The Written Language 67-75
The Various Kinds of Names 75v-98v
Of particular interest in the context of Collado's grammar is the manner in
which Rodriguez displays the verbal system. While the _Ars Grammaticae_
presents the verbal system as a series of alterational rules to be applied
to the base forms, the _Arte Breve_ goes even further than the _Arte_ to
differentiate the formational rules from the conjugational displays.
Rodriguez tries several devices to elucidate his material. For example,
Charts A and B below represent very early attempts to use a bordered format
for linguistic description.
In order to indicate the differences to be found between the descriptions
presented by Rodriguez and Collado, I have extracted the formational rules
from the _Arte Breve_ and, setting aside only two short appendices dealing
with variant forms, present them here in their entirety.
_THE CONJUGATION AND FORMATION OF THE TENSES AND MOODS OF THE VERBS_
_All the verbs of this language may be reduced _(se reduzem)_ to four
affirmative and three negative conjugations. This is because the negative
conjugation of the adjectival verb, which we discussed before,[11] agrees
with the second of the three conjugations; and the conjugation of the
substantive verb _S[vo]rai_, _S[vo]r[vo]_, or _soro_, which is an
abbreviated form of _Samburai_, _sambur[vo]_[12] both in the affirmative
and the negative is reduced to the third conjugation. At this point we will
treat the three affirmative and three negative ordinary conjugations of the
regular personal verbs.[13] Following this, and on account of its
particular usage and formation, we will discuss the conjugation of the
adjectival verb._
_The verbs of this language do not change _(naõ f[~e] variedade)_ to
show person and number as do those of Latin; rather, one form _(voz)_ {15}
is used for all persons, singular and plural. Number and person are
understood according to the subject _(Naminativo [_sic_])_, or pronoun,
which is joined to the verb. The moods of the verb, which in this language
have distinct forms for the tenses, are indicative, imperative,
conjunctive, conditional, and preterit participle. The remaining moods are
made up of these forms joined to certain particles. Each mood has but three
tenses which have distinct forms; these are preterit, present, and future.
These forms are signified by the Japanese terms _(vocabulos)_ _Quaco_,
_ghenzai_, _mirai_. The preterit imperfect and pluperfect are made up of
the present, preterit, and preterit participle together with the
substantive verb, as will be seen below in the conjugations._
_Concerning the formation of the tenses and moods of the verbs in general,
one is reminded that to understand the actual root _(raiz)_ and the natural
formation of all the tenses and moods, both affirmative and negative, it is
extremely important to take notice of the usage of the _Goyn_,[14] which
are the five vowels _(cinco letras vogaes)_ in the syllables which are
below each aforementioned formation; and that it is also important to
understand _Canadzucai_,[15] which is the way to write with _Firagana_ as
well as the way one joins together syllables, or letters, to form other
words _(palauras)_, while noticing which syllable is changed by which, what
constitutes long, short, or diphthongal syllables, which combinations cause
contraction _(sincope)_, which cause augmentation _(incremento)_ of the
verb, whether one makes a syllable liquid _(liquescit)_[16] or not, and how
the tenses of the moods are written with the same _Cana_.[17] The term
_Goyn_, not only indicates the syllables, or _Cana_, which are transformed
to others, such as _Fa_, _Fe_, _Fi_, _Fo_, _Fu_, which are changed to the
closely related sounds _Ba_, _Be_, _Bi_, _Bo_, _Bu_ and _Pa_, _Pe_, _Pi_,
_Po_, _Pu_; but it also indicates another kind of change from one sound to
another in the same order _(ordem)_, as happens among the syllables _Fa_,
_Fe_, _Fi_, _Fo_, _Fu_. _Ba_, _Be_, _Bi_, _Bo_, _Bu_. _Ma_, _Me_, _Mi_,
_Mo_, _Mu_, {16} etc. where often by rule _(regna)_ _Ma_ is changed to
_Mi_; or to the contrary _Bu_ to _Ba_ and _Bi_ to _Ba_, and likewise for
others. The greater part of the formation of the tenses of each mood is
confined to such changes, as is clearly seen in the way one writes the
tense forms with _Cana_. It is to this that another change belongs. That
which exists among those syllables having a certain relationship and
rapport between them, as _Ma_, _Fa_, _Ba_, _Pa_; _Me_, _Fe_, _Be_, _Pe_;
_Mi_, _Fi_, _Bi_, _Pi_; _Mo_, _Fo_, _Bo_, _Po_; _Mu_, _Fu_, _Bu_, _Pu_;
with _Mu_ and _V_. Thus, what is written _Vma_ in _Cana_ is written _Muma_,
and _Mume_ written for _Vme_ in order to conform more closely to its
pronunciation.[18] Also _Mu_ is written for _Bu_[19] so that all the
harmony _(armonia)_ in the formations of this language are contained in the
rules for _Goyn_ and _Canadzucai_. Those who are informed see, as native
speakers, how the tenses are formed for any mood, and which letter, or
syllable, must be changed to another to affect a formation. Concerning this
matter there is a booklet[20] which teaches _Canadzucai_, and the general
rules on the subject. Teachers should have this booklet to teach more
easily and advantageously those students who are learning _Cana_. Lacking a
knowledge of _Goyn_ and _Canadzucai_, some of the rules which until now
have been used in the formation of verbs (some of which I have let remain
as they were), are not the original and natural rules as are the
_Goyn_.[21] They are rather devices, some forming affirmative tenses and
moods from negative forms and others forming them from yet other more
remote sources, which appear to correspond to formational rules, but for
which the proper rules are not known. The fact is that the affirmative as
well as negative are formed from the affirmative, beginning with the root,
as will be seen below._
_Speaking in general of the formation of the verb, the forms of the
indicative and imperative moods of all three conjugations are formed from
the root of the verb. The rest of the tenses in the other affirmative moods
are formed from either the indicative or imperative forms. In the same way,
the negative indicative present is formed from the root of the verb and the
other tenses of the indicative are formed from {17} the present form. The
other negative moods are formed from the indicative forms._
FORMATION OF THE TENSES FOR THE INDICATIVE AND IMPERATIVE MOODS OF THE
VERBS OF THE FIRST AFFIRMATIVE CONJUGATION
_The final syllables of the roots of the first affirmative conjugation, by
which the verbs conjugated here are known, and from which the tenses of the
indicative will be formed, end in _E_, with the exception of the verb "to
do," _Xi_, or _Ii_, with its compounds and certain other verbs which end in
_I_. The verbs which belong to the first conjugation, are as follows [in
Charts A & B]._
_The verb _Xi_ "to do," with its compounds ending in _Xi_ or _Ii_, follows
the formation of the verbs of the first conjugation. _Ii_ is _Xi_ which has
been changed _(alterado)_ to _Ii_ because it follows the letter _N_. _Xi_
conforms to the rules for the syllables which are changed _(se mudam)_ to
others. Thus:_
Xi _In the present change _Xi_ to Suru, xita, xeô, ôzu, ôzuru,
_Suru_. In the preterit add xeyo, xenu, _or_ zu.
Faixi _Ta_ to the root. In the future Faisuru, faixita, faixeô,
change _Xi_ to _Xeô_. In the faixeyo, faixenu.
Tayxi[22] imperative change _Xi_ to _Xe_ Tassuru, taxxita, taxxeò,
and add _Yo_, _i_, or _sai_. In taxxeyo, taxxenu.
Gaxxi the negative add _Nu_, or _zu_ Gassuru, gaxxita, gaxxeô,
to _Xe_._ gaxxeyo, gaxxenu.
Zonji _In the present _Ii_ is changed Zonzuru, zonjita, zonjeô,
to _Zuru_. In the preterit _Ta_ ôzu, ôzuru, zonjeyo,
is added to the root. In the zonjenu.
Caronji future _Ii_ is changed to _Ieô_, Caronzuru, caronjita,
etc._ _etc._
Vomonji Vomonzuru, vomonjita.
Sanji Sanzuru, sanjita.
Goranji Goranzuru, goranjita.
Soranji Soranzuru, soranjita.
Ganji Canzuru, canjita.
Manji Manzuru, manjita.
_Many of these verbs have another, less used, form made by adding _Ru_ to
the root; e.g., _Abi, abiru_; _Mochiy, mochiyru_; _xiy, xiyru_. Among these
are some that have only this second form and lack the first; e.g., _Mi,
miru_; _Ni, niru_; _Fi, firu_; _Cagammi, cagammiru_; _Ki, kiru_ "to dress,"
as distinct from _Ki, kuru_ "to come"; and _y, yru_._
{18}
CHART A
[The Formation of First Conjugation Verbs Ending in _E_]
------------+---------+-----------------+-----------+------------
_Syllables_ |_Roots_ |_Formation_ |_Present_ |_Preterit_
============+=========+=================+===========+============
|Tate, |_In the present |Tatçuru. |Tateta.
| |change _Te_ to | |
Te, | |_Tçuru._ The | |
|Fate, |remainder are |Fatçuru. |Fateta.
| |from the root. | |
| |See above._ | |
| | | |
Ie, |Maje, |_Change _Ie_ to |Mazuru. |Majeta.
| |_Zuru_ in the | |
| |present. The | |
| |remainder are | |
| |from the root. | |
| |See above._ | |
| | | |
|Saxe, |_In the present |Sasuru. |Saxeta.
Xe, | |change _Xe_ to | |
| |Suru. The | |
|Mairaxe, |remainder are |Mairasuru. |Mairaxeta.
| |from the root. | |
| |See above._ | |
============+=========+=================+===========+============
------------+---------+------------+-------------+-----------
_Syllables_ |_Roots_ |_Future_ |_Imperative_ |_Negative_
============+=========+============+=============+===========
|Tate, |Tateô, ôzu, |Tateyo. |Tatenu,
| |ôzuru. |Tatei, |_or_, zu.
Te, | | |tatesay.[23] |
|Fate, |Fateô, ôzu |Fateyo, |Fatenu,
| |ôzuru. |_etc._ |_or_, zu.
| | | |
| | | |
Ie, |Maje, |Majeô. |Majeyo, |Majenu,
| | |_etc._ |_or_, zu.
| | | |
|Saxe, |Saxeô. |Saxeyo. |Saxenu,
Xe, | | | |_or_, zu.
| | | |
|Mairaxe, |Mairaxeô. |Mairaxeyo, |Mairaxenu,
| | |_etc._ |_or_, zu.
| | | |
============+=========+============+=============+===========
{19}
CHART B
------------+---------+-----------------+------------+-----------
_Syllables_ |_Roots_ |_Formation_ |_Present_ |_Preterit_
============+=========+=================+============+===========
Be, |Curabe, |_In the present |Curaburu. |Curabeta.
| |tense of these | |
| |eight forms, | |
Fe, |Fe, |change _E_ to |Furu, _or_, |Feta.
| |Vru. _In the |feru. |
| |preterit add | |
Ghe, |Aghe, |_Ta_ to the root.|Aghuru. |Agheta.
| |In the future | |
| |_ô, ôzu, ôzuru_ | |
Ke, |Tokoke, |to the root. |Todokuru. |Todoketa.
| |In the Negative | |
Me, |Motome, |present add |Motomuru. |Motometa.
| |_Nu_, or _zu_ | |
Ne, |Fane, |to the root._ |Fanuru. |Faneta.
Re, |Fanare, | |Fanaruru. |Fanareta.
Ye, |Ataye, | |Atayuru. |Atayeta.
+---------+-----------------+------------+-----------
|De, |_In the present |Dzuru. |Deta.
| |change _De_ to | |
|Ide, |_Dzuru_. The |Idzuru. |Ideta.
[De,] | |other tenses | |
|M[vo]de, |are formed, as |M[vo]dzuru. |M[vo]deta.
| |above, from | |
|Mede, |the root._ |Medzuru. |Medeta.
| | | |
============+=========+=================+============+===========
------------+---------+------------+----------------+-----------
_Syllables_ |_Roots_ |_Future_ |_Imperative_ |_Negative_
============+=========+============+================+===========
Be, |Curabe, |Curabeô, |Curabeyo, |Curabenu,
| |ôzu, ôzuru. |ei, sai. |_or_, Curabezu.
| | | |
Fe, |Fe, |Feô, ôzu, |Feyo, fei, |fenu,
| |ôzuru. |fesai. |fezu.
| | | |
Ghe, |Aghe, |Agheô, |Agheyo, |Aghenu,
| |_etc._ |_etc._ |_etc._
| | | |
Ke, |Tokoke, |Todokeô. |Todokeyo, |Todokenu,
| | |_etc._ |_etc._
Me, |Motome, |Motoneô. |Motomeyo, |Motomenu,
| | |_etc._ |_etc._
Ne, |Fane, |Faneô. |Faneyo. |Fanenu.
Re, |Fanare, |Fanareô. |Fanareyo. |Fanarenu.
Ye, |Ataye, |Atayeô. |Atayeyo. |Atayenu.
+---------+------------+----------------+-----------
|De, |Deô, ôzu, |Deyo, |Denu.
| |_etc._ |_etc._ |
|Ide, |Ideô, ôzu. |Ideyo. |Idenu.
[De,] | | | |
|M[vo]de, |_This verb is defective and lacks
| |other forms._
|Mede, |_This verb is defective and has no
| |other forms_.
============+=========+============+================+===========
{20}
FORMATION OF THE OPTATIVE, CONJUNCTIVE, AND CONDITIONAL MOODS, AND THE
PARTICIPLE
_The optative mood does not have forms of its own but compensates for this
in part by adding to the imperative certain particles which indicate
desire, in part by adding to the future indicative particles which show
regret for not doing something, and in part by circumlocutions with the
conditional mood and certain particles, as will be seen in the
conjugations._
_The conjunctive mood has two sorts of proper forms. The first is the
common and ordinary form ending in _Eba_, corresponding to the Latin _cum_.
The other ends in _Domo_, corresponding to the particle "although _(posto
que)_." The other verbs of this mood do not have their own forms, but are
expressed by circumlocutions as we shall see.[24]_
_The present tense of the first conjunctive is formed from the present
indicative by changing the final _Ru_ to _Reba_; e.g., _Motomureba_. For
the preterit _Reba_ is added to the preterit indicative; e.g.,
_Motometareba_. For the future the final _Ru_ of the third form of the
future indicative is changed to _Reba_; e.g., _Motomeôzureba_. For a second
form of the future the syllable _R[vo]_ is added to the indicative preterit
perfect; e.g., _Motometar[vo]_. This particle is _Ran_ in the written
language; e.g., _Motometaran_.[25] An utterance _(oraçam)_ does not end in
this form, but must be followed by a noun.[26]_
_The present tense of the second conjunctive is formed by changing the
final _Ru_ of the present indicative to _Redomo_; e.g., _Motomuredomo_. For
the preterit _Redomo_ is added to the indicative preterit perfect; e.g.,
_Motometaredomo_. Strictly speaking this form is _Motomete aredomo_, losing
the _E_ of the participle. Furthermore, _Motometa_, together with the other
preterit forms in _Ta_ is from _Motometearu_ which is first elided to
_Motometaru_ and then by common usage _(pratica)_ to _Motometa_. All of
which is seen in its _Canadzucai_. For the future, the final _Ru_ of the
future indicative is changed to _Redomo_; e.g., _Motomeôzuredomo_._
_The conditional mood, for the present tense, is formed by adding the
syllable _Ba_ to the root of the verb and _Naraba_ or _Ni voiteua_ to the
{21} present tense form; e.g., _Motomeba_, _motomuru naraba_, and
_motomuruni voiteua_. For the preterit, _Raba_, _Naraba_, or _Ni voiteua_
are added to the indicative preterit; e.g., _Motometaraba_, which is in
reality _Motomete araba_, _motometa naraba_, and _motometani voiteua_. For
the future _Naraba_ or _Ni voiteua_ are added to the future forms; e.g.,
_Motomeô naraba_ and _motomeôni voiteua_. The present tense forms are also
used for the future._
VERBS OF THE FIRST CONJUGATION THAT END IN I
_There are some irregular verbs ending in _I_ which follow the formational
rules of the first conjugation, both affirmative and negative. There are a
precise number of them. Those which have been found to date are shown
below. They are formed for the present indicative by changing _I_ to _Uru_,
for the preterit by adding _Ta_ to the root of the verb, and for the future
by adding long _û_, _ûzu_, or _ûzuru_ to the same root. For the present
conditional _Ba_ is added to the root, for the preterit _Raba_ is added to
the preterit indicative, and for the future _Naraba_ is added to the future
indicative. For the present conjunctive the _Ru_ of the present indicative
is changed to _Reba_, for the preterit _Reba_ is added to the same preterit
indicative, and for the future the final _Ru_ of the future is changed to
_Reba_. All the other forms are formed as has been stated for the formation
of the first conjugation. Thus:[27]_
{ Abi, aburu, abita, abiû, ûzu, ûzuru, abiyo, _or_ sai, abiba,
{ taraba.
{ Cabi, caburu, cabita, cabiû, ûzu, ûzuru, biyo, sai, biba,
{ bitaraba.
Abi { Carabi, caraburu, bita, biû, ûzu, ûzuru, biyo, sai, biba, taraba.
{ Sabi, saburu, sabita, sabiû, ûzu, ûzuru, sabiyo, bisai, biba,
{ taraba.
{ Vabi, vaburu, vabita, vabiû, ûzu, ûzuru, yo, sai, biba,
{ bitaraaba.
{ Nobi, buru, bita, biû, ûzu, ûzuru, biyo, bisai, biba, bitaraba.
{ Corobi, buru, bita, biû, biûzu, ûzuru, biyo, bisai, biba,
{ bitaraba.
Obi { Forobi, buru, bita, biû, ûzu, ûzuru, biyo, bisai, biba, bitaraba.
{ Fitobi, bu, bita, biû, ûzu, ûzuru, biyo, bisai, biba, bitaraba.
{ Fokorobi, bu, bita, biû, ûzu, ûzuru, biyo, bisai, biba, bitaraba.
Ubi { Furubi, bu, bita, biû, ûzu, ûzuru, biyo, bisai, biba, bitaraba.
{22}
Vochi, { Chi _to_ } Votçuru, chita, chiû, chiyo, chiba, tçureba.
Cuchi, { Tçuru } Cutçuru, chita, chiû, chiyo, chiba, tçureba.
Fagi, { _Change_ } Fadzuru, fagita, giû, giyo, giba, gitaraba.
Vogi, { Gi _to_ } Vodzuru, gita, giû, giyo, giba, gitaraba.
Negi, { Dzu } Nedzuru, gita, giû, giyo, giba, gitaraba.
Mochiy, } _the_ { Mochiyuru, mochiyta, chiyû, yûzu, ûzuru, iyo,
} _final_ { yba, yttaraba.
Xiy, } Y { Xiyuru, xiyta, yû iyo, yba ytaraba.
Mimixiy, } _to_ { Mimixiyta, mimixiyte, _Defective_.
Mexiy, } Yuru { Mexiytaru, mexiyte, _Defective_.
Y, yru, yta, yû, ûzu, ûzuru, yyo, yba, yreba. _To be_
Ki, kiru, kita kiû, kiyo, _&c._ _To wear_
Ki, kuru, kita, kô, kôzu, kôzuru, koyo _or_ koi. _To Come_
Coru, coruru, corita, coriû, _&c._
Furi, fururu, furita, furiû, _&c._
Iki, ikuru, ikita, ikiû, _&c._
Ideki, idekuru, idekita, idekiû, _&c._
Deki, dekuru, dekita, dekiû, _&c._
Voki, vokuru, vokita, vokiû, _&c._
Tçuki, tçukuru, tçukita, tçukiû, _&c._
Vori, voruru, vorita, voriû, _&c._
Vrami, vramuru, vramita, vramiû, _&c._
Cagammi, cagammiru, cagammita, cagammiû, _&c._
Mi, miru, mita, miû, _&c._
Ni, niru, nita, niû, _&c._
Sughi, sughuru, sughita, sughiû, _&c._
FORMATION OF THE VERBS OF THE SECOND CONJUGATION
_All the roots of second conjugation verbs end in_ I. _There are eight
final syllables for these verbs; i.e._, Bi, Chi, Ghi, Ki, Mi, Ni, Ri, Xi.
_It is by these syllables that the verbs of the second conjugation (except
for those mentioned above as being in the first conjugation) are
recognized, and from which the tenses are formed._
_The roots ending in the syllables_ Bi, Ghi, Ki, Mi, _and_ Ri _change the_
I _to_ V _for the present tense; e.g._, Tobi, tobu; Coghi, coghu; Caki,
caku; Yomi, yomu; Kiri, kiru.
_Those ending in_ Chi _change to_ Tçu _for the present; e.g._, Mochi,
motçu; Cachi, catçu; Tachi, tatçu.
_Those ending in_ Ni _change to_ Nuru _for the present; e.g._, Xini,
xinuru; Yni, ynuru.[28]
{23}
_Those ending in _Xi_ change to _Su_ for the present; e.g., _Fanaxi,
fanasu_; _Cudaxi, cudasu_; _Taraxi, tarasu_._
_For the preterit those ending _Obi_ and _Omi_ change to _ôda_; e.g.,
_Yomi, yôda_; _Tobi, tôda_; _Yobi, yôda_; _Yorocobi, yorocôda_. _Tomi_
becomes _tonda_._
_Those ending in _Abi_ and _Ami_ change to _[vo]da_; e.g., _Yerabi,
yer[vo]da_; _Vogami, vog[vo]da_; _Yami, y[vo]da_._
_Those ending in _Imi_ change to _ûda_; e.g., _Najimi, naj[vu]da_; _Nijimi,
nij[vu]da_; _Ximi, xûda_.[29]_
_Those ending in _Umi_ and _Ubi_ change their endings to _Vnda_ or in some
instances _ûda_. While some have two forms others have only one form which
is seen in use, the more general is _Vnda_; e.g., _Musubi, musunda_;
_Susumi, susunda_ or _susûda_; _Nusumi, nusunda_ or _nusûda_; _Sumi, sunda_
or _sûda_; _Cumi, cunda_ only._
_Those ending in _Ebi_ and _Emi_ change to _Eôda_; e.g., _Sakebi, sakeôda_;
_Sonemi, soneôda_._
_Those ending in _Ghi_ change to _Ida_; e.g., _Auoghi, auoida_; _Voyoghi,
voyoida_; _Coghi, coida_._
_Those ending in _Ni_ change to _Inda_; e.g., _Xini, xinda_; _Yni, ynda_._
_Those ending in _Chi_ and _Ri_ change to _Tta_; e.g., _Machi, matta_;
_Cachi, catta_; _Tachi, tatta_; _Kiri, kitta_; _Chiri, chitta_; _Cari,
catta_._
_Those ending in _Ki_ and _Xi_ change to _Ita_; e.g., _Caki, caita_; _Faki,
faita_; _Nuki, nuita_; _Todoki, todoita_; _Sosoki, sosoita_; _Saxi, saita_;
_Fataxi, fataita_; _Maxi, maita_ or _maxita_; _Coxi, coita_ or _ oxita_.
The following add _Ta_ to the root; e.g., _Moxi, moxita_; _Muxi, muxita_;
_Fuxi, fuxita_; _Mexi, mexita_._
_The future can be formed in two ways. The first and more common way is to
change _I_ to _[vo]_, _[vo]zu_, or _[vo]zuru_; e.g., _Yomi, yom[vo],
yom[vo]zu, yom[vo]zuru_; _Yerabi, yerab[vo]_, etc.; _Kiri, kir[vo]_; _Xini,
xin[vo]_; _Auoghi, auog[vo]_.[30] Those ending in _Chi_ change to _T[vo]_;
e.g., _Cachi, cat[vo]_, etc.; _machi, mat[vo]_. Those ending in _Xi_ change
to _S[vo]_; e.g., _M[vo]xi, m[vo]s[vo]_; _Nagaxi, nagas[vo]_; _Mexi,
mes[vo]_; _Coxi, cos[vo]_, etc. The other way, which is easy too, is to
change the final _V_ of the present indicative to _[vo]_; e.g., _Yomu,
yom[vo]_; _Kiku, kik[vo]_; _M[vo]su, m[vo]s[vo]_; _Mesu, mes[vo]_. Those
ending in {24} _çu_ change to _T[vo]_; e.g., _Tatçu, tat[vo]_; _Catçu,
cat[vo]_. Those ending in _Nuru_ change to _N[vo]_; e.g., _Xinuru,
xin[vo]_; _Ynuru, yn[vo]_. This second rule seems to be more naturally in
accord with the rules for the Japanese language._
_The imperative changes the final _I_ of the root to _E_. Those ending in
_Chi_ change to _Te_; e.g., _Yome_; _Kike_; _Tamochi, tamote_; _Vchi, ute_;
_Machi, mate_._
_The present conjunctive is formed by adding _Ba_ to the imperative; e.g.,
_Yomeba_; _Tateba_.[31] For the preterit, _Reba_ is added to the preterit
indicative; e.g., _Yôdarebe_.[32] For the future the final _Ru_ of the
future indicative is changed to _Reba_; e.g., _Yom[vo]zureba_. The
conjunctive in _Domo_ is formed in the same manner; e.g., _Yomedomo,
yôdaredomo, yom[vo]zuredomo_._
_The conditional is formed from the future indicative by changing the
_[vo]_ to _Aba_; e.g., _Yomaba_; _Tataba_.[33] The preterit is formed by
adding _Raba_ to the indicative preterit; e.g., _Yôdaraba_;
_Tattaraba_.[34]_
_The preterit participle is formed from the preterit by changing the _A_ to
_E_; e.g., _Yôde_; _Kite_; _Tatte_. The present participle, in _Te_, is
formed by adding _Te_ ['hand'] to the root of any verb. This is properly a
substantive and thus governs the genitive as do the other substantives. It
does not indicate tense; e.g., _Yomite_; _Cakite_; _Machite_, etc._
_The negative present can be formed in two ways. The first, and that which
accords with the rules for _Canadzucai_, is formed by changing _I_ of the
root to _Anu_ or _Azu_; e.g., _Corobi, corobanu, corobazu_; _Yomi, yomanu_,
etc.; _Coghi, coghanu_; _Caki, cacanu_;[35] _Kiri, kiranu_; _ini, inanu_.
Those ending in _Chi_ change to _Tanu_; e.g., _Tachi, tatanu_. Those ending
in _Xi_ change to _Sanu_; e.g., _Fanasanu_. Another formation common to all
is made with the future indicative by changing _[vo]_ to _Anu_ or _Azu_;
e.g., _Corob[vo], corobanu, corobazu_; _Yom[vo], yomanu_, etc.; _Cogh[vo],
coghanu_; _Cak[vo], cakanu_; _Kir[vo], kiranu_; _In[vo], inanu_; _Tat[vo],
tatanu_; _Mat[vo], matanu_; _Fanas[vo], fanasanu_. This rule is common to
all three conjugations by changing the affirmative future indicative _[vo]_
to _Anu_ and the _ô_ {25} and _û_ to _Nu_ or _Zu_;[36] e.g., _Todomeô,
todomenu, todomezu_; _Saxeô, saxenu_, etc.; _Tateô, tatenu_; _Miû, minu_;
_Yom[vo], yomanu_; _Tat[vo], tatanu_; _Fanas[vo], fanasanu_; _Narau[vo],
narananu_; _Vomou[vo], vomouanu_; _Furuuo, furuuanu_. For the second
conjugation preterit, those in _Nu_ are changed to _Nanda_: e.g.,
_Yomananda_. For the preterit participle _Da_ is changed to _De_; e.g.,
_Yomanande_. For the second form of the negative participle, the _Nu_ is
changed to _Ide_; e.g., _Yomaide, Corobaide_, _Tataide_, _Totonouaide_. For
the future the particle _majij_[37] or _mai_ is added to the affirmative
present indicative; e.g., _Yomumajij, yomumai_; _Matçumajij, matçumai_._
FORMATION OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION AND THE ROOTS FROM WHICH THE TENSES ARE
FORMED
_The final syllables of the third conjugation are the diphthongs _Ai_,
_Oi_, _Vi_. By these syllables the verbs are known to belong to this
conjugation, and from them the tenses are formed. The present indicative is
formed by changing _Ai_ to _[vo]_, _Oi_ to _ô_, and _Vi_ to _û_; e.g.,
_Narai, nar[vo]_; _Vomoi, vomô_; _furui, furû_. The preterit is formed by
adding the syllable _Ta_ to the present; e.g., _Nar[vo]ta_, _Vomôta_,
_Furûta_. The future is formed by changing the final _I_ of the root to
_V[vo], v[vo]zu, v[vo]zuru_; e.g., _Narau[vo], narau[vo]zu_, etc.;
_Vomou[vo], vomou[vo]zu_, etc.; _Furuu[vo], furuu[vo]zu_, etc. The present
imperative is formed by changing the final _I_ to _Ye_; e.g., _Naraye_,
_Vomoye_, _Furuye_._
_For the present conjunctive _Ba_ or _Domo_ is added to the imperative;
e.g., _Narayeba, narayedomo_; _Vomoyeba, vomoyedomo_; _Furuyeba,
furuyedomo_. For the preterit _Reba_ or _Redamo_[38] is added to the
indicative preterit; e.g., _Nar[vo]tareba, nar[vo]taredomo_; _Vomôtareba,
vomôtaredomo_; _Furûtareba, furûtaredomo_._
_The present conditional is formed by changing _[vo]_ of the future to
_Aba_; e.g., _Narauaba_, _Vomouaba_, _Furuuaba_. The preterit is formed by
adding _Raba_ to the indicative preterit; e.g., _Nar[vo]taraba_,
_Vomôtaraba_, _Furûtaraba_._
{26}
_The negative present is formed by changing the _I_ of the root to _Vanu_
or _vazu_; e.g., _Narai, narauanu, narauazu_; _Vomoi, vomouanu_, etc.;
_Furui, Furuuana_, etc. This form can also be formed from the future by
changing the _[vo]_ to _Anu_ or _azu_; e.g., _Narau[vo], narananu_, etc.
For the preterit the _Nu_ is changed to _Nanda_; e.g., _Narauananda_. For
the preterit participle the _Da_ is changed to _De_; e.g., _Narauanande_.
For the second form the _Nu_ of the present is changed to _Ide_; e.g.,
_Narauaide_, _Vomouaide_, _Furuuaide_. For the future the particle
_Majii_,[39] _maji_, or _mai_ is added to the affirmative present
indicative; _e.g._, _Nar[vo]majii, nar[vo]maji, nar[vo]mai_; _Vomômajii,
ji_, or _mai_; _Furûmajii, ji_, or _mai_._
_The verb _Yy_ 'to speak' becomes _Yû, yûta, yu[vo], yye, yuanu_. _Yei_ or
_yoi_ 'to become sick' becomes _Yô, yôta, you[vo], yoye, yonanu_. The
substantive verb _Saburai_, which also belongs to this conjugation, becomes
_Sabur[vo], saburauanu_; and _S[vo]rai_ becomes _S[vo]r[vo], soro,
s[vo]raite, s[vo]raye, sorouanu_._
Rodriguez follows these formational rules with a full display of all the
forms of the three conjugations. In his display he, like Alvarez before
him, recapitulates the appropriate rules for each form. Collado nowhere
presents his conjugational system as a paradigm but does, as we shall see,
include a full complement of example sentences in his description,
something which Rodriguez does not do in the _Arte Breve_.
_Bibliography_
In the examination of any portion of the Christian materials certain works
are indispensable. Father Johannes Laures, S.J., _Kirishitan Bunko_ (Tokyo,
1957) remains the basic bibliographic source for the study of all sources
of the Christian Century, while Hashimoto Shinkichi, _Kirishitan ky[=o]gi
no kenky[=u]_ (Tokyo, 1929) and Doi Tadao, _Kirishitan gogaku no kenky[=u]_
(Tokyo, 1942) serve as indespensible guides to our understanding of the
linguistic aspects of the field. A later contribution to the general
bibliography has been made by Fukushima Kunimichi, _Kirishitan shiry[=o] to
kokugo kenky[=u]_ (Tokyo, 1973).
The basic grammatical study of the period, based upon the _sh[=o]mono_
materials, is Yuzawa K[=o]kichir[=o], _Muromachi jidai gengo no kenky[=u]_
{27} (Tokyo, 1958). More closely related to the language reflected in the
text is his "Amakusabon Heike monogatari no goh[=o]," in _Ky[=o]iku
ronbunsh[=u]_ (no. 539, Jan. 1929). An English treatment of the grammatical
system of the period is to be found in R. L. Spear, "A Grammatical Study of
_Esopo no Fabulas_," an unpublished doctoral thesis (Michigan, 1966). The
phonology has been carefully analyzed by [=O]tomo Shin'ichi, _Muromachi
jidai no kokugo onsei no kenky[=u]_ (Tokyo, 1963), with a valuable
contribution made in English by J. F. Moran, "A Commentary on the _Arte
Breve da Lingoa Iapao_ of João Rodriguez, S.J., with Particular Reference
to Pronunciation," an unpublished doctoral thesis (Oxford, 1971). This
latter work presents an exhaustive examination of the phonological system
reflected in the _Arte Breve_ of 1620 within the framework of Berhard
Bloch's phonemic theory.
Two lexical works have been used as basic references in this translation.
The _Vocabulario de Lingoa de Iapam_ (hereafter the _Vocabulario_) produced
by the Jesuit Mission Press at Nagasaki in the years 1603 and 04. In a
carefully annotated version by Professor Doi, under the title _Nippo jisho_
(Tokyo, 1960), this work is the most important single source for the
vocabulary of the period. The second work is the _Dictionarium sive
Thesauri Linguae Iaponicae Compendium_ (hereafter the _Dictionarium_) which
is the companion piece to the present text. This dictionary has been
carefully edited and cross-referenced by [=O]tsuka Mitsunobu, under the
title _Koriyaado Ra Su Nichi jiten_ (Tokyo, 1966). In this form it has
served as a constant aid to the translator in the determination of the
proper glosses for the lexical items in the text.
The aforementioned _Arte_ of 1604-08 by Rodriguez, has been the single most
frequently used tool in the preparation of this translation.[40] As the
most significant influence upon Collado's work and the source for most of
his material, both theoretical and practical, I have related the two works
at every point in the translation. In its Japanese version by Professor
Doi, _Rodorigesu Nihon daibunten_ (Tokyo, 1950), this work has been
invaluable in gaining a clearer understanding of many of the passages which
might have otherwise been obscure.
Rodriguez' _Arte Breve_ of 1620, while having no influence upon the
preparation of the _Ars Grammaticae_, is nevertheless of fundamental {28}
importance as a work against which Collado's treatment of Japanese grammar
is to be judged. This shorter grammar is as yet to be fully translated into
English--Moran having limited his study to the treatment of the phonology.
With respect to the text itself I have made this translation on the basis
of the facsimile edition published by the Tenri Central Library in 1972 as
part of its _Classica Japonica_ series. [=O]tsuka Takanobu, _Koiyaado-cho
Nihongo bunten_ (Tokyo, 1934) and its revised edition under the title of
_Koriyaado Nihon bunten_ (Tokyo, 1957) have served as invaluable aids at
every step of the translation.
[=O]tsuka's second edition is of invaluable scholarly importance because it
contains a cross-reference to the Spanish manuscript from which Collado
prepared the printed Latin edition as well as a concordance to the Japanese
vocabulary.[41] This translation attempts to supplement [=O]tsuka's
invaluable contribution by relating the Latin text of this grammar with
Rodriguez' _Arte_.
_Editorial Conventions_
The Latin matrix of the text is printed in italic letters while the
Japanese is in roman. For this translation I have reversed the convention.
(In footnotes where the text is quoted the style of the original is
followed.) In making editorial corrections in the Japanese material the
corrected version is presented in brackets with periods to indicate the
general location;
e.g., _mairu mai queredomo_ [... qeredomo]
(The only exception to this rule is the correcting of a missing open _o_,
q.v.) Sentences that have been taken from the _Arte_ are indicated by the
parenthetical recording of the leaf number of the citation immediately
after the sentence;
e.g., _xô tame no chôqui gia_ (22) 'it is....
Shorter sentences and specific words that in all likelihood have been taken
from the _Arte_ are not listed if they are to be found in the section
elsewhere noted as being the source of the material covered. Any {29}
significant alteration in the form of the source is noted. Since the _Arte_
is numbered by the leaf, _v_ is added to the number to indicate the
_verso_.
All the corrections made by the _errata_ (on page 75 of the text) have been
applied to the text without notation unless the correction is itself in
error.
The punctuation follows the text with the following exceptions;
1. In translating from Latin the English follows modern rules of
punctuation.
2. Single quotes have been introduced into the text to mark glosses and
translations.
3. In transcribing the Japanese citations any alteration of the original
punctuation is noted.
4. The spacing of words in Japanese--a relatively casual matter in the
text--has been regularized on the basis of the predominant pattern.
5. Two specific rules, based upon Collado's more or less consistent usage,
are followed in the citing of verb forms:
a. In the most frequent citation of verbs, where the root form is
followed by the present indicative ending, a comma is used;
e.g., _ari,u_; _ague,uru_; _mochi,tçu_
b. In an alternate form of citation, where the two forms are given in
their entirety, a colon is used;
e.g., _ari:aru_; _ague:aguru_; _mochi:motçu_
Spelling and accentuation are treated in the following manner:
1. The _long-s_ in all instances is represented by _s_.
2. The usage of _v_ and _u_ has been regularized: the _v_ serves as the
consonant; and _u_ as the vowel, semi-vowel, and orthographic symbol; e.g.,
_vaga_, _uie_, _quan_, and _agueta_.
3. The predictable nasalization--marked by a tilde in the text--has not
been included in the translation unless the presence of nasalization is
morphologically significant; e.g., _tobu:tõda_. {30}
4. The accent grave--which appears in no discernible pattern--is not
transcribed in the translation.
5. The accent acute is used in the translation to mark the long _ú_ [u:]
and the long, open _ó_ [[IPA: Open-mid back rounded vowel]:], in those
places where the length is marked by Collado. Since the most frequent
typographical error in the text is the failure to mark the presence of
these long syllables, I follow the convention of correcting the absence of
this feature in the Latin text by using the inverted caret in the
translation. Thus, the appearance in the translation of _mósu_ indicates
that Collado recorded the length of this word, either by an accent acute
(e.g., _mósu_), or an inverted caret (e.g., _m[vo]su_). The appearance of
_m[vo]su_ indicates that he did not, and that its absence is being
corrected. The form _m[vo]su_ in the translation is therefore the shorthand
equivalent for what would more regularly be _mosu_ [_mósu_].
6. The circumflex, which indicates the long, closed _ô_ [o:], is corrected
as other errors by placing the corrected version of the item in brackets;
e.g., _roppio_ [_roppiô_].
* * * * *
ARS
GRAMMATICAE
IAPONICAE
LINGVAE
IN GRATIAM ET ADIVTORIVM
eorum, qui prædicandi Euangelij causa ad
Iaponiæ Regnum se voluerint conferre.
_Composita, & Sacræ de Propaganda Fide Congregationi
dicata à Fr. Didaco Collado Ordinis Prædicatorum
per aliquot annos in prædicto Regno
Fidei Catholicæ propagationis
Ministro._
[Illustration]
ROMÆ,
Typis & impensis Sac. Congr. de Propag. Fide.
MDCXXXII.
_SVPERIORVM PERMISSV_.
{105}
* * * * *
A
Grammar
of the Japanese
Language
FOR THE SAKE AND HELP
of those who wish to go to the Kingdom of
Japan to preach the Gospel.
Composed and dedicated to the Blessed Congregation for the
Propagation of the Faith by Brother Didico Collado,
O.P., who was for many years in that Kingdom
as a Minister for the Propagation of
the Catholic Faith.
[Illustration]
Printed by the Blessed Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith.
1632
BY PERMISSION OF THE SUPERIORS.
{106}
* * * * *
It may be published if it please the Most Reverend Father,
Master of the Holy Apostolic Palace.
For the Archbishop of Umbria. The Vicar General.
It may be published.
Brother Nicolaus Riccardius, Master of the Holy Apostolic Palace,
Order of Preachers.
{107}
* * * * *
Prologue to the Reader
_With Some Advice on the Correct Pronunciation of the Japanese Language_
Long ago, at the beginning of the establishment of our orthodox faith in
the Japanese kingdom, a grammar of this language was made by Father Ioannus
Rodriguez of the Society of Jesus.[42] However, since things rarely turn
out perfect at first attempt, and, because of the passing years that have
made it difficult to find a copy of this grammar; I thought that it would
honor God and the ministers who preach the faith (which cannot be taught
without the use of language) if I were to select examples (and there are
many) that are useful to this language, neglect those not accepted by the
experts of the language, add, with the help of God (who gives words to the
evangelists), the words that I have learned from experience, practice, and
continuous reading, and by such means offer up a handbook of the Japanese
language in which I would bring together in a brief span these examples
with those precepts which the preachers (for whom I began this work) need
to learn of the Japanese language. This is done because examples are
necessary with the rules and precepts so that it is possible to demonstrate
the rule which has just been explained. Not only have these examples been
selected for the greater help and enjoyment of the students, but also their
explanation has been added in Latin (which is the language most common to
theologians); thus the teacher will have very little left to be desired.
Even if all the elements included in this grammar, as in the dictionary
(which with the help of God I plan to publish shortly),[43] are polished
enough and sure enough to be used with trust; I would still want them to be
submitted to the judgement of the reader so that the preaching of the
faith, carried on with a more correct language, may become more fruitful.
When two vowels follow each other in any Japanese word, they are not
pronounced as in the Latin word _valeo_ or in the Spanish, _vaca_, but each
is pronounced independently; _v_, _a_; _v_, _o_; _v_, _i_.
{108}
The letter _s_ is pronounced as _sç_; e.g., _susumuru_, _sçusçumuru_.
The letter _j_ is pronounced smoothly (_blande_), as in the Portuguese
_joaõ_ and _judeo_.
The letter _x_ is also pronounced smoothly, as in the Portuguese (4
_queixumes_.
When there is the sign ^ over the letter _o_ it is pronounced _ou_ with the
lips almost closed and the mouth partly closed; e.g., _buppô_.
When there is the sign v or ´ over the letter _o_ it is pronounced with the
mouth open as if there were two letters, _oo_; e.g., _tenxó_ or
_gacux[vo]_.[44]
If the signs we have just shown are over the letter _u_, it is pronounced
long as if there were two letters, _uu_; e.g., _taifú_ or _aia[vu]_.
When the sign ~ is over the vowel, the sign should be pronounced like
an _n_, not strongly but swiftly (_cursim_) and softly (_leniter_); e.g.,
_vãga_.[45]
_Qe_ and _Qi_ are written without _u_, because when _u_ follows _q_ or _c_
both letters are pronounced as a _sinalepha_;[46] e.g., _quódai_ or
_quainin_.
When _u_ follows _g_ and immediately after the _u_ is the letter _e_ or
_i_, it should be pronounced as in the Spanish word _guenin_; but if the
letter _e_ or _i_ follows _g_ immediately without the _u_, it should be
pronounced as in the Italian word _giorno_; e.g., _xitãgi_.
The letter _z_ is pronounced with the same strength as in the Spanish word
_zumbar_; e.g., _mizu_.
But if there are two _zz_ then they are pronounced more strongly; _e.g._,
_mizzu_.
When there are two _tt_, _xx_, _zz_, _qq_, _cq_, _ij_, or _pp_[47] it is
important to persist in order to obtain perfect pronunciation and the exact
value of the word; for _mizu_ means 'honey' and _mizzu_ means 'water.'
Therefore, if the words are said with the same strength or the same
gentleness they can mean either 'water' or 'honey.'
When _ch_ comes before a vowel it is pronounced as in the Spanish
_chimera_; e.g., _fochó_.
{109}
But if _nh_ comes before a vowel it is pronounced as in the Spanish _maña_;
e.g., _nhuva_.
The letter _f_ is pronounced in various regions of Japan as it is in Latin.
In others it is pronounced as if it were an imperfect _h_. For both
pronunciations the lips and the mouth should be nearly, but not completely,
closed.
When _tç_ is in a word (and it appears quite frequently) the student should
pray that God have mercy on his pronunciation because the word is very
difficult, and its pronunciation is not to be found (5 in any other
language. It is not truly pronounced _tç_, nor as _s_, nor as _c_ alone,
but rather by striking the tongue violently against the teeth in order to
pronounce both _t_ and _ç_, but with more _ç_ than _t_ seeming to be
sounded; e.g., _tçutçumu_.
The letter _r_ is said smoothly and softly everywhere it is found, either
at the beginning or in the middle of a word; e.g., _ranguió_, or
_cutabiruru_.
_Ya_, _ye_, _yo_, and _yu_ are pronounced as in Spanish.[48]
When words ending in _i_ or _u_ are pronounced by the Japanese, the last
letter is almost not heard by the student. For instance, if he hears
_gozaru_ he will think he hears _gozar_, if he hears _fitotçu_ he will
believe he hears only _fitotç_, and when he hears _axi no fara_ he will
perceive only _ax no fara_.
When a word ending in a vowel is followed immediately by a consonant,
particularly _b_ or _s_,[49] between that vowel and consonant is pronounced
the letter _n_, not perfectly, but softly; e.g., _sonõ gotoqu._
I have given special care to the accenting of words.[50] This has been done
so that the signs that have been placed correctly over the accented letter
will allow the listener to understand the meaning of the words and the
sentences of the speaker. For instance, _qèixèi_ has the accent on both
_èè_; _fìbicàxi_ has it on the first _i_ and on the a.[51] This same {110}
arrangement will be respected in the dictionary, with the accent being
written with the same degree of correctness as is able to be achieved with
great attention. If at times I have made mistakes, I am prepared to correct
them immediately. Concerning what has been explained too briefly or left
out of this grammar and the dictionary, learned people will be able to do
that when they add a third dictionary and a third grammar, since it is easy
to supply this material. Because I wish neither to be criticized by the
Head of our Order (_pater familias_) and the Lord our God, nor do I wish
this knowledge to be wrapped up in a handkerchief;[52] I want by these two
works to help and to cooperate in the salvation of the Japanese not only by
preaching but also by offering to the preachers, if I can, the tools of the
language and chiefly the method by which they might better learn the
Japanese language, a task made very difficult by the persecutions in Japan.
Farewell, Reader, and be of good cheer. Madrid, 30 August 1631.
* * * * *
{111} (6
IN THIS GRAMMAR WE HAVE FOR THE MOST PART OBSERVED THE ARRANGEMENT WHICH
ANTONIUS NEBRISSENSIS AND OTHERS HAVE FOLLOWED IN LATIN FOR THE TREATMENT
OF SENTENCES, NAMELY NOUNS, PRONOUNS, ETC.
_The Noun--Its Declension and Its Gender_
In the Japanese language there are no case declensions as there are in
Latin; but there are certain particles, which when suffixed to nouns,
determine the differences between the cases for both common and proper
nouns. The particles which form the nominative are five; _va_, _ga_,
_cara_, _no_, and _iori_. The particle _va_ is used when we want to give a
sort of reduplicative[53] and specific turn to the person or thing that is
signified by such a noun. It indicates either the first, second, or third
person; e.g., _Vatacuxi va mairanu_ 'I, or those related to me, will not
come.' The particle _no_ is suffixed to the second and third person,
especially if they are inferior in rank or in a sentence where there is a
relative construction which does not indicate a transitive action; e.g.,
_sonata no móxita coto_ 'that which you said.' The particle _no_ is also
used when some indefinite form is used; e.g., _iie no aru ca miió_ [...
_miio_] 'see if there are houses.' The particle _ga_ is used usually for
the first and third persons of inferior status as well as for the second
person when he is the most lowly or is to be humiliated; e.g., _Pedro ga
qita_ 'Peter came.' This particle is also used to indicate something
indefinite, as has been said of the particle _no_; e.g., _coco ni va iie ga
nai ca?_ 'aren't the houses here?' It is also used in sentences that have a
relative construction which does not indicate a transitive action. If the
reference is to something of inferior or humble status the particle _ga_ is
also used; e.g., _soregaxi ga caita fumi_ 'the letter which I wrote,'
_sochi ga iúta coto_ 'what you said.' The particles _cara_ and _iori_ are
used to form the {112} nominative case when the sentence shows a transitive
action, especially if the sentence contains a relative construction; e.g.,
_Deus iori cudasareta gracia_ 'the mercy which God gave,' _tono cara core
vo vôxe tçuqerareta_ 'the Lord taught this.' Sometimes the words are in the
nominative case without any particle; e.g., _Pedro Ioaõ vo iobareta_ 'Peter
called (7 John.' There are two particles for the genitive; i.e., _no_ and
_ga_. The particle _no_ is used for all persons of superior rank; e.g.,
_Padre no võ qiru mono_ 'the priest's clothes, or habit.' The particle _ga_
is used for people of inferior rank; e.g., _Pedro ga fumi_ 'Peter's
letter,' _sochi ga mono_ 'your thing,' _are ga cane_ 'your money,' _tono va
iocu ga fucai fito gia_ 'the Lord is of great cupidity, that is to say he
is very eager.' Sometimes the particle _to_ is suffixed to the genitive;
e.g., _Pedro no to degozaru_ 'it belongs to Peter.' But since this is not a
perfect way of speaking, it is better not to use it. I have cited it so
that if you hear it you will understand. When two nouns are joined to form
a single word, the one which is like an adjective does not require the
genitive particle; e.g., _cocuxu_ 'the Lord of the kingdom.' According to
the ordinary rule we should say _cocu no xu_. This way of forming the
genitive is very common in Japanese; e.g., _Maria coto_ 'Mary's thing.'
Two particles form the dative; i.e., _ni_ and _ie_. For example, _Pedro ni
móxita_ 'I told Peter,' _Padre ie ague maraxita_ 'I gave, or offered, it to
the priest.'
There are five particles which form the accusative case; i.e., _vo_,
_voba_, _va_, _ie_, and _ga_. The first, _vo_, is the most used; e.g.,
_Pedro vo iobe_ 'call Peter.' _Va_ is used when one wishes to express in
particular a noun in the accusative; e.g., _niffon guchi va xiranu_[54] 'I
don't know Japanese.' The ending _voba_ is the same as _vo va_, changing
the second _v_ to _b_ they use it as _va_; e.g., _fune voba nori sutete;
cane bacari tori maraxita_ 'abandoning ship, I took only money, or gold,
with me.' _Ie_ is used to indicate the place to which one goes; e.g., _Roma
ie mairó_ 'I go to Rome.' _Ga_ is used for nouns which indicate non-living
or humble things; e.g., _are ie gozare, mono ga móxitai_ 'go there! I have
something to tell you.' The accusative is also formed without any particle,
as has {113} been shown in the example second before last, where the second
accusative is without a particle.
The vocative is formed with the particle _icani_. It is not suffixed to
words as are the other particles but it is prefixed instead; e.g., _icani
qimi core vo goronjerarei_ 'look at this, My Lord.'[55] Usually, however,
the vocative is formed without any particle; e.g., _Padre sama_ (8
_qicaxerareio_ 'listen, Reverend Father.'
There are three particles for the ablative; i.e., _iori_, _cara_, and _ni_.
The third indicates the place in which; e.g., _iglesia ni gozaru_ 'he is in
church.' Sometimes _ni_ is used after _no_; e.g., _sonata no ni xi aru ca?_
'are you going to make it yours, or take it for yours?' But this seems much
more a dative than an ablative. The particles _cara_ and _iori_ are more
common in the formation of the ablative; e.g., _Madrid cara maitta_ 'I came
from Madrid,' _Pedro iori corosareta_ 'he was killed by Peter.'
There are four particles used to form the plural. They are placed
immediately after the noun they pluralize and before the particles which
indicate case. These four particles are _tachi_, _xu_, _domo_, and _ra_.
The first, _tachi_, forms the plural of those noble things which one wishes
to honor; e.g., _tono tachi_ 'lords.' The particle _xu_ forms the plural
for noble things but not those of the highest rank; e.g., _samurai xu_
'nobles (_nobiles_), but not lords (_domini_).' The particle _domo_ is
suffixed to words which indicate humble things, either abstract, animate,
or inanimate; e.g., _fiacuxó domo_ 'farmer,' _ixi domo_ 'stones,' _mma
domo_ 'horses.' The particle _ra_ forms the plural of nouns which indicate
very low things which are to be despised; e.g., _Iudeo ra_ 'Jews.'[56] The
case particles which are required by the sentence are placed after the
pluralizing particles; e.g., _tono tachi no coto domo vo varú iú na_ 'don't
speak badly about the Lords' affairs.'
There are some words that are plural in themselves; e.g., _tomo gara_ means
'men,' _Nan ban mono_ 'European things,' _Nan ban mono vo fomuru na_ 'don't
praise European things.'
The particle _icani_, which as has been indicated above forms the vocative,
is not placed after but always before the pronouns which are {114} made
plural, while the particles which form the plural are placed after; e.g.,
_icani Padre tachi vo qiqi nasare io_ 'listen to the priests.'
But two of the four particles which form the plural, _domo_ and _ra_, are
with certain words singular. _Varera_ and _midomo_ mean 'I.' Sometimes both
are found together in the singular; e.g., _midomora_ 'I,' _midomora ga_
'my, or mine.' The particles _domo_ and _ra_ are also (9 suffixed to the
singular when one wishes to humiliate the thing mentioned; e.g., _hara domo
ga itai_ 'I have a stomach ache,' _asu domo va aru mai_ 'tomorrow will not
come,' _asu ra va naró mode_ 'tomorrow will perhaps not come.'
The particle _va_ is suffixed to singular and plural nouns which already
have a particle; e.g., _coco ie va mairanu_ 'he will not come here,' _coco
cara va denu_ 'he did not go out from here,' _coco ni va aru mai_ 'he will
not enter here.' Sometimes _va_ replaces the particles of the declension;
e.g., _fune de saie ióió tçuita ni, cachi va nacanaca naru mai_ (119v) 'I
arrived with such difficulty by ship: I would undoubtedly never have
arrived had I come by foot, or on foot.'[57] The particle _va_ here
replaces _cara_.
Japanese does not have the genders feminine, masculine, and neuter as Latin
does. There are, however, certain nouns which are feminine or masculine
because of their meaning. Other nouns are common to both these genders. For
things which do not have a proper gender _vo_ is placed before masculine
nouns and _me_ before feminine; e.g., _voivo_ means 'male fish' and _meivo_
'female fish,' _vojica_ means 'roe-buck,' _melica_ [_mejica_]
'roe-doe,'[58] _coma_ means 'horse,' _zoiacu_ 'mare,' _xô_ means 'male
hawk,' _dai_ 'female hawk,' _cotoi_ means 'bull,' _meuxi_ 'cow,' _votoco_
means 'man,' _vonago_, _nhóbó_, or _vonna_ 'woman.' All these words are
placed in the dictionary as they come to mind.
The nominal adjectives have no gender or declension but make use of the
same particles as the nouns. There are however many and diverse adjectives.
Certain ones end in _ai_ others in _oi_, _ei_, _ui_ and _ij_. There are
other, more proper adjectives, which are formed by adding _no_ to nouns.
When the first five types of adjectives are placed before nouns they are
then properly adjectives and do not in any way alter the composition of
{115} the sentence. But when they are placed after nouns they become more
like verbs and are in fact conjugated like them; e.g., _tacai iama_ 'a high
mountain,' _xiguei ideiri_ 'frequent comings and goings,' _caxicoi_ (10
_fito_ 'a wise man,' _cavaij mono_ 'a wretched thing,' _aiaui coto_ 'a
dangerous thing,' _umare tçuqi no cuchi_ 'one's natural, or mother tongue.'
There are also adjectives ending in _na_ which, when they are placed before
nouns, do not alter the construction; e.g., _qirei na coto_ 'a clean
thing.' All the adjectives, except those ending in _no_, change their form
in some way when they occur before verbs. Those that end in _ai_ change to
_ó_; e.g., _cono iama va tacó gozaru_ 'this mountain is lofty.' Those
ending in _ei_ change to _eô_; e.g., _cono iama va xigueô gozaru_ 'these
mountains are dense.' Those ending in _oi_ change to _ô_; e.g., _caxicô
gozaru_ 'he is wise.' Those ending in _ui_ change to _ú_; e.g., _xei no
ficú gozaru_ 'he is small in stature.' Those ending in _ii_ [_ij_] change
to _iú_; e.g., _caiú gozaru_ 'it itches.'[59] Among those adjectives ending
in _ij_ there are many which come from verbs; e.g., _nozomi,u_ means 'to
wish,' and from it comes _nozomaxij_ 'which is to be wished for.' Other
adjectives come from nouns; e.g., _varambe_ means 'a child, or infant,' and
from this comes _varamberaxij_ which means 'childish.' Other examples may
be found in the dictionary.
Adjectives which end in _na_ change the _na_ to _ni_ when they are placed
before verbs; e.g., _fuxin ni zonzuru_ 'I think it doubtful.' The
adjectives that end in _no_ sometimes change the _no_ to _na_; e.g., _bechi
no fito_ changes to _bechi na fito_ 'a different man.' Sometimes when it is
followed by a verb the _na_ changes to a _ni_; e.g., _bechi ni gozaru_ 'it
is different.' However, the meaning remains the same whether the word ends
in _na_ or _no_; e.g., _bechi no fito no cuhi cara qiita_ [... _cuchi_ ...]
is the same as _bechi na fito no cuchi cara qiita_ 'I heard it from the
mouth of a different person.'[60] The only difference in these forms is
that when the word ends in _no_ no change occurs as a consequence of what
follows. But, as has been said, those adjectives that end in _na_ change to
_ni_ when they come before a verb. If a substantive verb follows an
adjective, it is an elegant statement; e.g., _cono iami va tacó gozaru_
'this mountain is high.' But if this kind of verb does not follow, the
sense {116} is not altered since the adjective is used as a substantive
verb. But this is not used before superiors. To them we will not say _cono
iama va tacai_ but rather _cono iama va tacó gozaru_. The same is true for
the other adjectives.
Adjectives usually end in _i_ but infrequently these adjectives change to
_xi_ or to _qu_. _Ioi_, which means 'good,' changes to _ioqu_, or _ioxi_;
e.g., _ioqu dancó xite_, which has the meaning of 'offering good (11
council.'[61] There are innumerable nouns which become adjectives if _na_
is suffixed to them; e.g., _afo_ means 'ignorance' and from it comes the
word _afo na_ which means 'ignorant,' _jiiu_ means 'liberty' and _jiiu na_
means 'which is free.' Other examples are offered by the dictionary.
There are certain abstract nouns which become adjectives when they precede
a vocable (_vocabulis_) with the meaning of 'man'; e.g., _jifi_ means
'pity,' but when the word _jin_ is placed after it, it becomes _jifijin_ 'a
pitiable person.' _Fin_ means 'poverty,' but when the word _nin_ is
suffixed to it, it becomes _finnin_ 'a poor person.' In the same way, when
one suffixes _ja_ to _fin_, it makes _finja_, which also means 'a poor
person.' The word _ban_ means 'watch,' but if the word _ja_ is added to it,
it becomes _banja_ 'a careful person.' Many other examples can be found in
the dictionary.
There are in Japanese certain words which are borrowed from Chinese, called
_cobita_[62] or _coie_, and are written together to form by their union a
noun and an adjective. Thus, _ten_ mean 'heaven,' _xu_ means 'lord,' and
_tenxu_ means 'lord of heaven.'
The preterit of verbs (which will be taken up in their place) seem to have
the same strength and meaning as adjectives when they are used before
nouns; e.g., _iogoreta te_ 'dirty hands,' where _iogoreta_ is the preterit
of the verb _iogore,uru_ 'I became dirty.' _Caita qió_ means 'a written
book' and _caita_ is the preterit of the verb _caqi,u_ I write.' The
abstract (_abstracta_), or root from which the verb is formed, is itself a
noun which signifies the action of the verb in the abstract; e.g., {117}
_facari_ means 'measure,' and it comes from the verb _facari,u_ 'I measure'
while _fajime_ means 'beginning,' and comes from the verb _fajime,uru_ 'I
begin.' Others will be found in the dictionary. The prepositional particle
_mono_, when placed before an abstract or verbal noun, forms a noun which
indicates the subject who does the action; e.g., _mono_ before _caqi_ makes
_monocaqi_ 'one who writes.' This same particle when placed after a root
forms a noun which indicates the effect of an action; e.g., _caqimono_ 'a
writing.'
The particle _goto_ placed after these same roots forms a noun (12 which
means a thing which is worthy of the action indicated by the verb; e.g.,
_mi_ is the root of the verb _mi,uru_ 'I see,' and _migoto_ is 'a visible
thing, or a thing worthy of being seen'; while _qiqi_ is the root of the
verb _qiqi,u_ 'I hear,' and _qiqigoto_ means 'a thing which can be heard,
or is worthy of being heard.'
If we place certain substantive nouns after certain of the verbal nouns
about which we have been speaking, there is formed a noun which has the
meaning of the action; e.g., _foxi_ is the root of the verb _foxi,u_ 'to
dry under the sun'; but, if _ivo_ 'fish' is placed after it, the meaning of
the expression _foxiivo_ becomes 'fish dried in the sun.'
When the particle _dógu_ 'instrument' is placed after the root of a verb it
forms a noun meaning the cause or instrument of the action indicated by the
verb; e.g., _varaidógu_ 'the cause, or instrument of ridicule,' _caqidógu_
'a writing instrument, or an instrument for writing.'
The particle _me_ when suffixed to a verb forms a noun which indicates the
terminus of the action; e.g., _avaxe_ is the root of the verb _avaxe,uru_
'to unite or join two things,' and _avaxeme_ means 'junction.' The same is
true of other forms.
An abstract noun can be formed from those adjectives ending in _i_ if the
_i_ is changed to _sa_; e.g., _nagai_ means 'is long,' and _nagasa_ means
'length.' The adjectives ending in _na_ change the _na_ to _sa_ in order to
form abstract nouns; e.g., _aqiraca na_ which means 'clear' will become
_aqiracasa_ 'clarity.'
Sometimes from two nouns taken together, often with a change in the first
or last letter, there is formed a third noun, which is quasi-descriptive
(_quasi connotativus_), almost like an adjective or noun with a {118}
genitive; e.g., from _qi_ 'wood' and _fotoqe_ 'idol' there results
_qibotoqe_ 'wooden idol,' with the _f_ changed to _p_ [_b_]. But if the
prefixed noun ends in _e_, this _e_ is changed to _a_ in the attributive of
the compound; e.g., _tçumasaqi_ 'the tip of the nail,' _canacugui_ 'iron
nails.' A word which is placed second in these compounds may change its
first letter; if it is _f_ it becomes _b_ or _p_, if it is _s_ it becomes
_z_, if it is _c_ it becomes _g_, if it is _tç_ it becomes _zz_, if it is
_x_ it becomes _j_; e.g., _caribune_, _buppô_, (13 _nigorizaqe_,
_soragoto_, _qizzumari_, and _sorajeimon_. See the dictionary.
_Pronouns_
In the Japanese language there are no derivative pronouns, such as
_meus,a,um_, etc.; but the primitive pronouns, such as _mei_, _tui_, etc.,
are used. These primitive forms do not have declensions for case, but
rather use the particles which are common to both nouns and pronouns.
Certain particles (about which we will speak later) when added to a word
indicate honor and thereby form a pronoun or substitute for it in such
circumstances as pronouns would normally be used. Thus, if I say _von
fumi_, when speaking to someone else, it is immediately understood that I
am speaking about his letter and not mine; for if I were speaking about
mine I would not say _von fumi_ but only _fumi_, since the particle _von_,
which indicates honor, signifies 'your letter.' This is also true for such
particles as _mi_ which also attributes honor to the noun to which it is
joined.
_First Person Pronouns--Ego, etc._[63]
There are eight particles which signify 'I, mine, to me, etc.' They are
_vatacuxi_, _soregaxi_, _vare_, _mi_, _varera_, _midomo_, _midomora_,
_vare_.[64] The first four indicate a degree of superiority on the part of
those who use them. The others are more humble. Women use three other
particles _mizzucara_, _varava_, and _vagami_ which are not used by men.
The people in the countryside use two others, _vara_ [_vora_] and _vorara_,
while priests {119} when speaking of themselves use _gusô_, that is to say
'I, a worthless man of the cloth,' and old men when speaking of themselves
use _guró_, 'I, a worthless and despicable old man.' The king (_rex_) says
_chin_ or _maru_ which means 'I, the King.' (14
To form the plural of these pronouns the pluralizing particles _domo_ or
_ra_ are added; e.g., _midomo ga maitta toqi_ 'when we went.' To indicate
the difference between the cases, the endings about which we have spoken
are suffixed.
_Second Person Pronouns--Tu, tui, tibi, etc._[65]
There are many particles that form the second person pronoun. They are
differentiated to indicate those persons deserving no honor and respect,
those deserving some, moderate, great, or maximal honor and respect. In
speaking to inferiors there are three particles used for 'you'; _vare_,
_vonore_, and _sochi_. If _me_ or _mega_ is added as in _vareme_ or
_varemega_ it means we very much despise the person being spoken to. If we
speak to people who are on our own level, or just a little inferior, we use
one of the three particles _sonata_, _sonof[vo]_, or _varesama_. If we
speak to a superior person, or someone on an equal level but with whom we
must speak elegantly, we use one of the seven particles _conata_, _qixo_,
_qifó_, _gofen_, _qiden_, _conatasama_, and _sonatasama_. When speaking to
persons of high rank, if we place the name of their office before _sama_,
it serves as a pronoun; e.g., _Padresama gozare_ 'will the Father come.'
_Conata_, _cochi_, and _conof[vo]_ mean 'I, mine,' but in the distributive
sense of 'from me, or what concerns me.' In the same way _sochi_, _sonofó_,
and _sonata_ mean 'you, from you, or what concerns you.'
The plurals are formed by adding the particles listed above to the pronouns
according to the different degrees of honor. _Vonore domo_, _varera_, and
_sochira_ mean 'you' when speaking to inferiors. _Vare tachi_ and _sonata
domo_ mean 'you' with persons of the same rank. _Qifó tachi_, _vocatagata_,
and _vono vono_ mean 'you' to persons requiring honor. The declension of
these honorable expressions follows the declension (15 of common particles.
{120}
_Third Person Pronouns--Ille, illa, illud_[66]
The two particles _care care_ and _are are_ mean 'this (_ille, illa,
illud_)' when speaking of inferior things.[67] There are four particles;
_aitçu_, _aitçume_, _areme_, and _caitçume_ which mean 'this' when one
wants to show disrespect for the things being spoken about. This idea is
emphasized if one adds _ga_ to those forms that end in _me_; e.g.,
_aitçuga_ and _aitçumega_ 'this humble man.' _Cono_ means 'this (_hic,
haec, hoc_),' _sono_ means 'that (_iste, ista, istud_),' and _ano_ means
'that (_ille, illa, illud_).' These words require a noun after them; e.g.,
_cono fito_ 'this man' with _cono mono_ having the same meaning but not
being an honorific expression. _Sono coto_ means 'that thing,' _ano fito_
'that person,' _conata_ or _conofó_ 'here,' _sonata_ or _sonofó_ 'there,'
and _anofó_ 'there, yonder.' _Core_ means 'this (_hic_),' _sore_ 'that
(_istud_),' and _are_ 'that (_illud_).' These forms are in the neuter
gender and are not followed by nouns. Their plurals are _corera_, _sorera_,
and _arera_, while the others follow the common rules. _Cano_ means 'that
which we have mentioned'; e.g., _cano fito_ 'that person.' The pronoun 'a
certain (_quidam_)' is made with the particle _aru_; e.g., _aru fito_ 'a
certain person,' _aru tocoro ni_ 'in a certain place.'
The pronoun 'each (_unusquisque_)' is formed with the particles _men men_
and _sore sore_.
The pronoun 'each and every (_universi & singuli_)' is formed with _tare mo
mina_.
The pronoun 'anyone (_quicumque_)' is formed with _tare nite mo_, _tare
nite mo are_, and _tare nari tomo_.
The particle _tare mo_, when placed before a negative, forms the pronoun
'no one, or nobody'; e.g., _tare mo mairananda_ 'nobody went.' The particle
_nani taru coto nari tomo_ means 'whatever happens, or whichever thing
happens.' The particle _mei mei_ means 'to each, or everyone in
particular.'
The particle _goto_ makes the distributive pronoun meaning 'every.' This
form is used after vocables which are proper to the Japanese language;
i.e., _iomi_. The same results are achieved by placing the (16 particle
_mai_ before vocables which come from the Chinese language; i.e., {121}
_coie_. For example, _fi_ means 'day,' and _figoto ni_ means 'daily.' _Nen_
is a Japanese borrowing from a Chinese word meaning 'year,' and _mainen_
means 'every year, or all year.' The same result is obtained by the
repetition of the noun; e.g., _fito_ means 'person,' and _fitibito_ means
'all the people, or many people,' _fi_ means 'day,' and _fibi ni_ means
'all of the days, or every day.'
The indefinite pronoun 'some (_aliqui_)' is formed with _niiotte_; e.g.,
_toqi niiotte_ 'some times,' _fito niiotte_ 'some men.'
The pronoun 'the same (_idem_)' is formed with _vonaji_; e.g., _vonaji
tocoro cara_ 'from the same place.' The particle _dôjen_ means the same
thing but in the neuter ; e.g., _dôjen degozaru_ 'it is the same.' This
word is used in reply to some one who has congratulated you, etc.
The pronoun 'himself (_ipse_)' is formed with the particles _nuxi_, _sono
mi_, and _vaga_. The particle _vareto mi_ forms the pronoun 'himself
(_ipsemet_)'; e.g., _vareto mi ni ata vo nasu_ (96) 'he brings harm to
himself,' _mi vo vasurete; ta vo tasuquru_ 'he forgets himself and saves
others.' The particle _vatacuxi_ means 'a thing which belongs to oneself
(_re propria_)'; e.g., _vatacuxi no coto_ 'ones own thing,' _vatacuxi ni
ivareta_ 'he spoke for himself.'
The pronoun 'somebody (_aliquis_)' is made with the particles _tare zo_ and
_taso_; e.g., _tare zo maittaraba_ 'if somebody were to come,' _taso sacana
ga aru ca tói ni iqe_ [... _toi_ ...] 'let someone go and ask if there is
food.'
The neuter pronoun 'something (_aliquid_)' is formed with the particles
_nan zo_ and _nanica_; e.g., _nan zo ga araba cuvózu_ 'I would eat if there
were something,' _ima faia te ga jiiú ni gozaru fodo ni nanica caqi maraxô_
'I would write something if I were to have my hands free, or untied.'
The interrogative 'who (_quis_)' is translated with the three particles
_tare_, _taga_, and _taso_. The particles _taga_ or _tare no_ form the
genitive; e.g., _taga mono ca_ 'whose thing is this.' When someone comes to
the door and knocks, he says _mono mó_.[68] To this one responds _taso_,
_taga_, or _tare_ 'who is it?' _Nani_ means 'what (_quid_)'; e.g., _nani vo
suru_ (17 _ca_ or _nani goto vo suru ca?_ 'what are you doing?' _nani ni
sore vo totte iqu ca?_ 'for what reason do you bring this to me?'
{122}
_Relative Pronouns_
The relative pronoun is formed by placing the noun, in connection with
which there is a relative (_relativum_), after the verb; e.g., _ten ni
maximasu varera ga von voia_ 'Our Father who is in Heaven,' _deta tocoro
va_ 'the place from which he came out,' _te ni sumi no tçuita fito_ (88) 'a
man to whose hands ink is adhering.' If the sentence (_oratio_) requires a
nominative before the verb it must be formed with one of the particles
which indicate the nominative; _ga_, _no_, or _iori_. For example,
_vatacuxi ga caita fumi_ 'the letter which I wrote,' _conata no vôxerareta
coto_ 'the thing which Your Lordship says.' The third particle, _iori_, is
used when there is movement in the sentence; e.g., _Deus iori ataie
cudasareta gracia_ 'the grace which God provided, or gave,' _ano tocoro ni
amata no qió atta vo torareta_ (87v.) 'he brought what many books there
were in that place.' When two sentences containing a relation come together
the first is placed second by general rule,[69] and the second uses either
a past, present, or future particle according to what is required by the
sense of the sentence; e.g., _qesa Oracio vo móxita qió ga tçucuie no uie
ni aru vo motte coi_ 'bring the book which is on the desk (_sedila_) at
which I said my prayers this morning.' In this sentence _qió ga_, which is
the first relative, comes after the verb _móxita_; and the _vo_ which
stands for the second relative comes after the verb _aru_. When we want to
be more specific about that of which we are speaking we place the particle
_tocoro no_ between the thing itself and the verb; e.g., _vare to dôxin
xita tocoro no mono domo va mina buguen ni natta_ 'all those who agreed
with me became rich.' Sometimes the relative, because of the difficulty in
understanding it, is expressed by expositions (_per exponentes_). Thus, in
place of _ima corosareta Pedro no co va sonata no chijn gia_ which means
'the son of Peter who has just been killed was your friend,' we say _ima
Pedro corosareta sono co va sonata no chijn de gozaru_.
Sometimes they join two particles, as determined by the case, and form a
kind of relative pronoun which is placed before the relative; e.g., _sono
tocoro de no dancó_ 'the consultation at that place,' (18 _Marsella ie no
fune_ 'the ship to Marseille,' _maire to no móxi goto dearu_ [ ... _gia_]
'it is said that I should go.'
{123}
_Mairu mai to no dancó ni qivamatta_ 'it was resolved that he not go,'
_maitte nochi no dancó_ 'the consultation he arrived after,' _varambe cara
no catagui_ 'a custom from youth,' _xô tame no chôgui gia_ (22) 'this is
the plan (_ars_) according to which it will be done,' _anofito no vo toró_
'I shall take what belongs to that man.' This ends the note on relative
pronouns.
_The Formation of the Verb and Its Conjugation_[70]
The verbs in Japanese have no number or person. These distinctions are
indicated instead by the particles used in the formation of the plurals and
in the declensions. There are three affirmative conjugations and the same
number of negative.
The root (_radix_) of the verb does not by itself indicate tense. For this
reason it is necessary to conjugate the verb in order to show the tenses.
All the verbs of the first conjugation[71] end in e. Those ending in _gi_
or _ji_, together with _xi_ and _maraxi_, although they end in _i_, are
also in the first conjugation. If the root ends in _de_ or _gi_, the
present form is made by changing them to _zzuru_; e.g., _fagi_ forms its
present in _fazzuru_ and means 'to blush,' _de_ becomes _zzuru_ and means
'to leave.' If the root ends in _je_ or _ji_ it changes in the present to
_zuru_; e.g., _maje:mazuru_ 'to mix,' _anji:anzuru_ 'to consider.' If they
end in _xe_ they change to _suru_; e.g., _avaxe:avasuru_ 'to join.' _Xi_
and _maraxi_, which (as we have said) are in the first conjugation,[72]
change _xi_ to _suru_; e.g., _xi:suru_ 'to do,' _maraxi:marasuru_ which
also means 'to do.' If the root ends in _te_ it changes to _tçuru_; e.g.,
_sodate:sodatçuru_ 'to nourish, or support.' The remaining roots which end
in _e_ change, in their separate ways, the _e_ to _uru_; e.g., _ague:aguru_
'to offer,' _nigue:niguru_ 'to run away.'
There are certain verbal preterits which have present tense meanings. They
are those which are passive in form but active in (19 meaning; e.g.,
_cocoroieta_ 'to understand,' _qicoieta_ 'to hear,' _voboieta_ 'to
remember,' _qiqiieta_ 'to understand,' _zonjita_ 'to know,' and there may
{124} be many others. The verbs which follow belong to the first
conjugation even though their roots do not end as previously stated.[73] If
the present tense of these forms does not change the _i_ to _uru_ they are
exceptional; e.g., _abi,uru_ 'to wash oneself,' _fotobi,uru_ 'to become
soft,' _focorobi,uru_ 'to become unstitched,' _cabi_ [_cabi,uru_] 'to be
moldy,'[74] _sabi_ [_sabi,uru_] 'to rust,' _deqi_ [_deqi,uru_] 'to be
finished, or ended,' _cuchi:cutçuru_ 'to rot,' _michi:mitçuru_ 'to be
filled in by the sea,' _ini,uru_ 'to leave,' _nobi:nobiru_ or _noburu_ 'to
be spread out,' _tçuqi,uru_ 'to be used,' _vori:uru_ 'to descend from
above,' _xij:xijru_[75] 'to invite to dine, by compulsion,' _ni:niru_ 'to
resemble,' _mochij:mochiiuru_ 'to evaluate,' _ni:niru_ 'to cook,' _mi:miru_
'to look at,' _cori,uru_ 'to correct,' _vochi:votçuru_ 'to fall,' _i:iru_
'to exist, or be present,' _fugui,uru_ 'to pass, as time passes,'
_vabi,uru_ 'to beg for mercy,' _carabi,uru_ 'to become dry,' _iqi:iquru_
'to live,' _fi:firu_ 'to become dry,' _qi:quru_ 'to come,' _qi:qiru_ 'to
dress oneself,' _voqi,uru_ 'to get out of bed.' The following four verbs
have irregular, as well as regular, present tenses;[76] _ataie_ has _atóru_
'to give,' _vaqimaie_ has _vaqim[vo]ru_ 'to discriminate,' _tonaie_ has
_tonóru_ 'to bless,' _sonaie_ has _sonóru_ 'to place in a high position.'
_The Preterit, Perfect, Imperfect, and Pluperfect_
In Japanese there is no imperfect. In its place the perfect is used. The
perfect is formed in two ways. The first is by suffixing _ta_ to the root
of a verb ; e.g., _agueta_ is the preterit of the verb _ague,uru_ 'to
offer.' The second is by suffixing _te_ to the root and to that adding
_gozari,u_ or _ari,u_ which is then conjugated in the present or the
preterit of the second conjugation; e.g., _aguete gozaru_ or _aguete
gozatta_, or _aguete aru_ or _aguete atta_ 'offered, or had offered.' If
the particle _fáia_ [_faia_] is placed before the verb the expression is
strengthened; e.g., (20 _fáia aguete gozatta_ [_faia_ ...] 'I had already
offered it.' When the verb _ari,u_ is suffixed to the perfect it is not as
elegant a way of speaking as {125} when _gozari,u_ is used. Therefore when
speaking one must be careful about what one says, or in front of whom one
speaks, so as to give each person the honor he deserves.
_The Future of the First Conjugation_
If the root of the verb ends in _te_ this syllable is changed to _teô_ or
_chô_ to form the future; e.g., _tate,uru_ will become _tateô_ or _tachô_
'I shall build.'[77] If the root ends in _ji_ the future is formed by
changing _ji_ to _jô_; e.g., _xenji_ becomes _xenjô_ 'I shall prepare, or
brew, the medicine.' If the root ends in _xe_ [_xi_] it changes to _xô_;
e.g., _xi_ becomes _xô_, and _maraxi_ becomes _maraxô_ 'I shall do.' If it
ends in _ie_ it is changed to _io_ [_iô_]; e.g., _voxiie_ becomes _voxiio_
[_vaxiiô_] 'I shall teach.' The remaining roots ending in _e_ suffix the
particles _ô_, _ôzu_, or _ôzuru_; e.g., _agueô_, _agueôzu_, or _agueôzuru_
'I shall offer.' These endings are used for the first conjugation[78] even
when the roots end in _i_; e.g., _deqiôzu_ 'I shall be finished.'
The future is also formed by taking the syllable _nu_ from the negative
present (see below) and putting in its place the particle _baia_. Thus, by
taking _nu_ away from _aguenu_ and putting in its place _baia_, we obtain
_aguebaia_ 'I will offer.' For _minu_ if you take away the _nu_ and put in
its place _baia_ it will become _mibaia_ 'I will see, or behold.'
The future perfect is formed by suffixing the particles _te arózu_ or
_tarózu_ to the root; e.g., _aguete arózu_ or _aguetarózu_ 'I shall already
have offered.' The same results are obtained if _faia_ is placed before the
simple future; e.g., _faia agueôzu_.
(21
_The Imperative of the First Conjugation_
The imperative of the first conjugation is formed with the root of the verb
alone, or with the addition of the particle _io_; e.g., _ague_ or _ague io_
'offer!'[79] The future of the imperative is the future absolute _agueô_ or
_agueôzu_. This is a more elegant and polite way of speaking than giving a
command with the regular imperative. The imperative is also formed by
taking the _nu_ from the negative present (see below) and {126} putting in
its place the particle _sai_. Thus, if one takes the _nu_ from _aguenu_ and
replaces it with _sai_ it becomes _ague sai_ which means 'offer!' If the
particle _tai_ is placed after the root there is formed a kind of future or
optative by which the wish of the speaker is expressed. It is therefore an
elegant imperative; thus _mizzu fitotçu nomitai_ 'I would like to have a
drink of water' is the same as 'give me some water to drink.' When a
relative [clause] concerns a precept, rule, admonition, or prohibition the
imperative is expressed word for word in whatever the conjugation,
affirmative or negative; e.g., _Christiani naru na to no xógun no fatto ga
aru_ [_Christian ni_ ...] 'it is the law of the Sh[=o]gan (_imperator_)
that no one should become a Christian,' _Padre core vo coxiraie io to
voxerareta niiotte_ [... _vôxerareta_ ...] 'because the Priest told me to
do it.'
_The Optative of the First Conjugation_
The optative, both present and future, is the present tense of the
imperative with the particles _negavacu va_ or _avare_ placed before it and
the particles _gana_ or _caxi_ placed after it. Sometimes it is formed by
adding the particle _gana_ without any prefix; e.g., _negavacu va ague io
caxi?_ or _avare aguei gana_[80] 'would that you were to offer?' _avare
icanaru tengu, bangue mono nari tomo vare vo totte, fiie no iama ni noboxe
io caxi!_ (15v)[81] 'Oh! if there were some one, either devil or
soothsayer, who could make me ascend the mountain called Hie.' The particle
_gana_ when it is placed after a noun indicates a wish for the thing
specified by the noun; e.g., _saqe gana_ 'oh! sake'; and if (22 one is
asked if he would like something to drink, the answer is _nani gana_ 'would
that I had some.'
The perfect of the optative is the second form of the future followed by
the particle _mono vo!_; e.g., _niqueozu mono vo!_ [_nigueôzu_ ...] 'would
that I had fled!' The same is achieved by _niguetaraba iocaró mono vo_.
Sometimes they say only _niguetaró va_ or _niguete aró ni va iocaró mono
vo_.
{127}
_The Subjunctive of the First Affirmative Conjugation_
The present tense of the subjunctive is formed by changing the _u_ in which
the present indicative ends to _eba_; e.g., _aguru_ becomes _agureba_
'since I offer.' It is also formed from the present by adding _ni_, _de_,
_vo_, or _va_ to the particle _tocoro_ according to the case requirements
of the verb that follows, with the first verb being controlled by the noun;
e.g., _aru toqi Pedro chinsui xite iraruru tocoro ie fito ga qite_
(16v)[82] 'since a certain man came to the place where Peter was when he
was drunk,' _nhóbó ni tachi vacarete iru tocoro ni_ (16v)[83] 'since they
were separated and divorced,' _có aru tocoro ni_ 'since things are this
way,' _ioso ie zzuru tocoro va fito ni corosareta_ (16v)[84] 'when he went
outside, he was killed by someone,' _go misa vo asobaruru tocoro vo uchi
coroita_ (121)[85] 'he killed him while he was celebrating mass.' This is a
general rule which applies to all conjugations.
The perfect and the pluperfect of the subjunctive are formed from these
same tenses in the indicative with the addition of the particle _reba_;
e.g., _agueta reba_ 'since he had offered.' It is also formed by taking
away _gozaru_ from the preterit pluperfect and putting in its place _atta
reba_ or _atta_; but, when _atta_ is used, the particles _ni_, _vo_, _va_,
or _ie_ must be added according to the requirements of the following verb,
just as with _tocoro_ in the present tenses; e.g., _aguete atta reba_ or
_aguete atta ni_, _vo_, _va_, or _ie_ 'since I had already offered it.'
The future of the subjunctive is formed by adding the particle _toqi_ to
the future indicative; e.g., _agueô toqi_ 'since he would offer it later.'
The pluperfect subjunctive, with all the expressions (_vox_) which signify
that which comes after a completed action, is formed by (23 placing _cara_,
_nochi_, or _igo_ after the pluperfect indicative, minus _gozaru_; {128}
e.g., _aguete cara, nochi_, or _igo, mairó_ 'I shall leave after he has
offered it.' This is like _aguetaró toki mairó_ 'I shall leave after he has
already offered it.' _Agueôzuru ni_ or _agueôzuru tocoro ni_ means 'since
he was already prepared to offer it.' _Agueôzuru coto no saqi ni_ means 'a
little while before he offered it.'
The present tense of the permissive subjunctive is formed in two ways. The
first is by changing the _u_ of the present indicative to _edomo_; e.g.,
_aguredomo_ 'although I could offer it.'
The preterit of the permissive subjunctive is formed by adding _redomo_ to
the preterit indicative; e.g., _agueta redomo_ 'although he had offered
it.' The future permissive is formed by adding _redomo_ to the second form
of the future indicative; e.g., _agueôzu redomo_ 'although he would be able
to offer it.' The second form of the permissive subjunctive is formed by
adding the particle _tomo_ to the present indicative; e.g., _aguru tomo_
'although he could offer it.' The particles _mamaio_ or _madeio_ may also
be added to the present tense; e.g., _sore vo voxiiuru mamaio_ or _sore vo
voxiiuru madeio_ 'although he could teach this.'
The preterit of the second permissive is formed by suffixing _ritomo_ to
the preterit indicative; e.g., _agueta ritomo_ 'although he had offered
it.' The same meaning is achieved by adding the particles _mamaio_ or
_madeio_ to the preterit indicative; e.g., _agueta mamaio_ or _agueta
madeio_; or by adding _tote_ to the preterit subjunctive; e.g., _aguetareba
tote_.
The future permissive is formed by adding _tomo_ to the second form of the
future indicative; e.g., _agueozu tomo_ [_agueôzu tomo_ 'although he would
offer it']. It is also formed by adding _mamaio_ or _madeio_ to the same
future form. If the particle _tatoi_ is placed before the forms of the
permissive subjunctive great strength is added to the sentence; e.g.,
_tatoi vôxeraruru tomo_ 'even though you may state this.' The same meaning
is obtained by removing the verbs _gozaru_ or _aru_ from the pluperfect
indicative and replacing it with the particle _mo_; e.g., _aguete mo_
'although he may offer it.' The same _mo_ when placed after the present
indicative gives the same meaning; e.g., _doco de qiqi marasuru mo, sono
sata va mósanu_ 'although he hears that everywhere, he does not pay any
attention.' The same meaning is obtained by the sentences _ague mo xeio
caxi?_, _aguete mo xô madeio_, and _nanto mo ague caxi?_ {129} [... _aguei
caxi?_][86] 'although he offers.' _Aguru ni saxerarei_, (24 _agueta ni
saxerarei_, or _agueo ni saxerarei_ [_agueô_ ...] have the meanings of
'although he could have offered, although he could offer, or although he
would offer'; or one might say 'let us offer' or 'let us give.'
_The Infinitive_
The present infinitive is formed by adding _coto_ or _to_ to the present
indicative; e.g., _aguru coto_ or _aguru to_ 'to offer.'
The preterit infinitive is formed by adding the same particles to the
preterit indicative; e.g., _agueta coto_ or _agueta to_ 'to have offered.'
The future infinitive is formed by adding the same particles to the future
indicative; e.g., _agueô coto_ or _agueô to_ 'to be about to offer.' The
same meaning is obtained by adding _ióni_ to the present, preterit, or
future indicative; e.g., _nai nai guioi ni caqerareô ióni va vare mo
zonzuru fitobito mo zonjita_ (22v) 'I think and others believed me to have
been favored by you with many benefits,' _qeccu vare ni voxiie marasuru
ióni gozaru_ (117v) 'he is truly able to teach me,' _agueta ióni gozaru_
'he is said to have offered it.'
To ask or answer a question the infinitive is often subordinate to the verb
which follows; e.g., _nhóbógata ni vochita coto ga atta ca?_ 'did you fall
into the sin of adultery with this woman? is this what happened?' etc. All
the tenses of the infinitive are used in the same way.
Sometimes the preterit infinitive is replaced by the pluperfect with
_gozaru_ or _aru_ removed; e.g., _Deus no minori vo firomete iocaró_ 'it is
good to spread the Gospel.' Sometimes the present or preterit indicative
plus _ga_ replaces the present or preterit of the infinitive; e.g., _sore
vo vôxeraruru ga varú gozaró_ 'it will be bad to say that,' _maitta ga maxi
gia_ (21) 'it is better to have come, or it was better to come.'
When the substantive verb follows the infinitive, the particle _coto_ is
not required; e.g., _cosacazzuqi de va saqe vo nomu devanai_ (23) 'to drink
sake from a small glass is not to drink sake,' _core coso caqu de gozare_
'this we are able to say, or better, write,' _caqu de gozatte coso_ 'this
is not the way for it to be written,' _sore va aguru devanai_ 'that is not
to offer it.' Some of these examples are taken from other (25 conjugations
but the general rule applies to all. The idea of the {130} infinitive is
also obtained by the following means of expression; _ague va_, _aguredomo_
'although I offered, or even if I made it so that it was offered.' Because
this is a general rule for all the conjugations, they also say _qiqi va
tçucamatçure domo gatten xenu_ 'although I have listened, or done
everything necessary to hear; I still don't understand.' They also say
_aguru vo motte_ 'by offering, or with the fact that he is to offer,'
_aguru iori_ 'from the fact that he is to offer,' _aguru nitçuite_ 'about
the fact that he is to offer.'
The gerund in _Di_ is the present or future indicative followed by the
particle _jibun_, or less frequently some other particle meaning 'time';
e.g., _aguru jibun_ 'the time for offering,' _agueô ni qivamatta_ 'he made
the decision that it be offered,' _niguru jibun gia_ 'it is time to flee,'
_corosareôzuru ni aisadamatte ar[vo]zu_ (13) 'it will have been decided
that he will be killed, or will have to be killed.'
The gerund in _Do_ is formed in two ways. The first is by adding the
particles _ni_ or _tote_ to the present indicative; e.g., _aguruni_ or
_agurutote iurusareta_ 'I was freed by it being offered.' The second way is
by removing the verb _gozaru_ from the pluperfect; e.g., _aguete
cutabireta_ 'I became tired by offering, or raising up,' that is to say,
'from the action of presenting, or raising up, I suffered the result of
becoming tired.' There is also another elegant, and frequently used, way to
form the gerund in _Do_. It is done by placing the root of the verb in
front of another verb making a compound; e.g., _fiqi iosuru_ 'to approach,
pulling.' The roots which are used in this way do not change with respect
to their function. The gerund in _Do_ is also used to express purpose
_taixó to xite_ 'since he was a commander (_dux_), or was fulfilling the
function of a commander,' _von rei to xite_ 'giving thanks,' _r[vo]tai nomi
ni xite_ 'since he was an old man,' _tçucai xite ivaruru_ 'he said it as a
messenger.'
The gerund in _Dum_ is formed by adding the particles _tame_ or _tote_ to
the present or future indicative; e.g., _aguru tame_ or _agueo tote_
[_agueô tote_] 'in order to offer.' The same meaning is obtained by _aguru
ni fatto ga aru_ 'there is a law about offering,' unless this should be
considered a gerund in ni [_Di_].
The supine in _Tum_ is formed in two ways. The first is by adding _ni_ to
the root. The second is by adding _tameni_ to the present indicative; {131}
e.g., _tazzune ni maitta_ or _tazzunuru tameni maitta_ 'I came in order to
obtain it.'
The supine in _Tu_ is the root of the verb alone. To obtain the same
meaning they also use _mósu ni voiobanu_ 'it is not necessary to (26
speak.'
The present, preterit, and future participles are formed by adding the
particles _fito_ or _mono_ to the indicative. When _fito_ is used the
result is a more honorable way of speaking; e.g., _aguru fito_ or _aguru
mono_ 'he who offers,' _agueta fito_ 'he who offered,' _agueô mono_ 'he who
will offer,' _Buppôgacu suru tomogara ni voite va_ (73v) 'as for those who
devote themselves to the study of the laws of idolatry,' _von vo xiru vo
fito to va iúzo; von vo xiranu voba chicuxó to coso iie_ (96v). In this
last sentence the _vo_ takes the place of the participle, and the sentence
therefore means 'those who know kindness (_beneficia_) are correctly called
men; those who do not know it are truly called beasts.' This is a general
rule for all the conjugations and therefore the example contains a verb
from the second conjugation. The participle is also made by adding _te_
['hand'] to the root of the verb; e.g., _aguete_ 'one who offers.'
_The First Negative Conjugation_
The negative root is formed by adding _zu_ to the affirmative root; e.g.,
_aguezu_.
The present tense is formed with _nu_ instead of _zu_; e.g., _aguenu_ 'I do
not offer.' This is a general rule no matter how the root ends. The only
exceptions are _xi_ and _maraxi_ which form the negative present in _xenu_
and _maraxenu_ 'I do not do.' The roots that end in _ji_ change the _ji_ to
_je_ and then suffix the particle _nu_ to the present; e.g., _zonji_ in the
negative present becomes _zonienu_ [_zonjenu_] 'I do not know.' In some
areas of Japan they form the negative by removing the final _u_ from the
negative root and adding _ari,u_, which is then conjugated according to the
required tense; e.g., _aguezaru_ 'I do not offer,' _aguezatta_ 'I did not
offer,' _aguezatta reba_ 'since I did not offer.' They also say _aguezu
xite_ 'by not offering.'[87]
{132}
The negative of the preterit is formed in like manner by adding the
particle _nanda_ instead of _nu_; e.g., _aguenanda_ 'I did not offer,'
_zonjenanda_ 'I did not know,' _vorinanda_ 'I did not descend.'
The pluperfect is formed by changing the last _a_ of the preterit to _e_
and adding the verb _gozaru_ in the present and _gozatta_ in the preterit;
e.g., _aguenande gozaru_ or _aguenande gozatta_ 'I have not offered.' It is
also formed by adding _ide gozaru_ or _ide gozatta_ instead of (27 _nande
gozaru_; e.g., _agueide gozaru_ or _agueide gozatta_ 'I had not offered,'
_zonzeide gozaru_ [_zonjeide_ ... ][88] 'I had not known,' _vochiide
gozatta_ 'I had not fallen.'
The negative future is formed by adding _mai_ or _maji_ to the affirmative
root or the affirmative present tense; e.g., _ague mai_ or _aguru maji_
'you will not offer.'
The imperative is formed by placing _na_ after the present indicative;
_aguru na_ 'do not offer.'
It is also formed by placing _na_ before the root and _so_ after it; e.g.,
_na ague so_ 'do not offer.'
It is also formed by placing _na_ after the root; e.g., _ague na_ 'do not
offer,' _mixe na_ 'do not show,' _mesare na_ 'do not do.' The roots which
end in _xi_ or _ji_, but are in the first conjugation,[89] change the _i_
to _e_ to form the negative imperative; e.g., _s[vo] xe na_ or _só maraxe
na_ 'do not do that,' _s[vo] zonze na_ [_só zonje na_] 'do not think that.'
The optative is formed by placing _negavacuva_ or _avare_ before the
negative imperative and placing _caxi_ or _gana_ after it; e.g., _avare
aguru na caxi_ 'oh! if only you would not offer,' and _negavacuva na ague
so gana_ with the same meaning.
The preterit of the optative is formed by placing _mono vo_ after the
negative future; e.g., _aguru mai mono vo_ 'oh! if only you would not have
offered.'
The negative subjunctive is formed by changing the _u_ which ends the
negative present to _eba_; e.g., _agueneba_ 'since he did not offer.'
The preterit of the subjunctive is formed by adding _reba_ to the negative
preterit of the indicative; e.g., _aguenanda reba_ 'since he had not
offered.'
{133}
The future of the subjunctive is formed by adding _qereba_ to the negative
future; e.g., _niguru mai qereba_ 'since he is not going to escape.'
The permissive subjunctive is formed by adding _domo_ to the negative
present after changing the final _u_ of the verb to _e_; e.g., _aguenedomo_
'although he cannot offer.' They also say, and this usage is preferred,
_aguenaidemo_ or _agueidemo_ 'even if he not offer.'[90]
The preterit of the permissive subjunctive is formed by placing _redomo_
after the negative preterit; e.g., _aguenanda redomo_ 'although he had not
offered.' _Aguenaidemo_ or _agueidemo_ 'although he would not be allowed to
offer,' is also said.
The permissive future is formed by adding _qeredomo_ to the negative
future; e.g., _aguru mai qeredomo_ 'although he is not going to be allowed
to offer.' (28
Another way of forming the permissive subjunctive is to place the particle
_tomo_ after the negative root; e.g., _aguezu tomo_ 'although he is not
going to be able to offer.' It is also formed by placing _tote_ after the
[negative] present subjunctive; e.g., _agueneba tote_. A third way is to
add _mamaio_ or _madeio_ to the negative present; e.g., _aguenu mamaio_ or
_aguenu madeio_ 'although he cannot offer.'
The preterit is formed by placing _ritomo_ after the negative preterit;
e.g., _aguenanda ritomo_ 'although he had not offered.' It is also formed
by placing _tote_ after the negative preterit of the subjunctive; e.g.,
_aguenanda reba tote_, or better, _aguenaidemo_ or _agueidemo_ 'although he
does not offer, or had not offered.'
The future is formed by placing _tomo_ after the negative future; e.g.,
_aguemai tomo_ 'although he is not going to offer,' _vochiidemo_ 'although
he will not fall.'
The present, preterit, and future infinitives are the present, preterit,
and future negative indicative present tenses followed by _coto_ or _to_;
e.g., _aguenu coto_ 'not to offer,' _aguenanda coto_ 'not to have offered,'
_aguru mai coto_ 'not to be going to offer.'
Sometimes they use the negative present instead of the preterit in all the
conjugations; e.g., _mi maraxenu_ 'I did not see.'
{134}
The negative gerund in _Di_ is the same as the negative present or future;
e.g., _aguenu_ or _aguru mai_ 'of not offering.'
The gerund in _Do_ is formed by placing _ni_ after the negative root or the
negative present tense; e.g., _aguezuni_ or _aguenuni_ 'by not offering.'
The same meaning is obtained with _agueide_, _aguenaide_ or _aguezu xite_.
The gerund in _Dum_ is formed by placing _tote_ or _tame_ after the
[negative] present or future of the indicative; e.g., _aguenu tame_ or
_aguru mai tote_ 'in order not to offer.'
The present, preterit, and future participles are formed by adding _fito_
or _mono_ to the negative of the present, preterit, and future indicatives;
e.g., _aguenu fito_ 'he who is not offering,' _aguenanda mono_ 'he who did
not offer,' _aguru mai mono_ 'he who will not offer,' _aguenaide cara_ or
_agueide nochi_ 'after he had not offered, after they did not offer, or
after it was not offered.'
(29