams would of themselves have formed new
triangles and prevented direct downward pressure. Cheops certainly did
not need to fear the ceiling of his chamber falling in upon him.
Ventilation was provided for the room by two narrow air-channels, which,
inclining upwards, took the shortest course to the outside.
[Illustration: Fig. 2.--The Great Pyramid of Gizeh. Section North and
South, looking West.]
The perfectly geometrical form of the pyramids of Gizeh has from early
times led to speculations upon their having been erected in conformity
with mathematical or astronomical calculations; and endless attempts
have been made to discover the fixed proportions which they are supposed
to embody, and to determine their symbolical or metrical significance.
Too much is often assumed upon the strength of accidental coincidences,
generally only approximate; but if such proportions indeed existed,
whatever may have been their intention, they are evidently beyond the
true province of art.
The second great pyramid, built by the successor of Cheops, Chephren
(Sophris), seems not to have been so regular in its interior
arrangement. The third, that of Chephren’s successor, Mykerinos
(Menkera), is of the most beautiful execution. The unevenness of the
ground was so considerable that a substructure of masonry was here
necessary. The entire kernel is of rectangular courses of stone, and,
with the exception of the exterior casing, is built in the form of
steps. This manner of construction was employed in most of the pyramids,
but is here particularly noticeable. The casing of granite, highly
polished, is still partly intact; the joints of its stones are scarcely
perceptible, and are not wider than the thickness of a sheet of paper.
The mechanical excellence of all these pyramids is indeed wonderful;
they remain as a marvellous proof of the constructive ability of man in
ages far anterior to known periods of the world’s history. Nor are they
mere piles of masonry which could have been erected by an enslaved
people without the guidance of skilled and thoughtful designers. The
arrangement of the passages, of the chambers and their portcullises, of
the quarried stone and polished revetment, was admirably adapted to the
required ends.