(Compare vol. ii. pp. 152 and 201.) It is definitely established by
Kowalewski’s important discovery, which was confirmed by Kupffer, that
the ontogeny of the lowest vertebrate animal—the Lancelet, or
Amphioxus—agrees in all essential outlines completely with that of the
invertebrate Sea-squirts, or Ascidiæ, from the class of Sea-sacks, or
Tunicata. On our two plates, the ascidia is marked by _A_, the amphioxus
by _B_. Plate XIII. represents these two very different animal-forms in
a _fully developed_ state, as seen from the _left side_, the end of the
mouth above, the opposite end below. Hence, in both figures the dorsal
side is to the right, the ventral to the left. Both figures are slightly
magnified, and the internal organisation of the animals is distinctly
visible through the transparent skin. The full-grown ascidia (Fig. _A_
6) grows at the bottom of the ocean, from whence it cannot move, and
clings to stones and other objects by means of peculiar roots (_w_) like
a plant. The full-grown amphioxus, on the other hand (Fig. _B_ 6), swims
about freely like a small fish. The letters on both figures indicate the
same parts: (_a_) orifice of the mouth; (_b_) orifice of the body, or
porus abdominalis; (_c_) dorsal rod, or chorda dorsalis; (_d_)
intestine; (_e_) ovary; (_f_) oviduct (same as the sperm-duct); (_g_)
spinal marrow; (_h_) heart; (_i_) blind-sac of the intestine; (_k_)
gill basket (respiratory cavity); (_l_) cavity of the body; (_m_)
muscles; (_n_) testicle (in the ascidia united with the ovary into a
hermaphrodite gland); (_o_) anus; (_p_) genital orifice; (_q_)
well-developed embryos in the body cavity of the ascidia; (_r_) rays of
the dorsal fin of the amphioxus; (_s_) tail-fin of the amphioxus; (_w_)
roots of the ascidia.
Plate XII. shows the _Ontogenesis_, or the individual development of the
_Ascidia_ (_A_) and the _Amphioxus_ (_B_) in five different stages
(1-5). Fig. 1 is the egg, a simple cell like the egg of man and all
other animals (Fig. _A_ 1 the egg of the ascidia, Fig. _B_ 1 the egg of
the amphioxus). The actual cell-substance, or the protoplasm of the
egg-cell (_z_), the so-called yolk, is surrounded by a covering
(cell-membrane, or yolk-membrane), and encloses a globular cell-kernel,
or nucleus (_y_), the latter, again, contains a kernel-body, or
nucleolus (_x_); when the egg begins to develop, the egg-cell first
subdivides into two cells. By another sub-division there arise four
cells (Fig. _A_ 2, _B_ 2), and out of these, by repeated sub-division,
eight cells (vol. i. p. 190, Fig. 4 _C_, _D_). By fluid gathering in the
interior these form a globular bladder bounded by a layer of cells. On
one spot of its surface the bladder is turned inwards in the form of a
pocket (Fig. _A_ 4, _B_ 4). This depression is the beginning of the
intestine, the cavity (_d_ 1) of which opens externally by the
provisional larval-mouth (_d_ 4). The body-wall, which is at the same
time the stomach-wall, now consists of two layers of cells—the
germ-layers. The globular larva (Gastrula), now grows in length. Fig.
_A_ 5 represents the larva of the ascidia, Fig. _B_ 5 that of the
amphioxus, as seen from the left side in a somewhat more advanced state
of development. The orifice of the intestine (_d_ 1) has closed. The
dorsal side of the intestine (_d_ 2) is concave, the ventral side (_d_
3) convex. Above the intestinal tube, on its dorsal side, the neural
tube, the beginning of the spinal marrow, is being formed, its cavity
still opens externally in front (_g_ 2). Between the spinal marrow and
the intestine has arisen the spinal rod, or chorda dorsalis (Notochord)
(_c_), the axis of the inner skeleton. In the larva of the ascidia this
rod (_c_) proceeds along the long rudder-tail, a larval organ, which is
cast off in later transformation. Yet there still exist some very small
ascidiæ (Appendicularia) which do not become transformed and attached,
but which through life swim about freely in the sea by means of their
rudder-tail.
The ontogenetic facts which are systematically represented on Plate XII.
and which were first discovered in 1867, deserve the greatest attention,
and, indeed, cannot be too highly estimated. They fill up the gap which,
according to the opinion of older zoologists existed between the
vertebrate and the so-called “invertebrate” animals. This gap was
universally regarded as so important and so undeniable, that even
eminent zoologists, who were not disinclined to adopt the theory of
descent, saw in this gap one of the chief obstacles against it. Now that
the ontogeny of the amphioxus and the ascidia has set this obstacle
completely aside, we are for the first time enabled to trace the
pedigree of man beyond the amphioxus into the many-branching tribe of
“invertebrate” worms, from which all the other higher animal tribes have
originated.
If our speculative philosophers, instead of occupying themselves with
castles in the air, were to give their thoughts for some years to the
facts represented on Plates XII. and XIII., as well as to those on
Plates II. and III., they would gain a foundation for true
philosophy—for the knowledge of the universe firmly based on
experience—which would be sure to influence all regions of thought.
These facts of ontogenesis are the indestructible foundations upon which
the monistic philosophy of future times will erect its imperishable
system.
PLATE XIV. (_Between pages 206 and 207, Vol. II._)
_Monophyletic, or One-rooted Pedigree of the Vertebrate Animal tribe_,
representing the hypothesis of the common derivation of all vertebrate
animals, and the historical development of their different classes
during the palæontological periods of the earth’s history. (Compare
Chapter XX. vol. ii. p. 192.) The horizontal lines indicate the periods
(mentioned in vol. ii. p. 14) of the organic history of the earth during
which the deposition of the strata containing fossils took place. The
vertical lines separate the classes and sub-classes of vertebrata from
one another. The tree-shaped and branching lines, by their greater or
lesser number and thickness, indicate the approximate degree of
development, variety, and perfection, which each class probably attained
in each geological period. In those classes which, on account of the
soft nature of their bodies, could not leave any fossil remains (which
is especially the case with Prochordata, Acrania, Monorrhina, and
Dipneusta) the course of development is hypothetically suggested on the
ground of arguments derived from the three records of
creation—comparative anatomy, ontogeny, and palæontology. The most
important starting-points for the hypothetical completion of the
palæontological gaps are here, as in all cases, furnished by the
_fundamental law of biogeny_, which asserts the inner _causal-nexus
existing between ontogeny and phylogeny_. (Compare vol. i. p. 310, and
vol. ii. p. 200; also Plates VIII.-XIII.) In all cases we have to regard
the individual development (determined by the laws of Inheritance but
modified by the laws of Adaptation) as short and quick repetitions of
the palæontological development of the tribe. This proposition is the
“ceterum censeo” of our theory of development.
The statements of the first appearance, or the period of the origin of
the individual classes and sub-classes of vertebrate animals (apart from
the hypothetical filling in mentioned just now), are taken as strictly
as possible from palæontological facts. It must, however, be observed,
that in reality the origin of most of the groups probably took place one
or two periods earlier than fossils now indicate. In this I agree with
Huxley’s views; but on Plates V. and XIV. I have disregarded this
consideration in order not to go too far from palæontological facts.
The numbers signify as follows (compare also Chapter XX. and vol. ii.
pp. 204, 206):—1. Animal Monera; 2. Animal Amœbæ; 3. Community of Amœbæ
(Synamœbæ); 4. Ciliated Infusoria without mouths; 5. Ciliated Infusoria
with mouths; 6. Gliding worms (Turbellaria); 7. Sea-sacks (Tunicata);
8. Lancelet (Amphioxus); 9. Hag (Myxinoida); 10. Lamprey
(Petromyzontia); 11. Unknown forms of transition from single-nostriled
animals to primæval fishes; 12. Silurian primæval fish (Onchus, etc.);
13. Living primæval fishes (sharks, rays, Chimæræ); 14. Most ancient
(Silurian) enamelled fishes (Pteraspis); 15. Turtle fishes (Pamphracti);
16. Sturgeons (Sturiones); 17. Angular-scaled enamelled fishes
(Rhombiferi); 18. Bony pike (Lepidosteus); 19. Finny pike (Polypterus);
20. Hollow-boned fishes (Cœloscolopes); 21. Solid boned fishes
(Pycnoscolopes); 22. Bald pike (Amia); 23. Primæval boned fishes
(Thrissopida); 24. Bony fishes with air passage to the swimming bladder
(Physostomi); 25. Bony fishes without air passage to the swimming
bladder (Physoclisti); 26. Unknown forms of transition between primæval
fishes and amphibious fishes; 27. Ceratodus; 27_a_. Extinct Ceratodus
from the Trias; 27_b_. Living Australian Ceratodus; 28. African
amphibious fishes (Protopterus) and American amphibious fishes
(Lepidosiren); 29. Unknown forms of transition between primæval fishes
and amphibia; 30. Enamelled heads (Ganocephala); 31. Labyrinth toothed
(Labyrinthodonta); 32. Blind burrowers (Cæciliæ); 33. Gilled amphibia
(Sozobranchia); 34. Tailed amphibia (Sozura); 35. Frog amphibia (Anura);
36. Dichthacantha (Proterosaurus); 37. Unknown forms of transition
between Amphibia and Protamnia; 38. Protamnia (common primary form of
all Amnion animals); 39. Primary mammals (Promammalia); 40. Primæval
reptiles (Proreptilia); 41. (Thecodontia); 42. Primæval dragons
(Simosauria); 43. Serpent dragons (Plesiosauria); 44. Fish dragons
(Ichthyosauria); 45. Teleosauria (Amphicœla); 46. Steneosauria
(Opisthocœla); 47. Alligators and Crocodiles (Prosthocœla); 48.
Carnivorous Dinosauria (Harpagosauria); 49. Herbivorous Dinosauria
(Therosauria); 50. Mæstricht lizards (Mosasauria); 51. Common primary
form of Serpents (Ophidia); 52. Dog-toothed beaked lizards (Cynodontia);
53. Toothless beaked lizards (Cryptodontia); 54. Long-tailed flying
lizards (Rhamphorhynchi); 55. Short-tailed flying lizards
(Pterodactyli); 56. Land tortoises (Chersita); 57. Birds—reptiles
(Tocornithes), transition form between reptiles and birds; 58. Primæval
griffin (Archæopteryx); 59. Water beaked-animal (Ornithorhynchus); 60.
Land beaked-animal (Echidna); 61. Unknown forms of transition between
Cloacals and Marsupials; 62. Unknown forms of transition between
Marsupials and Placentals; 63. Tuft Placentals (Villiplacentalia); 64.
Girdle Placentals (Zonoplacentalia); 65. Disc Placentals
(Discoplacentalia); 66. Man (Homo pithecogenes, by Linnæus erroneously
called, Homo sapiens.)
PLATE XV. (_After page 369, Vol. II._)
_Hypothetical Sketch of the Monophyletic Origin and the Diffusion of the
Twelve Species of Men from Lemuria over the earth._ The _hypothesis_
here geographically sketched of course only claims an entirely
_provisional value_, as in the present imperfect state of our
anthropological knowledge it is simply intended to show how the
distribution of the human species, from a single primæval home, may be
_approximately_ indicated. The probable primæval home, or “Paradise,” is
here assumed to be _Lemuria_, a tropical continent at present lying
below the level of the Indian Ocean, the former existence of which in
the tertiary period seems very probable from numerous facts in animal
and vegetable geography. (Compare vol. i. p. 361, and vol. ii. p. 315.)
But it is also very possible that the hypothetical “cradle of the human
race” lay further to the east (in Hindostan or Further India), or
further to the west (in eastern Africa). Future investigations,
especially in comparative anthropology and palæontology, will, it is to
be hoped, enable us to determine the probable position of the primæval
home of man more definitely than it is possible to do at present.
If in opposition to our monophyletic hypothesis, the polyphyletic
hypothesis—which maintains the origin of the different human species
from several different species of anthropoid ape—be preferred and
adopted, then, from among the many possible hypotheses which arise, the
one deserving most confidence seems to be that which assumes a double
pithecoid root for the human race namely, an Asiatic and an African
root. For it is a very remarkable fact, that the African man-like apes
(gorilla and chimpanzee) are characterized by a distinctly long-headed,
or dolichocephalous, form of skull, like the human species peculiar to
Africa (Hottentots, Caffres, Negroes, Nubians). On the other hand, the
Asiatic man-like apes (especially the small and large orang), by their
distinct, short-headed, or brachycephalous, form of skull agree with
human species especially characteristic of Asia (Mongols and Malays).
Hence, one might be tempted to derive the latter (the Asiatic man-like
apes and primæval men) from a common form of brachycephalous ape, and
the former (the African man-like apes and primæval men) from a common
dolichocephalous form of ape.
In any case, tropical Africa and southern Asia (and between them
Lemuria, which formerly connected them) are those portions of the earth
which deserve the first consideration in the discussion as to the
primæval home of the human race; America and Australia are, on the other
hand, entirely excluded from it. Even Europe (which is in fact but a
western peninsula of Asia) is scarcely of any importance in regard to
the “Paradise question.”
It is self-evident that the migrations of the different human species
from their primæval home, and their geographical distribution, could on
our Plate XV. be indicated only in a very general way, and in the
roughest lines. The numerous migrations of the many branches and tribes
in all directions, as well as the very important re-migrations, had to
be entirely disregarded. In order to make these latter in some degree
clear, our knowledge would, in the first place, need to be much more
complete, and secondly, we should have to make use of an atlas with a
number of plates showing the various migrations. Our Plate XV. claims no
more than to indicate, in a very general way, the approximate
geographical dispersion of the twelve human species as it existed in the
fifteenth century (before the general diffusion of the Indo-Germanic
race), and as it can be sketched out approximately, so as to harmonize
with our hypothesis of descent. The geographical barriers to diffusion
(mountains, deserts, rivers, straits, etc.), have not been taken into
consideration in this general sketch of migration, because, in earlier
periods of the earth’s history, they were quite different in size and
form from what they are to-day. The gradual transmutation of catarrhine
apes into pithecoid men probably took place in the tertiary period in
the hypothetical Lemuria, and the boundaries and forms of the present
continents and oceans must then have been completely different from what
they are now. Moreover, the mighty influence of the ice period is of
great importance in the question of the migration and diffusion of the
human species, although it as yet cannot be more accurately defined in
detail. I here, therefore, as in my other hypotheses of development,
expressly guard myself against any dogmatic interpretation; they are
nothing but _first attempts_.
INDEX.
A
ABYSSINIANS, ii. 323, 330
Acalephæ, ii. 141
Acœlomi, ii. 148, 151
Acrania, ii. 196, 198, 200, 204
Acyttaria, ii. 51, 62
Adaptation, i. 90, 156, 219
—— actual, i. 225, 231
—— correlative, i. 241
—— cumulative, i. 233
—— direct, i. 225, 231
—— divergent, i. 247
—— indirect, i. 224, 227
—— individual, i. 228
—— irregular, i. 229
—— monstrous, i. 229
—— potential, i. 224, 227
—— sexual, i. 230
—— universal, i. 231
—— unlimited, i. 249
Agassiz, Louis, i. 61
Agassiz’s conception of the universe, i. 65
—— essay on classification, i. 61
—— history of creation, i. 63
—— history of development, i. 64
—— idea of species, i. 65
Albuminous bodies, i. 331
Algæ, ii. 81, 82, 83
Alluvial system, ii. 15
Altaians, ii. 309, 317
Alternation of generations, i. 206
Americans, ii. 309, 318
Amnion animals, ii. 204, 219
Amniota, ii. 204, 219
Amœbæ, ii. 53, 279
Amœboidea, ii. 53
Amphibia, ii. 209, 216
Amphioxus, ii. 198, 285
Amphirrhina, ii. 203, 205
Anamnionata, ii. 204
Animal Plants, ii. 144
Angiospermæ, ii. 83, 111
Annelida, ii. 133, 149, 151
Anorgana, i. 5, 328
Anorganology, i. 6
Anthozoa, ii. 143
Anthropocentric conception of the universe, i. 38
Anthropoides, ii. 270, 275, 292
Anthropolithic period, ii. 15, 17
Anthropology, i. 7
Anthropomorphism, i. 18, 66
Ape-like men, ii. 293, 300
Apes, ii. 241, 268, 270
Arabians, ii. 323, 330
Arachnida, ii. 180, 182
Archelminthes, ii. 148
Archezoa, ii. 132, 134
Archigony, i. 183, 338
Archilithic period, ii. 8, 14
Arians, ii. 323, 331
Aristotle, i. 55, 76
Arthropoda, ii. 132
Articulata, ii. 119
Ascidia, ii. 152, 200
Ascones, ii. 141
Asterida, ii. 164, 166
Atavism, i. 207
Australians, ii. 308, 314
Autogeny, i. 339
B
BÄR, CARL ERNST, i. 109
—— doctrine of filiation, i. 109
—— theory of development, i. 294
—— types of animals, i. 53; ii. 119
Basques, ii. 322
Bathybius, i. 184, 344; ii. 53
Batrachians, ii. 204
Bats, ii. 240, 261
Beaked mammals, ii. 233, 239
—— reptiles, ii. 224, 226
Belief, i. 9; ii. 335
Berbers, ii. 323, 330
Biogenesis, fundamental law of, i. 309; ii. 33
Biology, i. 6
Birds, ii. 204, 226
Brachiopoda, ii. 157
Brain, bladder of, in man, i. 304
—— development of, i. 303
Bruno Giordano, i. 22, 70
Bryozoa, ii. 150, 152
Buch, Leopold, i. 107
Büchner, Louis, i. 110
Buds, formation of, i. 192
C
CAFFRES, ii. 312, 333
Calcispongiæ, ii. 140, 144
Cambrian system, ii. 9, 15
Carbon, i. 330, 335
—— theory of, i. 335
Carboniferous system, ii. 11, 15
Carus Victor, i. 110
Catallacta, i. 51, 59
Catarrhini, ii. 270, 272
Caucasians, ii. 309, 321
Causa finalis, i. 34, 75
Causal conception of the universe, i. 18, 74
Cells, i. 187, 346
—— formation of, i. 347
—— theory of, i. 346
Cell-kernel, i. 188
—— membrane, i. 188
—— substance, i. 186
Cænolithic period, ii. 14, 16
Cephalopoda, ii. 160, 162
Chamisso, Adalbert, i. 206
Change of climate, i. 363
Chelophora, ii. 240, 257
Chinese, ii. 309, 317
Chorology, i. 351
Cloacal animals, ii. 234, 239
Cochlides, ii. 159, 160
Cœlenterata, ii. 136, 144
Cœlomati, ii. 148, 151
Coniferæ, ii. 82, 110
Constructive forces, i. 90, 253, 337
Copernicus, i. 39
Corals, ii. 142, 144
Coreo-Japanese, ii. 309, 317
Cormophytes, ii. 80
Correlation of parts, i. 218
Cosmogeny, i. 321
Cosmological gas theory, i. 323
Crabs, ii. 174, 176
Craniota, ii. 198, 204
Creation, centres of, i. 352
—— the, i. 8
Creator, the, i. 64, 70
Cretaceous system, ii. 12, 15
Crinoides, ii. 166, 171
Crocodiles, ii. 223, 224
Crustacea, ii. 173, 176
Cryptogamia, ii. 80, 82
Ctenophera, ii. 142, 144
Cultivated plants, i. 137
Curly-haired men, ii. 310, 333
Cuttles, ii. 160, 162
Cuvier, George, i. 50
Cuvier’s dispute with Geoffroy, i. 88
—— history of creation, i. 59
—— palæontology, i. 54
—— idea of species, i. 50
—— theory of cataclysms, i. 58
—— theory of revolutions, i. 58
—— types of animals, i. 53; ii. 118
Cycadeæ, ii. 82, 110
Cyclostoma, ii. 202, 204
Cytod, i. 346
D
DARWIN, CHARLES, i. 131
Darwinism, i. 149
Darwin’s life, i. 132
—— travels, i. 132
—— theory of corals, i. 133
—— theory of selection, i. 150
—— study of pigeons, i. 141
Darwin, Erasmus, i. 118
Deciduata, ii. 240, 255
Deduction, i. 85; ii. 357
Democritus, i. 22
Devonian system, ii. 11, 14
Diatomeæ, ii. 51, 60
Dicotylæ, ii. 82, 112
Didelphia, ii. 239
Differentiation, i. 270, 283
Diluvial system, ii. 15
Dipneusta, ii. 204, 212
Divergence, i. 270
Division of labour, i. 247
Domestic animals, i. 137
Dragons, ii. 225
Dravidas, ii. 308, 319
Dualistic conception of the universe, i. 20, 75
Dysteleology, i. 15; ii. 353
E
ECHINIDA, ii. 166, 171
Echinoderma, ii. 163, 166
Edentata, ii. 240, 254
Egg Animals, ii. 132, 134
Eggs, i. 190, 198
Egg of man, i. 190, 297; ii. 279
Egg, cleavage of the, i. 190, 299; ii. 280
Egyptians, ii. 323, 330
Elephants, ii. 257
Empiricism, i. 79; ii. 349
Eocene system, ii. 15, 16
Ethiopians, ii. 323, 330
Explanation of phenomena, i. 29
F
FERNS, ii. 82, 101
Fibrous plants, ii. 82
Final cause, i. 22
Fins, ii. 309, 317
Fishes, ii. 206, 208
Flagellata, ii. 51, 57
Flat-nosed apes, ii. 270, 272
Flat worms, ii. 148, 150
Flint cells, ii. 51, 60
Flowering plants, ii. 82, 108
Flower animals, ii. 143
Flowerless plants, ii. 80, 82
Flying animals, ii. 240, 261
Freke, i. 119
Fulatians, ii. 308, 320
Fungi, ii. 82
G
GANOID FISH, ii. 208, 210
Gastræa, ii. 127, 128, 281
Gastrula, ii. 126, 127
Gegenbaur, i. 312; ii. 179, 193
Gemmation, i. 192
Generation, i. 209
Genus, i. 41
Geocentric conception of the universe, i. 38
Geoffroy S. Hilaire, i. 86, 116
Germans, ii. 323, 331
Germ buds, formation of, i. 193
—— cells, formation of, i. 194
Gibbon, ii. 270, 275
Gilled insects, ii. 174, 176
Gill-arches in man, i. 307
God, conception of, i. 70
Goethe, Wolfgang, i. 80
Goethe’s conception of nature, i. 22
—— discovery of mid-jaw bone, i. 84
—— formative tendency i. 91, 253
—— idea of God, i. 71
—— investigations in nature, i. 81
—— materialism, i. 23
—— metamorphosis, i. 90
—— metamorphosis of plants, i. 82
—— philosophy of nature, i. 81
—— theory of development, i. 92
—— vertebræ of skull, i. 83
Genochoristus, i. 196
Gonochorism, i. 196
Gorilla, ii. 270
Grant, i. 119
Greeks, ii. 323, 331
Gregarinæ, ii. 133, 134
Gynmosperms, ii. 82, 109
H
HALISAURIA, ii. 204, 214
Hare-rabbit, i. 148, 275
Heliozoa, ii. 64
Herbert, i. 119
Heredity, i. 176
Hermaphrodites, i. 196
Herschel’s cosmogeny, i. 321
Holothuriæ, ii. 166, 172
Hoofed animals, ii. 249, 252
Hooker, i. 119
Hottentots, ii. 311, 333
Human races, ii. 296, 305, 308
—— soul, ii. 361
Huxley, i. 119, 145; ii. 268
Hybridism, i. 145, 210, 275
Hydromedusæ, ii. 143, 145
I
ICE PERIOD, i. 367; ii. 17
Indecidua, ii. 241, 249
Individual development, ii. 293
Indo-Chinese, ii. 309, 317
Indo-Germanic, ii. 323, 331
Induction, i. 85; ii. 357
Infusoria, ii. 132, 135
Inheritance, abridged, i. 212
Inheritance, acquired, i. 213
—— adapted, i. 213
—— amphigonous, i. 210
—— conservative, i. 204
—— constituted, i. 216
—— contemporaneous, i. 217
—— continuous, i. 205
—— established, i. 216
—— homochronous, i. 217
—— interrupted, i. 205
—— latent, i. 205
—— mixed, i. 210
—— progressive, i. 213
—— sexual, i. 209
—— simplified, i. 212
—— uninterrupted, i. 205
—— laws of, i. 204
Inophyta, ii. 82, 93
Insects, ii. 184
Insectivora, ii. 241, 259
Instinct, ii. 343
Invertebrata, ii. 118, 195
Iranians, ii. 323, 331
J
JAPANESE, ii. 309, 317
Jews, ii. 323, 330
Jura system, ii. 12, 14
K
KANT, IMMANUEL, i. 101, 321
Kant’s Criticism of the faculty of judgment, i. 105
—— mechanisms, i. 37, 102
—— philosophy of nature, i. 101
—— theory of descent, i. 103
—— theory of development, i. 321
—— theory of the formation of the universe, i. 101
Knowledge, à posteriori, i. 31; ii. 345
—— à priori, i. 31; ii. 344
L
LABYRINTHULEÆ, ii. 51
Lacertilia, ii. 223
Lamarck, Jean, i. 111
Lamarck’s anthropology, i. 115; ii. 264
—— philosophy of nature, i. 112
—— theory of descent, i. 113
Lamarckism, i. 150
Lamellibranchia, ii. 158, 160
Lancelet, ii. 198, 204, 285
Laplace’s cosmogeny, i. 321
Laurentian system, ii. 9, 14
Lemuria, i. 361; ii. 326
Leonardo da Vinci, i. 56
Leptocardia, ii. 196, 204
Leucones, ii. 141
Linnæus, Charles, i. 39
Linnæus’ classification of animals, ii. 118
—— classification of plants, ii. 78
—— designation of species, i. 41
—— history of creation, i. 44
—— system, i. 40
Lubbock, Sir John, ii. 298
Lyell, Charles, i. 126
Lyell’s history of creation, i. 128
M
MAGYARS, ii. 309, 316
Malays, ii. 308, 315
Malthus’ theory of population, i. 161
Mammalia, ii. 231, 239
Man-apes, ii. 271, 275, 292
Marsupials, ii. 236, 239, 290
Matagenesis, i. 206
Materialism, i. 35
Matter, i. 22; ii. 360
Mechanical causes, i. 34, 74
Mechanical conception of the universe, i. 17, 74
Mechanism, i. 37, 102
Mediterranese, ii. 308, 321
Medusæ, ii. 143, 144
Mesolithic period, ii. 14, 20
Metamorphosis of the earth’s strata, ii. 25
Metamorphosis, i. 90
Migration, laws of, i. 373
—— of organisms, i. 354
—— of the human species, ii. 325
—— theory of, i. 367
Mind, i. 22; ii. 360
—— development of the, ii. 344, 360
Miocene period, ii. 15, 16
Miracles, i. 22
Molluscs, ii. 155, 160
Monera, i. 184, 343; ii. 52, 278
Mongols, ii. 308, 316
Monism, i. 34
Monistic conception of the universe, i. 20, 74
Monocottylæ, ii. 82, 112
Monoglottonic, ii. 327, 333
Monogony, i. 183
Monophylites, ii. 44
Monophyletic hypothesis of descent, ii. 44
Monorrhina, ii. 203, 204
Monosporogonia, i. 194
Monotrema, ii. 234, 239
Morphology, i. 21
Morula, ii. 125, 127
Moses’ history of creation, i. 37
Moss animals, ii. 150, 152
Mosses, ii. 82, 97
Müller, Fritz, i. 49, 73; ii. 174
Müller, Johannes, i. 312; ii. 203
Muscinæ, ii. 82, 99
Mussels, ii. 159, 160
Myriapoda, ii. 182, 184
Myxomycetes, ii. 51, 60
N
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, i. 78
Negroes, ii. 309, 313, 333
Nemathelminthes, ii. 149, 150
Newton, i. 25, 106
Non-amnionate, ii. 204, 209
Nubians, ii. 308, 320
O
ŒCOLOGY, ii. 354
Oken, Lorenz, i. 95
Oken’s history of development, i. 293
—— philosophy of nature, i. 96
—— theory of infusoria, i. 97
—— —— protoplasm, i. 97
Olynthus, ii. 141
Ontogenesis, i. 293
Ontogeny, i. 10; ii. 33
Orang, ii. 271, 275
Organisms, i. 5, 328
Organs, i. 5
Origin of language, ii. 302, 327
Osseous fishes, ii. 208, 211
Ovularia, ii. 132, 134
P
PACHYCARDIA, ii. 201
Palæolithic period, ii. 11, 14
Palæontology, i. 54
Palissy, i. 56
Palm ferns, ii. 82, 110
Pander, Christian, i. 294
Papuans, ii. 310, 333
Paradise, ii. 325
Parallelism of development, i. 313
Parthenogenesis, i. 197
Pedigree of amphibia, ii. 209
—— anamnia, ii. 209
—— apes, ii. 270
Permean system, ii. 11, 14
Petrifactions, i. 54
Phanerogama, ii. 80, 82, 108
Philosophy, i. 79; ii. 350
Phylogeny, i. 10; ii. 33
Phylum, ii. 42
Physiology, i. 21
Pithecoid, theory, ii. 356
Placentalia, ii. 240, 244
Planula, ii. 126, 135, 281
Planæa, ii. 125, 127
Planæada, ii. 280
Plasma, i. 185, 330
Plasmogony, i. 339
Plastids, i. 347
Plastids, theory of, i. 347
Platyelminthes, ii. 148, 150
Platyrrhini, ii. 270, 272
Pleistocene system, ii. 15
Pliocene system, ii. 15, 16
Polar man, ii. 308, 317
Polyglottal, ii. 327, 333
Polynesians, ii. 308, 315
Polyphyletic theory of descent, ii. 45
Polyphylites, ii. 45, 303
Polyps, ii. 142
Polyp jellies, ii. 143, 144
Polysporogonia, i. 193
Population, number of, ii. 333
Porifera, ii. 139, 144
Primary mammals, ii. 239, 290
Primary period, ii. 11, 14
Primæval algæ, ii. 82, 84
—— animals, ii. 131, 132
—— history of man, ii. 298
—— men, ii. 325
Primordial period, ii. 9, 14
Prochordata, ii. 278
Progenitors of man, ii. 279, 295
Progress, i. 277, 283
Promammalia, ii. 233, 239
Propagation, i. 183
—— amphigonic, i. 195
—— monogonic, i. 183
—— non-sexual, i. 183
Propagation, sexual, i. 195
—— virginal, i. 197
Protamnia, ii. 289, 295
Protamœbæ, ii. 52
Prothallophytes, ii. 80, 97
Prothallus plants, ii. 80, 97
Protista, ii. 48
Protophyta, ii. 82, 85
Protoplasma, i. 185, 330
Protoplasts, ii. 51, 53
Protozoa, ii. 121, 131, 132
Purpose in nature, i. 19
Purposelessness in nature, i. 20
R
RADIATA, ii. 120
Radiolaria, i. 333, 371; ii. 65
Rapacious animals, ii. 240, 260
Recent system, ii. 15
Reptiles, ii. 222, 224
Rhizopoda, ii. 51, 61
Ringed worms, ii. 149, 150
Rodentia, ii. 241, 257
Romans, ii. 323, 331
Rotatoria, ii. 149, 150
Rotifera, ii. 150, 152
Round worms, ii. 149, 150
Rudimentary eyes, i. 13
—— gristle, i. 12
—— legs, i. 14
—— lungs, i. 289
—— mammary glands, i. 290
—— muscles, i. 12
—— nictitating membrane, i. 13
—— organs, i. 12
—— pistils, i. 15
—— stamens, i. 15
—— tails, i. 289
—— teeth, i. 12
—— wings, i. 287
S
SACK WORMS, ii. 283, 295
Sauria, ii. 222
Schaaffhausen, i. 110
Schleicher, August, i. 108; ii. 301
Schleiden, J. M., i. 109
Science, i. 9; ii. 335
Scolecida, ii. 283, 295
Sea stars, ii. 164, 166
—— cucumbers, ii. 166, 171
Sea dragons, ii. 204
—— lilies, ii. 166, 177
—— nettles, ii. 141, 144
—— urchins, ii. 166, 171
Secondary period, ii. 14, 20
Selection æsthetic, i. 268
—— artificial, i. 152, 170, 254
—— homochromic, i. 263
—— medical, i. 173
—— military, i. 171
—— musical, i. 267
—— natural, i. 168, 255
—— psychical, i. 269
—— sexual, i. 265
—— Spartan, i. 170
Self-division, i. 191
Semites, ii. 322, 330
Serpents, ii. 223
Sexes, separation of, i. 244
Sexual characters, i. 209, 265
Silurian system, ii. 8, 14
Slavonians, ii. 323, 331
Snails, ii. 159, 160
Soul, the, i. 71; ii. 343, 362
Species, i. 41, 273, 304, 311
Specific development, i. 311
Spencer, Herbert, i. 119; ii. 367
Sperma, i. 197
Spiders, i. 180, 182
Spirobranchia, ii. 157, 160
Sponges, ii. 139, 144
Spores, formation of, i. 194
Stemmed plants, ii. 280
Straight-haired men, ii. 309, 314
Struggle for life, i. 161, 252
Synamœba, ii. 125, 280
Systematic development, i. 313
System of animals, ii. 132
—— apes, ii. 270
—— Arabians, ii. 330
—— arachnida, ii. 182
—— Arians, ii. 331
—— arthropoda, ii. 132
—— articulata, ii. 177, 183
—— catarrhini, ii. 270
—— cœlenterata, ii. 144
—— crustacea, ii. 176
—— didelphia, ii. 239
—— echinoderma, ii. 166
—— Egyptians, ii. 330
—— fishes, ii. 208
—— formations, ii. 15
—— Germans, ii. 331
—— gilled Insects, ii. 177
—— Græco-Romans, ii. 331
—— Hamites, ii. 330
—— hoofed animals, ii. 252
—— human ancestors, ii. 295
—— human races, ii. 308
—— human species, ii. 308, 309
—— Indians, ii. 331
—— Indo-Germani, ii. 331
—— insects, ii. 182
—— mammalia, ii. 239
—— mankind, ii. 295
—— marsupials, ii. 239
—— men and apes, ii. 271
—— molluscs, ii. 160
—— monodelphia, ii. 241
—— organisms, ii. 74, 75
—— placentalia, ii. 240
—— plants, ii. 82
—— platyrrhini, ii. 270
—— protista, ii. 51
—— reptiles, ii. 224
—— Semites, ii. 330
—— Slavonians, ii. 331
—— spiders, ii. 182
—— star fishes, ii. 167
—— strata of the earth, ii. 15
—— tracheata, ii. 182
—— ungulata, ii. 252
—— vegetable kingdom, ii. 83
—— vertebrata, ii. 204
—— worms, ii. 150
—— zoophytes, ii. 144
T
TAIL OF MAN, i. 289, 308
Tangles, ii. 61, 82
Tartars, ii. 209, 317
Teleology, i. 100, 291
Teleostei, ii. 208, 211
Teleological conception of the universe, i. 20, 75
Tertiary period, ii. 14, 16
Thallophytes, ii. 80, 82
Thickness of the earth’s crust, ii. 19
Thought, ii. 364
Thread plants, ii. 82, 93
Tocogony, i. 183
Tortoises, ii. 225
Tracheata, ii. 182
Transition forms, ii. 338
Transmutation, theory of, i. 4
Treviranus, i. 92
Trias system, ii. 12, 14
Tuft-haired men, ii. 307, 309
Tunicata, ii. 152, 200
Turbellaria, ii. 283
Turks, ii. 309, 316
U
UNGER, FRANZ, i. 109
Ungulata, ii. 249, 252
Unity in nature, i. 22, 338
Uralians, ii. 309, 317
V
Variability, i. 220
Variation, i. 219
Varieties, i. 276
Vertebrata, ii. 195, 205
Vital force, i. 22, 334
Vitalistic conception of the universe, i. 18
W
Wagner, Andreas, i. 138
Wagner, Moritz, i. 369
Wallace, Alfred, i. 135
Wallace’s chorology, i. 361, 373
—— theory of selection, i. 136
Well’s theory of selection, i. 150
Whales, ii. 240, 251
Will, freedom of the, i. 113, 237, 364
Wolff’s theory of development, i. 293
Woolly-haired men, ii. 307, 309
Worms, ii. 147, 150
Z
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