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[Transcriber's Note:
This text is intended for users whose text readers cannot use the "real"
(Unicode/UTF-8) version of the file. Characters that could not be fully
displayed are shown in alternative forms:
Ââ Êê Îî Ôô Ûû (circumflex in place of macron or "long" mark;
the circumflex in its own right does not occur)
y: Æ: æ: (long y and æ; the sequence "y:" does not occur in the
Old English material, and "æ:" does not occur at all)
Characters with more than one diacritic (rare), and some less common
combinations such as accented æ, are shown "top to bottom" in brackets:
[´â] [´æ] (long a with accent, æ with accent). Greek words (also rare)
have been transliterated and shown between +marks+; there should be no
confusion between this and the + as printed.
The short vowels e and o are sometimes shown with ogonek (reversed
cedilla). In the introductory section on vowel sounds, and in the
overall Glossary, these are shown as [E,] [e,] [O,] [o,]. Elsewhere the
ogonek was simply omitted; there are no minimal pairs (different words
distinguished only by this sign).
See the Poetry section (between V and VI in Part III, Readings) for
display of characters specific to that section.
Italics are shown with _lines_. Boldface is shown with #hash marks#.
In the printed book, boldface was used for all Anglo-Saxon other than
exercises and reading passages; it has been omitted from the e-text
except when necessary for clarity.
In references to numbered Sections, "Note" may mean either an inset Note
or a footnote.
In the prose reading selections (pages 99-121), page numbers and line
breaks have been retained for use with the linenotes and Glossary. Page
numbers are shown in [[double brackets]]. In the verse selections, line
numbers in the notes have been replaced with line numbers from the
original texts, printed in brackets as shown. The distinction between
linenotes and numbered footnotes is in the original.
Single brackets [] and asterisks * are in the original, as are the
symbols + = < >. Text in [[double brackets]] was added by the
transcriber.]
ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR
AND EXERCISE BOOK
With Inflections, Syntax, Selections
for Reading, and Glossary
By
C. ALPHONSO SMITH, Ph.D., LL.D.
Late Professor of English in the
United States Naval Academy
ALLYN and BACON
Boston New York Chicago
Atlanta San Francisco
Copyright, 1896, by
C. ALPHONSO SMITH.
IAI
Norwood Press
J. S. Cushing & Co.--Berwick & Smith
Norwood Mass. U.S.A.
PREFACE.
The scope of this book is indicated in § 5. It is intended for
beginners, and in writing it, these words of Sir Thomas Elyot have not
been forgotten: "Grammer, beinge but an introduction to the
understandinge of autors, if it be made to longe or exquisite to the
lerner, it in a maner mortifieth his corage: And by that time he cometh
to the most swete and pleasant redinge of olde autors, the sparkes of
fervent desire of lernynge are extincte with the burdone of grammer,
lyke as a lyttell fyre is sone quenched with a great heape of small
stickes." --_The Governour_, Cap. X.
Only the essentials, therefore, are treated in this work, which is
planned more as a foundation for the study of Modern English grammar, of
historical English grammar, and of the principles of English etymology,
than as a general introduction to Germanic philology.
The Exercises in translation will, it is believed, furnish all the drill
necessary to enable the student to retain the forms and constructions
given in the various chapters.
The Selections for Reading relate to the history and literature of King
Alfred's day, and are sufficient to give the student a first-hand,
though brief, acquaintance with the native style and idiom of Early West
Saxon prose in its golden age. Most of the words and constructions
contained in them will be already familiar to the student through their
intentional employment in the Exercises.
For the inflectional portion of this grammar, recourse has been had
chiefly to Sievers' _Abriss der angelsächsischen Grammatik_ (1895).
Constant reference has been made also to the same author's earlier and
larger _Angelsächsishe Grammatik_, translated by Cook. A more sparing
use has been made of Cosijn's _Altwestsächsische Grammatik_.
For syntax and illustrative sentences, Dr. J. E. Wülfing's _Syntax in
den Werken Alfreds des Grossen, Part I._ (Bonn, 1894) has proved
indispensable. Advance sheets of the second part of this great work lead
one to believe that when completed the three parts will constitute the
most important contribution to the study of English syntax that has yet
been made. Old English sentences have also been cited from Sweet's
_Anglo-Saxon Reader_, Bright's _Anglo-Saxon Reader_, and Cook's _First
Book in Old English_.
The short chapter on the Order of Words has been condensed from my
_Order of Words in Anglo-Saxon Prose_ (Publications of the Modern
Language Association of America, New Series, Vol. I, No. 2).
Though assuming sole responsibility for everything contained in this
book, I take pleasure in acknowledging the kind and efficient assistance
that has been so generously given me in its preparation. To none do I
owe more than to Dr. J. E. Wülfing, of the University of Bonn; Prof.
James A. Harrison, of the University of Virginia; Prof. W. S. Currell,
of Washington and Lee University; Prof. J. Douglas Bruce, of Bryn Mawr
College; and Prof. L. M. Harris, of the University of Indiana. They have
each rendered material aid, not only in the tedious task of detecting
typographical errors in the proof-sheets, but by the valuable criticisms
and suggestions which they have made as this work was passing through
the press.
C. ALPHONSO SMITH.
Louisiana State University,
Baton Rouge, September, 1896.
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.
In preparing this enlarged edition, a few minor errors in the first
edition have been corrected and a few sentences added. The chief
difference between the two editions, however, consists in the
introduction of more reading matter and the consequent exposition of Old
English meter. Both changes have been made at the persistent request of
teachers and students of Old English.
Uniformity of treatment has been studiously preserved in the new
material and the old, the emphasis in both being placed on syntax and
upon the affinities that Old English shares with Modern English.
Many obligations have been incurred in preparing this augmented edition.
I have again to thank Dr. J. E. Wülfing, Prof. James A. Harrison, Prof.
W. S. Currell, and Prof. J. Douglas Bruce. To the scholarly criticisms
also of Prof. J. M. Hart, of Cornell; Prof. Frank Jewett Mather, Jr., of
Williams College; and Prof. Frederick Tupper, Jr., of the University of
Vermont, I am indebted for aid as generously given as it is genuinely
appreciated.
C. ALPHONSO SMITH.
August, 1898.
PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION.
Among those who have kindly aided in making this edition free from
error, I wish to thank especially my friend Dr. John M. McBryde, Jr., of
Hollins Institute, Virginia.
C. ALPHONSO SMITH.
University of North Carolina,
Chapel Hill, February, 1903.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PART I.--INTRODUCTION.
Chapters Pages
I. History (§ 1-5) 1
II. Sounds (§ 6-11) 4
III. Inflections (§ 12-19) 10
IV. Order of Words (§ 20-21) 18
V. Practical Suggestions (§ 22-24) 21
PART II.--ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.
VI. The a-Declension: Masculine a-Stems (§ 25-30) 27
VII. Neuter a-Stems (§ 31-36) 30
VIII. The ô-Declension (§ 37-42) 33
IX. The i-Declension and the u-Declension (§ 43-55) 35
X. Present Indicative Endings of Strong Verbs (§ 56-62) 39
XI. The Weak or n-Declension (§ 63-66) 44
XII. Remnants of Other Consonant Declensions (§ 67-71) 47
XIII. Pronouns (§ 72-77) 50
XIV. Adjectives, Strong and Weak (§ 78-87) 53
XV. Numerals (§ 88-92) 57
XVI. Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions (§ 93-95) 60
XVII. Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs (§ 96-100) 64
XVIII. Strong Verbs: Class I, Syntax of Moods (§ 101-108) 68
XIX. Classes II and III (§ 109-113) 74
XX. Classes IV, V, VI, and VII; Contract Verbs (§ 114-121) 78
XXI. Weak Verbs (§ 122-133) 82
XXII. Remaining Verbs; Verb Phrases with #habban#, #bêon#,
and #weorðan# (§ 134-143) 90
PART III.--SELECTIONS FOR READING.
PROSE.
Introductory 98
I. The Battle of Ashdown 99
II. A Prayer of King Alfred 101
III. The Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan 102
Ohthere's First Voyage 103
Ohthere's Second Voyage 106
Wulfstan's Voyage 107
IV. The Story of Cædmon 111
V. Alfred's Preface to the Pastoral Care 116
POETRY.
Introductory 122
VI. Extracts from Beowulf 136
VII. The Wanderer 148
GLOSSARIES.
I. Old English--Modern English 155
II. Modern English--Old English 190
* * * * *
* * * *
OLD ENGLISH
GRAMMAR AND EXERCISES
* * * *
* * * * *
OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND EXERCISE BOOK.
PART I.
INTRODUCTION.
CHAPTER I.
HISTORY.
1. The history of the English language falls naturally into three
periods; but these periods blend into one another so gradually that too
much significance must not be attached to the exact dates which
scholars, chiefly for convenience of treatment, have assigned as their
limits. Our language, it is true, has undergone many and great changes;
but its continuity has never been broken, and its individuality has
never been lost.
2. The first of these periods is that of OLD ENGLISH, or ANGLO-SAXON,[1]
commonly known as the period of _full inflections_. _E.g._ #stân-as#,
_stones_; #car-u#, _care_; #will-a#, _will_; #bind-an#, _to bind_;
#help-að# (= #ath#), _they help_.
It extends from the arrival of the English in Great Britain to about one
hundred years after the Norman Conquest,--from A.D. 449 to 1150; but
there are no literary remains of the earlier centuries of this period.
There were four[2] distinct dialects spoken at this time. These were the
Northumbrian, spoken north of the river Humber; the Mercian, spoken in
the midland region between the Humber and the Thames; the West Saxon,
spoken south and west of the Thames; and the Kentish, spoken in the
neighborhood of Canterbury. Of these dialects, Modern English is most
nearly akin to the Mercian; but the best known of them is the West
Saxon. It was in the West Saxon dialect that King Alfred (849-901) wrote
and spoke. His writings belong to the period of Early West Saxon as
distinguished from the period of Late West Saxon, the latter being best
represented in the writings of Abbot Ælfric (955?-1025?).
[Footnote 1: This unfortunate nomenclature is due to the term
_Angli Saxones_, which Latin writers used as a designation for
the English Saxons as distinguished from the continental or Old
Saxons. But Alfred and Ælfric both use the term _Englisc_, not
Anglo-Saxon. The Angles spread over Northumbria and Mercia, far
outnumbering the other tribes. Thus _Englisc_ (= _Angel_ +
_isc_) became the general name for the language spoken.]
[Footnote 2: As small as England is, there are six distinct
dialects spoken in her borders to-day. Of these the Yorkshire
dialect is, perhaps, the most peculiar. It preserves many
Northumbrian survivals. See Tennyson's _Northern Farmer_.]
3. The second period is that of MIDDLE ENGLISH, or the period of
_leveled inflections_, the dominant vowel of the inflections being e.
_E.g._ #ston-es#, #car-e#, #will-e#, #bind-en# (or #bind-e#),
#help-eth#, each being, as in the earlier period, a dissyllable.
The Middle English period extends from A.D. 1150 to 1500. Its greatest
representatives are Chaucer (1340-1400) in poetry and Wiclif (1324-1384)
in prose. There were three prominent dialects during this period: the
Northern, corresponding to the older Northumbrian; the Midland (divided
into East Midland and West Midland), corresponding to the Mercian; and
the Southern, corresponding to the West Saxon and Kentish. London,
situated in East Midland territory, had become the dominant speech
center; and it was this East Midland dialect that both Chaucer and
Wiclif employed.
NOTE.--It is a great mistake to think that Chaucer shaped our
language from crude materials. His influence was conservative, not
plastic. The popularity of his works tended to crystalize and thus
to perpetuate the forms of the East Midland dialect, but that
dialect was ready to his hand before he began to write. The speech
of London was, in Chaucer's time, a mixture of Southern and
Midland forms, but the Southern forms (survivals of the West Saxon
dialect) had already begun to fall away; and this they continued
to do, so that "Chaucer's language," as Dr. Murray says, "is more
Southern than standard English eventually became." See also
Morsbach, _Ueber den Ursprung der neuenglischen Schriftsprache_
(1888).
4. The last period is that of MODERN ENGLISH, or the period of _lost
inflections_. _E.g._ _stones_, _care_, _will_, _bind_, _help_, each
being a monosyllable. Modern English extends from A.D. 1500 to the
present time. It has witnessed comparatively few grammatical changes,
but the vocabulary of our language has been vastly increased by
additions from the classical languages. Vowels, too, have shifted their
values.
5. It is the object of this book to give an elementary knowledge of
Early West Saxon, that is, the language of King Alfred. With this
knowledge, it will not be difficult for the student to read Late West
Saxon, or any other dialect of the Old English period. Such knowledge
will also serve as the best introduction to the structure both of Middle
English and of Modern English, besides laying a secure foundation for
the scientific study of any other Germanic tongue.
NOTE.--The Germanic, or Teutonic, languages constitute a branch of
the great Aryan, or Indo-Germanic (known also as the
Indo-European) group. They are subdivided as follows:
{ North Germanic: Scandinavian, or Norse.
{
{ { Old High German,
Germanic { East Germanic: Gothic. { (to A.D. 1100,)
{ {
{ { High German { Middle High German,
{ { { (A.D. 1100-1500,)
{ { {
{ West Germanic { { New High German.
{ { (A.D. 1500-.)
{
{ Low German { Dutch,
{ Old Saxon,
{ Frisian,
{ English.
CHAPTER II.
SOUNDS.
#Vowels and Diphthongs.#
6. The long vowels and diphthongs will in this book be designated by the
macron (¯). Vowel length should in every case be associated by the
student with each word learned: quantity alone sometimes distinguishes
words meaning wholly different things: #fôr#, _he went_, #for#, _for_;
#gôd#, _good_, #God#, _God_; #mân#, _crime_, #man#, _man_.
Long vowels and diphthongs:
â as in f_a_ther: #stân#, _a stone_.
æ: as in m_a_n (prolonged): #slæ:pan#, _to sleep_.
ê as in th_e_y: #hêr#, _here_.
î as in mach_i_ne: #mîn#, _mine_.
ô as in n_o_te (pure, not diphthongal): #bôc#, _book_.
û as in r_u_le: #tûn#, _town_.
y: as in German gr_ü_n, or English gr_ee_n (with lips rounded):[1]
#bry:d#, _bride_.
The diphthongs, long and short, have the stress upon the first vowel.
The second vowel is obscured, and represents approximately the sound of
_er_ in _sooner_, _faster_ (= _soon-uh_, _fast-uh_). The long diphthongs
(æ: is not a diphthong proper) are êo, îe, and êa. The sound of êo is
approximately reproduced in _mayor_ (= _mâ-uh_); that of îe in the
dissyllabic pronunciation of _fear_ (= _fê-uh_). But êa = _æ:-uh_. This
diphthong is hardly to be distinguished from _ea_ in _pear_, _bear_,
etc., as pronounced in the southern section of the United States
(= _bæ-uh_, _pæ-uh_).
7. The short sounds are nothing more than the long vowels and diphthongs
shortened; but the student must at once rid himself of the idea that
Modern English _red_, for example, is the shortened form of _reed_, or
that _mat_ is the shortened form of _mate_. Pronounce these long sounds
with increasing rapidity, and _reed_ will approach _rid_, while _mate_
will approach _met_. The Old English short vowel sounds are:
a as in _a_rtistic: #habban#, _to have_.
æ as in m_a_nkind: #dæg#, _day_.
e, [e,] as in l_e_t: #stelan#, _to steal_, #s[e,]ttan#, _to set_.
i as in s_i_t: #hit#, _it_.
o as in br_oa_d (but shorter): #God#, _God_.
[o,] as in n_o_t: #l[o,]mb#, _lamb_.
u as in f_u_ll: #sunu#, _son_.
y as in m_i_ller (with lips rounded)[1]: #gylden#, _golden_.
NOTE.--The symbol [e,] is known as _umlaut_-e (§ 58). It stands for
Germanic _a_, while e (without the cedilla) represents Germanic
_e_. The symbol [o,] is employed only before m and n. It, too,
represents Germanic _a_. But Alfred writes #manig# or #monig#,
_many_; #lamb# or #lomb#, _lamb_; #hand# or #hond#, _hand_, etc.
The cedilla is an etymological sign added by modern grammarians.
[Transcriber's Note:
The diacritic is not a cedilla (open to the left) but an ogonek (open
to the right).]
[Footnote 1: Vowels are said to be round, or rounded, when the
lip-opening is rounded; that is, when the lips are thrust out
and puckered as if preparing to pronounce _w_. Thus _o_ and _u_
are round vowels: add _-ing_ to each, and phonetically you have
added _-wing_. _E.g. go^{w}ing_, _su^{w}ing_.]
#Consonants.#
8. There is little difference between the values of Old English
consonants and those of Modern English. The following distinctions,
however, require notice:
The digraph #th# is represented in Old English texts by ð and þ, no
consistent distinction being made between them. In the works of Alfred,
ð (capital, Ð) is the more common: #ðâs#, _those_; #ðæt#, _that_;
#bindeð#, _he binds_.
The consonant #c# had the hard sound of _k_, the latter symbol being
rare in West Saxon: #cyning#, _king_; #cwên#, _queen_; #cûð#, _known_.
When followed by a palatal vowel sound,--_e_, _i_, _æ_, _ea_, _eo_,
long or short,--a vanishing _y_ sound was doubtless interposed (_cf._
dialectic _k^{y}ind_ for _kind_). In Modern English the combination
has passed into _ch_: #cealc#, _chalk_; #cîdan#, _to chide_; #læ:ce#,
_leech_; #cild#, _child_; #cêowan#, _to chew_. This change (_c_ > _ch_)
is known as Palatalization. The letter g, pronounced as in Modern
English _gun_, has also a palatal value before the palatal vowels
(_cf._ dialectic _g^{y}irl_ for _girl_).
The combination #cg#, which frequently stands for #gg#, had probably the
sound of _dge_ in Modern English _edge_: #ecg#, _edge_; #secgan#, _to
say_; #brycg#, _bridge_. Initial #h# is sounded as in Modern English:
#habban#, _to have_; #hâlga#, _saint_. When closing a syllable it has
the sound of German _ch_: #slôh#, _he slew_; #hêah#, _high_; #ðurh#,
_through_.
9. An important distinction is that between voiced (or sonant) and
voiceless (or surd) consonants.[2] In Old English they are as follows:
VOICED. VOICELESS.
g h, c
d t
ð, þ (as in _th_ough) ð, þ (as in _th_in)
b p
f (= v) f
s (= z) s
It is evident, therefore, that ð (þ), f, and s have double values in Old
English. If voiced, they are equivalent to _th_ (in _th_ough), _v_, and
_z_. Otherwise, they are pronounced as _th_ (in _th_in), _f_ (in _f_in),
and _s_ (in _s_in). The syllabic environment will usually compel the
student to give these letters their proper values. When occurring
between vowels, they are always voiced: #ôðer#, _other_; #ofer#, _over_;
#rîsan#, _to rise_.
NOTE.--The general rule in Old English, as in Modern English, is,
that voiced consonants have a special affinity for other voiced
consonants, and voiceless for voiceless. This is the law of
Assimilation. Thus when _de_ is added to form the preterit of a
verb whose stem ends in a voiceless consonant, the d is unvoiced,
or assimilated, to t: #settan#, _to set_, #sette# (but #treddan#,
_to tread_, has #tredde#); #slæ:pan#, _to sleep_, #slæ:pte#;
#drencan#, _to drench_, #drencte#; #cyssan#, _to kiss_, #cyste#.
See § 126, Note 1.
[Footnote 2: A little practice will enable the student to see
the appropriateness of calling these consonants voiced and
voiceless. Try to pronounce a voiced consonant,--_d_ in _den_,
for example, but without the assistance of _en_,--and there will
be heard a gurgle, or _vocal_ murmur. But in _t_, of _ten_,
there is no sound at all, but only a feeling of tension in the
organs.]
#Syllables.#
10. A syllable is usually a vowel, either alone or in combination with
consonants, uttered with a single impulse of stress; but certain
consonants may form syllables: _oven_ (= _ov-n_), _battle_ (= _bæt-l_);
(_cf._ also the vulgar pronunciation of _elm_).
A syllable may be (1) weak or strong, (2) open or closed, (3) long or
short.
(1) A weak syllable receives a light stress. Its vowel sound is often
different from that of the corresponding strong, or stressed, syllable.
_Cf._ weak and strong _my_ in "I want my lárge hat" and "I want m[´y]
hat."
(2) An open syllable ends in a vowel or diphthong: #dê-man#, _to deem_;
#ðû#, _thou_; #sca-can#, _to shake_; #dæ-ges#, _by day_. A closed
syllable ends in one or more consonants: #ðing#, _thing_; #gôd#, _good_;
#glæd#, _glad_.
(3) A syllable is long (_a_) if it contains a long vowel or a long
diphthong: #drî-fan#, _to drive_; #lû-can#, _to lock_; #slæ:-pan#, _to
sleep_; #cêo-san#, _to choose_; (_b_) if its vowel or diphthong is
followed by more than one consonant:[3] #cræft#, _strength_; #heard#,
_hard_; #lib-ban#, _to live_; #feal-lan#, _to fall_. Otherwise, the
syllable is short: #ðe#, _which_; #be-ran#, _to bear_; #ðæt#, _that_;
#gie-fan#, _to give_.
NOTE 1.--A single consonant belongs to the following syllable:
#hâ-lig#, _holy_ (not #hâl-ig#); #wrî-tan#, _to write_; #fæ-der#,
_father_.
NOTE 2.--The student will notice that the syllable may be long and
the vowel short; but the vowel cannot be long and the syllable
short.
NOTE 3.--Old English short vowels, occurring in open syllables,
have regularly become long in Modern English: #we-fan#, _to
weave_; #e-tan#, _to eat_; #ma-cian#, _to make_; #na-cod#,
_naked_; #a-can#, _to ache_; #o-fer#, _over_. And Old English long
vowels, preceding two or more consonants, have generally been
shortened: #brêost#, _breast_; #hæ:lð#, _health_; #slæ:pte#,
_slept_; #læ:dde#, _led_.
[Footnote 3: Taken separately, every syllable ending in a single
consonant is long. It may be said, therefore, that all closed
syllables are long; but in the natural flow of language, the
single final consonant of a syllable so often blends with a
following initial vowel, the syllable thus becoming open and
short, that such syllables are not recognized as prevailingly
long. _Cf._ Modern English _at all_ (= _a-tall_).]
#Accentuation.#
11. The accent in Old English falls usually on the radical syllable,
never on the inflectional ending: #bríngan#, _to bring_; #st[´â]nas#,
_stones_; #bérende#, _bearing_; #[´î]delnes#, _idleness_;
#fr[´ê]ondscipe#, _friendship_.
But in the case of compound nouns, adjectives, and adverbs the first
member of the compound (unless it be ge- or be-) receives the stronger
stress: #héofon-rîce#, _heaven-kingdom_; #ónd-giet#, _intelligence_;
#sôð-fæst#, _truthful_; #gód-cund#, _divine_; #éall-unga#, _entirely_;
#bl[´î]ðe-lîce#, _blithely_. But #be-h[´â]t#, _promise_; #ge-béd#,
_prayer_; #ge-f[´ê]alîc#, _joyous_; #be-sóne#, _immediately_.
Compound verbs, however, have the stress on the radical syllable:
#for-gíefan#, _to forgive_; #of-línnan#, _to cease_; #â-cn[´â]wan#, _to
know_; #wið-stóndan#, _to withstand_; #on-sácan#, _to resist_.
NOTE.--The tendency of nouns to take the stress on the prefix,
while verbs retain it on the root, is exemplified in many Modern
English words: _préference_, _prefér_; _cóntract_ (noun),
_contráct_ (verb); _ábstinence_, _abstaín_; _pérfume_ (noun),
_perfúme_ (verb).
CHAPTER III.
INFLECTIONS.
#Cases.#
12. There are five cases in Old English: the nominative, the genitive,
the dative, the accusative, and the instrumental.[1] Each of them,
except the nominative, may be governed by prepositions. When used
without prepositions, they have, in general, the following functions:
(_a_) The nominative, as in Modern English, is the case of the subject
of a finite verb.
(_b_) The genitive (the possessive case of Modern English) is the case
of the possessor or source. It may be called the _of_ case.
(_c_) The dative is the case of the indirect object. It may be called
the _to_ or _for_ case.
(_d_) The accusative (the objective case of Modern English) is the case
of the direct object.
(_e_) The instrumental, which rarely differs from the dative in form, is
the case of the means or the method. It may be called the _with_ or _by_
case.
The following paradigm of #mûð#, _the mouth_, illustrates the several
cases (the article being, for the present, gratuitously added in the
Modern English equivalents):
_Singular._ _Plural._
_N._ mûð = _the mouth._ mûð-as = _the mouths._
_G._ mûð-es[2] = _of the mouth_ mûð-a = _of the mouths_
(= _the mouth's_). (= _the mouths'_).
_D._ mûð-e = _to_ or _for the mûð-um = _to_ or _for the mouths._
mouth._
_A._ mûð = _the mouth._ mûð-as = _the mouths._
_I._ mûðe = _with_ or _by means mûð-um = _with_ or _by means
of the mouth._ of the mouths._
[Footnote 1: Most grammars add a sixth case, the vocative. But
it seems best to consider the vocative as only a _function_ of
the nominative _form_.]
[Footnote 2: Of course our "apostrophe and _s_" (= _'s_) comes
from the Old English genitive ending -es. The _e_ is preserved
in _Wednesday_ (= Old English #Wôdnes dæg#). But at a very early
period it was thought that _John's book_, for example, was a
shortened form of _John his book_. Thus Addison (_Spectator_,
No. 135) declares _'s_ a survival of _his_. How, then, would he
explain the _s_ of _his_? And how would he dispose of _Mary's
book_?]
#Gender.#
13. The gender of Old English nouns, unlike that of Modern English,
depends partly on meaning and partly on form, or ending. Thus #mûð#,
_mouth_, is masculine; #tunge#, _tongue_, feminine; #êage#, _eye_,
neuter.
No very comprehensive rules, therefore, can be given; but the gender of
every noun should be learned with its meaning. Gender will be indicated
in the vocabularies by the different gender forms of the definite
article, #sê# for the masculine, #sêo# for the feminine, and #ðæt# for
the neuter: #sê mûð#, #sêo tunge#, #ðæt êage# = _the mouth_, _the
tongue_, _the eye_.
All nouns ending in #-dôm#, #-hâd#, #-scipe#, or #-ere# are masculine
(_cf._ Modern English wis_dom_, child_hood_, friend_ship_, work_er_).
Masculine, also, are nouns ending in -a.
Those ending in #-nes# or #-ung# are feminine (_cf._ Modern English
good_ness_, and gerundial forms in _-ing_: see_ing_ is believ_ing_).
Thus #sê wîsdôm#, _wisdom_; #sê cildhâd#, _childhood_; #sê frêondscipe#,
_friendship_; #sê fiscere#, _fisher(man)_; #sê hunta#, _hunter_; #sêo
gelîcnes#, _likeness_; #sêo leornung#, _learning_.
#Declensions.#
14. There are two great systems of declension in Old English, the Vowel
Declension and the Consonant Declension. A noun is said to belong to the
Vowel Declension when the final letter of its stem is a vowel, this
vowel being then known as the _stem-characteristic_; but if the
stem-characteristic is a consonant, the noun belongs to the Consonant
Declension. There might have been, therefore, as many subdivisions of
the Vowel Declension in Old English as there were vowels, and as many
subdivisions of the Consonant Declension as there were consonants. All
Old English nouns, however, belonging to the Vowel Declension, ended
their stems originally in a, ô, i, or u. Hence there are but four
subdivisions of the Vowel Declension: a-stems, ô-stems, i-stems, and
u-stems.
The Vowel Declension is commonly called the Strong Declension, and its
nouns Strong Nouns.
NOTE.--The terms Strong and Weak were first used by Jacob Grimm
(1785-1863) in the terminology of verbs, and thence transferred to
nouns and adjectives. By a Strong Verb, Grimm meant one that could
form its preterit out of its own resources; that is, without
calling in the aid of an additional syllable: Modern English
_run_, _ran_; _find_, _found_; but verbs of the Weak Conjugation
had to borrow, as it were, an inflectional syllable: _gain_,
_gained_; _help_, _helped_.
15. The stems of nouns belonging to the Consonant Declension ended,
with but few exceptions, in the letter n (_cf._ Latin _homin-em_,
_ration-em_, Greek +poimen-a+). They are called, therefore, n-stems,
the Declension itself being known as the n-Declension, or the Weak
Declension. The nouns, also, are called Weak Nouns.
16. If every Old English noun had preserved the original Germanic
stem-characteristic (or final letter of the stem), there would be no
difficulty in deciding at once whether any given noun is an a-stem,
ô-stem, i-stem, u-stem, or n-stem; but these final letters had, for the
most part, either been dropped, or fused with the case-endings, long
before the period of historic Old English. It is only, therefore, by a
rigid comparison of the Germanic languages with one another, and with
the other Aryan languages, that scholars are able to reconstruct a
single Germanic language, in which the original stem-characteristics may
be seen far better than in any one historic branch of the Germanic group
(§ 5, Note).
This hypothetical language, which bears the same ancestral relation to
the historic Germanic dialects that Latin bears to the Romance tongues,
is known simply as _Germanic_ (Gmc.), or as _Primitive Germanic_.
Ability to reconstruct Germanic forms is not expected of the students of
this book, but the following table should be examined as illustrating
the basis of distinction among the several Old English declensions (O.E.
= Old English, Mn.E. = Modern English):
{ {Gmc. _staina-z_,
{(1) a-stems {O.E. #stân#,
{ {Mn.E. _stone_.
{
{ {Gmc. _hallô_,
{(2) ô-stems {O.E. #heall#,
I. Strong or Vowel { {Mn.E. _hall_.
Declensions {
{ {Gmc. _bôni-z_,
{(3) i-stems {O.E. #bên#,
{ {Mn.E. _boon_.
{
{ {Gmc. _sunu-z_,
{(4) u-stems {O.E. #sunu#,
{ {Mn.E. _son_.
{(1) n-stems {Gmc. _tungôn-iz_,
{ (Weak {O.E. #tung-an#,
{ Declension) {Mn.E. _tongue-s_.
{
{ { {Gmc. _fôt-iz_,
{ {(_a_) {O.E. #fêt#,
II. Consonant {(2) Remnants { {Mn.E. _feet_.
Declensions { of other {
{ Consonant { {Gmc. _frijônd-iz_,
{ Declensions {(_b_) {O.E. #frîend#,
{ { {Mn.E. _friend-s_.
{ {
{ { {Gmc. _brôðr-iz_,
{ {(_c_) {O.E. #brôðor#,
{ { {Mn.E. _brother-s_.
NOTE.--"It will be seen that if Old English #êage#, _eye_, is said
to be an n-stem, what is meant is this, that at some former period
the kernel of the word ended in -n, while, as far as the Old
English language proper is concerned, all that is implied is that
the word is inflected in a certain manner." (Jespersen, _Progress
in Language_, § 109).
This is true of all Old English stems, whether Vowel or Consonant.
The division, therefore, into a-stems, ô-stems, etc., is made in
the interests of grammar as well as of philology.
#Conjugations.#
17. There are, likewise, two systems of conjugation in Old English: the
Strong or Old Conjugation, and the Weak or New Conjugation.
The verbs of the Strong Conjugation (the so-called Irregular Verbs of
Modern English) number about three hundred, of which not one hundred
remain in Modern English (§ 101, Note). They form their preterit and
frequently their past participle by changing the radical vowel of the
present stem. This vowel change or modification is called _ablaut_
(pronounced _áhp-lowt_): Modern English _sing, sang, sung_; _rise, rose,
risen_. As the radical vowel of the preterit plural is often different
from that of the preterit singular, there are four _principal parts_ or
_tense stems_ in an Old English strong verb, instead of the three of
Modern English. The four principal parts in the conjugation of a strong
verb are (1) the present indicative, (2) the preterit indicative
singular, (3) the preterit indicative plural, and (4) the past
participle.
Strong verbs fall into seven groups, illustrated in the following table:
PRESENT.
PRET. SING.
PRET. PLUR.
PAST PARTICIPLE.
I. Bîtan, _to bite_:
Ic bît-e, _I bite_ or _shall bite_.[3]
Ic bât, _I bit_.
Wê bit-on, _we bit_.
Ic hæbbe ge[4]-biten, _I have bitten_.
II. Bêodan, _to bid_:
Ic bêod-e, _I bid_ or _shall bid_.
Ic bêad, _I bade_.
Wê bud-on, _we bade_.
Ic hæbbe ge-boden, _I have bidden_.
III. Bindan, _to bind_:
Ic bind-e, _I bind_ or _shall bind_.
Ic bond, _I bound_.
Wê bund-on, _we bound_.
Ic hæbbe ge-bund-en, _I have bound_.
IV. Beran, _to bear_:
Ic ber-e, _I bear_ or _shall bear_.
Ic bær, _I bore_.
Wê bæ:r-on, _we bore_.
Ic hæbbe ge-bor-en, _I have borne_.
V. Metan, _to measure_:
Ic met-e, _I measure_ or _shall measure_.
Ic mæt, _I measured_.
Wê mæ:t-on, _we measured_.
Ic hæbbe ge-met-en, _I have measured_.
VI. Faran, _to go_:
Ic far-e, _I go_ or _shall go_.
Ic fôr, _I went_.
Wê fôr-on, _we went_.
Ic eom[5] ge-far-en, _I have (am) gone_.
VII. Feallan, _to fall_:
Ic feall-e, _I fall_ or _shall fall_.
Ic fêoll, _I fell_.
Wê fêoll-on, _we fell_.
Ic eom[5] ge-feall-en, _I have (am) fallen_.
[Footnote 3: Early West Saxon had no distinctive form for the
future. The present was used both as present proper and as
future. _Cf._ Modern English "I go home tomorrow," or "I am
going home tomorrow" for "I shall go home tomorrow."]
[Footnote 4: The prefix ge- (Middle English _y-_), cognate with
Latin _co_ (_con_) and implying completeness of action, was not
always used. It never occurs in the past participles of compound
verbs: #oþ-feallan#, _to fall off_, past participle #oþ-feallen#
(not #oþ-gefeallen#). Milton errs in prefixing it to a present
participle:
"What needs my Shakespeare, for his honour'd bones,
The labour of an age in piled stones?
Or that his hallow'd reliques should be hid
Under a star-_ypointing_ pyramid."
--_Epitaph on William Shakespeare_.
And Shakespeare misuses it in "Y-ravished," a preterit
(_Pericles_ III, _Prologue_ l. 35).
It survives in the archaic _y-clept_ (Old English #ge-clypod#,
called). It appears as _a_ in _aware_ (Old English #ge-wær#),
as _e_ in _enough_ (Old English #ge-nôh#), and as _i_ in
_handiwork_ (Old English #hand-ge-weorc#).]
[Footnote 5: With intransitive verbs denoting _change of
condition_, the Old English auxiliary is usually some form of
_to be_ rather than _to have_. See § 139.]
18. The verbs of the Weak Conjugation (the so-called Regular Verbs of
Modern English) form their preterit and past participle by adding to the
present stem a suffix[6] with _d_ or _t_: Modern English _love_,
_loved_; _sleep_, _slept_.
The stem of the preterit plural is never different from the stem of the
preterit singular; hence these verbs have only three distinctive
tense-stems, or principal parts: _viz._, (1) the present indicative,
(2) the preterit indicative, and (3) the past participle.
Weak verbs fall into three groups, illustrated in the following table:
PRESENT.
PRETERIT.
PAST PARTICIPLE.
I. Fremman, _to perform_:
Ic fremm-e, _I perform_ or _shall perform_.
Ic frem-ede, _I performed_.
Ic hæbbe ge-frem-ed, _I have performed_.
II. Bodian, _to proclaim_:
Ic bodi-e, _I proclaim_ or _shall proclaim_.
Ic bod-ode, _I proclaimed_.
Ic hæbbe ge-bod-od, _I have proclaimed_.
III. Habban, _to have_:
Ic hæbbe, _I have_ or _shall have_.
Ic hæf-de, _I had_.
Ic hæbbe ge-hæf-d, _I have had_.
[Footnote 6: The theory that _loved_, for example, is a fused
form of _love-did_ has been generally given up. The dental
ending was doubtless an Indo-Germanic suffix, which became
completely specialized only in the Teutonic languages.]
19. There remain a few verbs (chiefly the Auxiliary Verbs of Modern
English) that do not belong entirely to either of the two conjugations
mentioned. The most important of them are, #Ic mæg# _I may_, #Ic mihte#
_I might_; #Ic con# _I can_, #Ic cûðe# _I could_; #Ic môt# _I must_, #Ic
môste# _I must_; #Ic sceal# _I shall_, #Ic sceolde# _I should_; #Ic eom#
_I am_, #Ic wæs# _I was_; #Ic wille# _I will_, #Ic wolde# _I would_; #Ic
dô# _I do_, #Ic dyde# _I did_; #Ic gâ# _I go_, #Ic êode# _I went_.
All but the last four of these are known as Preterit-Present Verbs. The
present tense of each of them is _in origin_ a preterit, _in function_ a
present. _Cf._ Modern English _ought_ (= _owed_).
CHAPTER IV.
ORDER OF WORDS.
20. The order of words in Old English is more like that of Modern German
than of Modern English. Yet it is only the Transposed order that the
student will feel to be at all un-English; and the Transposed order,
even before the period of the Norman Conquest, was fast yielding place
to the Normal order.
The three divisions of order are (1) Normal, (2) Inverted, and
(3) Transposed.
(1) Normal order = subject + predicate. In Old English, the Normal order
is found chiefly in independent clauses. The predicate is followed by
its modifiers: #Sê hwæl bið micle læ:ssa þonne ôðre hwalas#, _That whale
is much smaller than other whales_; #Ond hê geseah twâ scipu#, _And he
saw two ships_.
(2) Inverted order = predicate + subject. This order occurs also in
independent clauses, and is employed (_a_) when some modifier of the
predicate precedes the predicate, the subject being thrown behind. The
words most frequently causing Inversion in Old English prose are #þâ#
_then_, #þonne# _then_, and #þæ:r# _there_: #Ðâ fôr hê#, _Then went he_;
#Ðonne ærnað hy: ealle tôweard þæ:m fêo#, _Then gallop they all toward
the property_; #ac þæ:r bið medo genôh#, _but there is mead enough_.
Inversion is employed (_b_) in interrogative sentences: #Lufast ðû mê?#
_Lovest thou me?_ and (_c_) in imperative sentences: #Cume ðîn rîce#,
_Thy kingdom come_.
(3) Transposed order = subject ... predicate. That is, the predicate
comes last in the sentence, being preceded by its modifiers. This is the
order observed in dependent clauses:[1] #Ðonne cymeð sê man sê þæt
swiftoste hors hafað#, _Then comes the man that has the swiftest horse_
(literally, _that the swiftest horse has_); #Ne mêtte hê æ:r nân gebûn
land, siþþan hê from his âgnum hâm fôr#, _Nor did he before find any
cultivated land, after he went from his own home_ (literally, _after he
from his own home went_).
[Footnote 1: But in the _Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan_, in
which the style is apparently more that of oral than of written
discourse, the Normal is more frequent than the Transposed order
in dependent clauses. In his other writings Alfred manifests a
partiality for the Transposed order in dependent clauses, except
in the case of substantival clauses introduced by #þæt#. Such
clauses show a marked tendency to revert to their Normal _oratio
recta_ order. The norm thus set by the indirect affirmative
clause seems to have proved an important factor in the ultimate
disappearance of Transposition from dependent clauses. The
influence of Norman French helped only to consummate forces that
were already busily at work.]
21. Two other peculiarities in the order of words require a brief
notice.
(1) Pronominal datives and accusatives usually precede the predicate:
#Hê hine oferwann#, _He overcame him_ (literally, _He him overcame_);
#Dryhten him andwyrde#, _The Lord answered him_. But substantival
datives and accusatives, as in Modern English, follow the predicate. The
following sentence illustrates both orders: #Hy: genâmon Ioseph, ond
hine gesealdon cîpemonnum, ond hy: hine gesealdon in Êgypta lond#, _They
took Joseph, and sold him to merchants, and they sold him into Egypt_
(literally, _They took Joseph, and him sold to merchants, and they him
sold into Egyptians' land_).
NOTE.--The same order prevails in the case of pronominal
nominatives used as predicate nouns: #Ic hit eom#, _It is I_
(literally, _I it am_); #Ðû hit eart#, _It is thou_ (literally,
_Thou it art_).
(2) The attributive genitive, whatever relationship it expresses,
usually precedes the noun which it qualifies: #Breoton is gârsecges
îgland#, _Britain is an island of the ocean_ (literally, _ocean's
island_); #Swilce hit is êac berende on wecga ôrum#, _Likewise it is
also rich in ores of metals_ (literally, _metals' ores_); #Cyninga
cyning#, _King of kings_ (literally, _Kings' king_); #Gê witon Godes
rîces gery:ne#, _Ye know the mystery of the kingdom of God_ (literally,
_Ye know God's kingdom's mystery_).
A preposition governing the word modified by the genitive, precedes the
genitive:[2] #On ealdra manna sægenum#, _In old men's sayings_; #Æt
ðæ:ra stræ:ta endum#, _At the ends of the streets_ (literally, _At the
streets' ends_); #For ealra ðînra hâlgena lufan#, _For all thy saints'
love_. See, also, § 94, (5).
[Footnote 2: The positions of the genitive are various. It
frequently follows its noun: #þâ bearn þâra Aðeniensa#, _The
children of the Athenians_. It may separate an adjective and a
noun: #Ân ly:tel sæ:s earm#, _A little arm of (the) sea_. The
genitive may here be construed as an adjective, or part of a
compound = _A little sea-arm_; #Mid monegum Godes gifum#, _With
many God-gifts_ = _many divine gifts_.]
CHAPTER V.
PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS.
22. In the study of Old English, the student must remember that he is
dealing not with a foreign or isolated language but with the earlier
forms of his own mother tongue. The study will prove profitable and
stimulating in proportion as close and constant comparison is made of
the old with the new. The guiding principles in such a comparison are
reducible chiefly to two. These are (1) the regular operation of
phonetic laws, resulting especially in certain Vowel Shiftings, and
(2) the alterations in form and syntax that are produced by Analogy.
(1) "The former of these is of physiological or _natural_ origin, and is
perfectly and inflexibly regular throughout the same period of the same
language; and even though different languages show different phonetic
habits and predilections, there is a strong general resemblance between
the changes induced in one language and in another; many of the
particular laws are true for many languages.
(2) "The other principle is psychical, or mental, or _artificial_,
introducing various more or less capricious changes that are supposed to
be emendations; and its operation is, to some extent, uncertain and
fitful."[1]
[Footnote 1: Skeat, _Principles of English Etymology_, Second
Series, § 342. But Jespersen, with Collitz and others, stoutly
contests "the theory of sound laws and analogy sufficing between
them to explain everything in linguistic development."]
(1) #Vowel-Shiftings.#
23. It will prove an aid to the student in acquiring the inflections and
vocabulary of Old English to note carefully the following shiftings that
have taken place in the gradual growth of the Old English vowel system
into that of Modern English.
(1) As stated in § 3, the Old English inflectional vowels, which were
all short and unaccented, weakened in early Middle English to _e_. This
_e_ in Modern English is frequently dropped:
OLD ENGLISH. MIDDLE ENGLISH. MODERN ENGLISH.
stân-as ston-es stones
sun-u sun-e son
sun-a sun-e sons
ox-an ox-en oxen
swift-ra swift-er swifter
swift-ost swift-est swiftest
lôc-ode lok-ede looked
(2) The Old English long vowels have shifted their phonetic values with
such uniform regularity that it is possible in almost every case to
infer the Modern English sound; but our spelling is so chaotic that
while the student may infer the modern sound, he cannot always infer the
modern symbol representing the sound.
OLD MODERN ENGLISH.
ENGLISH.
â _o_[2] { nâ = _no_; stân = _stone_; bân = _bone_;
(as in _no_) { râd = _road_; âc = _oak_; hâl = _whole_;
{ hâm = _home_; sâwan = _to sow_; gâst =
{ _ghost_.
ê _e_ { hê = _he_; wê = _we_; ðê = _thee_; mê =
(as in _he_) { _me_; gê = _ye_; hêl = _heel_; wêrig =
{ _weary_; gelêfan = _to believe_; gês =
{ _geese_.
î (y:) _i_ (_y_) { mîn = _mine_; ðîn = _thine_; wîr = _wire_;
(as in _mine_) { my:s = _mice_; rîm = _rime_ (wrongly spelt
{ _rhyme_); ly:s = _lice_; bî = _by_;
{ scînan = _to shine_; stig-râp = _sty-rope_
{ (shortened to _stirrup_, stîgan meaning
{ _to mount_).
ô _o_ { dô = _I do_; tô = _too, to_; gôs = _goose_;
(as in _do_) { tôð = _tooth_; môna = _moon_; ðôm =
{ _doom_; môd = _mood_; wôgian = _to woo_;
{ slôh = _I slew_.
û _ou_ (_ow_) { ðû = _thou_; fûl = _foul_; hûs = _house_;
(as in _thou_) { nû = _now_; hû = _how_; tûn = _town_;
{ ûre = our; ût = _out_; hlûd = _loud_;
{ ðûsend = _thousand_.
æ:, _ea_ { æ:: sæ: = _sea_; mæ:l = _meal_; dæ:lan =
êa, (as in _sea_) { _to deal_; clæ:ne = _clean_; græ:dig =
êo { _greedy_.
{
{ êa: êare = _ear_; êast = _east_; drêam =
{ _dream_; gêar = _year_; bêatan =
{ _to beat_.
{
{ êo: ðrêo = _three_; drêorig = _dreary_;
{ sêo = _she_, hrêod = _reed_; dêop =
{ _deep_.
[Footnote 2: But Old English â preceded by w sometimes gives
Modern English _o_ as in _two_: #twâ# = _two_; #hwâ# = _who_;
#hwâm# = _whom_.]
(2) #Analogy.#
24. But more important than vowel shifting is the great law of Analogy,
for Analogy shapes not only words but constructions. It belongs,
therefore, to Etymology and to Syntax, since it influences both form and
function. By this law, minorities tend to pass over to the side of the
majorities. "The greater mass of cases exerts an assimilative influence
upon the smaller."[3] The effect of Analogy is to simplify and to
regularize. "The main factor in getting rid of irregularities is
group-influence, or Analogy--the influence exercised by the members of
an association-group on one another.... Irregularity consists in partial
isolation from an association-group through some formal difference."[4]
Under the influence of Analogy, entire declensions and conjugations have
been swept away, leaving in Modern English not a trace of their former
existence. There are in Old English, for example, five plural endings
for nouns, -as, -a, -e, -u, and -an. No one could well have predicted[5]
that -as (Middle English _-es_) would soon take the lead, and become the
norm to which the other endings would eventually conform, for there were
more an-plurals than as-plurals; but the as-plurals were doubtless more
often employed in everyday speech. _Oxen_ (Old English #oxan#) is the
sole pure survival of the hundreds of Old English an-plurals. No group
of feminine nouns in Old English had -es as the genitive singular
ending; but by the close of the Middle English period all feminines
formed their genitive singular in _-es_ (or _-s_, Modern English _'s_)
after the analogy of the Old English masculine and neuter nouns with
es-genitives. The weak preterits in -ode have all been leveled under the
ed-forms, and of the three hundred strong verbs in Old English more than
two hundred have become weak.
These are not cases of derivation (as are the shifted vowels): Modern
English _-s_ in _sons_, for example, could not possibly be derived from
Old English -a in #suna#, or Middle English _-e_ in _sune_ (§ 23, (1)).
They are cases of replacement by Analogy.
A few minor examples will quicken the student's appreciation of the
nature of the influence exercised by Analogy:
(_a_) The intrusive _l_ in _could_ (Chaucer always wrote _coud_ or
_coude_) is due to association with _would_ and _should_, in each of
which _l_ belongs by etymological right.
(_b_) _He need not_ (for _He needs not_) is due to the assimilative
influence of the auxiliaries _may_, _can_, etc., which have never added
_-s_ for their third person singular (§ 137).
(_c_) _I am friends with him_, in which _friends_ is a crystalized form
for _on good terms_, may be traced to the influence of such expressions
as _He and I are friends_, _They are friends_, etc.
(_d_) Such errors as are seen in _runned_, _seed_, _gooses_, _badder_,
_hisself_, _says I_ (usually coupled with _says he_) are all analogical
formations. Though not sanctioned by good usage, it is hardly right to
call these forms the products of "false analogy." The grammar involved
is false, because unsupported by literary usages and traditions; but the
analogy on which these forms are built is no more false than the law of
gravitation is false when it makes a dress sit unconventionally.
[Footnote 3: Whitney, _Life and Growth of Language_, Chap. IV.]
[Footnote 4: Sweet, _A New English Grammar_, Part I., § 535.]
[Footnote 5: As Skeat says (§ 22, (2)), Analogy is "fitful." It
enables us to explain many linguistic phenomena, but not to
anticipate them. The multiplication of books tends to check its
influence by perpetuating the forms already in use. Thus Chaucer
employed nine _en-_plurals, and his influence served for a time
to check the further encroachment of the _es-_plurals. As soon
as there is an acknowledged standard in any language, the
operation of Analogy is fettered.]
PART II.
ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX.
THE STRONG OR VOWEL DECLENSIONS OF NOUNS.
THE a-DECLENSION.