The United States waged its first war with Great Britain to gain an
independent national existence; in 1812 it declared a second war to
secure its rights upon the sea. During the long and desperate
struggle between England and France, each nation had prohibited
neutral powers from commercial intercourse with the other, or with any
country friendly to the other.
Furthermore, the English Government had laid down the principle that a
person born on British soil could not become a citizen of another
nation, but that "once an Englishman always an Englishman" was the
only true doctrine. In accordance with that theory, it claimed the
right to search American ships and take from them and force into their
own service any seaman supposed to be of British birth. In this way
Great Britian had seized more than six thousand men, and
notwithstanding their protest that they were American citizens, either
by birth or by naturalization, had compelled them to enter the English
navy.
Other points in dispute between the two countries were in a fair way
of being settled amicably, but there appeared to be no method of
coming to terms in regard to the question of search and impressment,
which was the most important of all, since though the demand of the
United States was, in the popular phrase of the day, for "Free Trade
and Sailors' Rights," it was the last which was especially emphasized.
In 1812 war against Great Britain was declared, and an attack made on
Canada which resulted in the American forces being driven back.
During the war British troops landed in Maryland, burned the Capitol
and other public buildings in Washington, and destroyed the
Congressional Library.
On the other hand, the American navy had unexpected and extraordinary
successes on the ocean and the lakes. Out of fifteen sea combats with
approximately equal forces, the Americans gained twelve. The contest
closed with the signal defeat of the English at New Orleans, when
General Andrew Jackson (1815) completely routed the forces led by Sir
Edward Pakenham, brother-in-law of the Duke of Wellington. The right
of search was thenceforth dropped, although it was not formally
abandoned by Great Britain until more than forty years later (1856).