THE HELIOGRAPHIC DEPARTMENT
So far the development of the Observatory had been along the central
line of assistance to navigation. But the Magnetic Department led on
to one which had but a very secondary connection with it.
A greatly enhanced interest was given to the observations of earth
magnetism, when it was found that the intensity and frequency of
its disturbances were in close accord with changes that were in
progress many millions of miles away. That the surface of the sun
was occasionally diversified by the presence of dark spots, had been
known almost from the first invention of the telescope; but it was
not until the middle of the present century that any connection was
established between these solar changes and the changes which took
place in the magnetism of the earth. Then two observers, the one
interesting himself entirely with the spots on the sun, the other as
wholly devoted to the study of the movements of the magnetic needle,
independently found that the particular phenomenon which each was
watching was one which varied in a more or less regular cycle. And
further, when the cycles were compared, they proved to be the same.
Whatever the secret of the connection, it is now beyond dispute that
as the spots on the sun become more and more numerous, so the daily
swing of the magnetic needle becomes stronger; and, on the other
hand, as the spots diminish, so the magnetic needle moves more and
more feebly.
This discovery has given a greatly increased significance to the
study of the earth's magnetism. The daily swing, the occasional
'storms,' are seen to be something more than matters of merely local
interest; they have the closest connection with changes going on in
the vast universe beyond; they have an astronomical importance.
And it was soon felt to be necessary to supplement the Magnetic
Observatory at Greenwich by one devoted to the direct study of the
solar surface; and here again that invaluable servant of modern
science, photography, was ready to lend its help. Just as, by the
means of photography, the magnets recorded their own movements, so
even more directly the sun himself makes register of his changes by
the same agency, and gives us at once his portrait and his autograph.
This new department was again due to Airy, and in 1873 the 'Kew'
photo-heliograph, which had been designed by De la Rue for this
work, was installed at Greenwich.
[Illustration: THE DALLMEYER PHOTO-HELIOGRAPH.]
In order to photograph so bright a body as the sun, it is not in
the least necessary to have a very large telescope. The one in
common use at Greenwich from 1875 to 1897, is only four inches in
aperture and even that is usually diminished by a cap to three
inches, and its focal length is but five feet. This is not very much
larger than what is commonly called a 'student's telescope,' but it
is amply sufficient for its work.
This 'Dallmeyer' telescope, so called from the name of its maker,
is one of five identical instruments which were made for use
in the observation of the transit of Venus of 1874, and which,
since they are designed for photographing the sun, are called
'photo-heliographs.'
The image of the sun in the principal focus of this telescope is
about six-tenths of an inch in diameter; but a magnifying lens
is used, so that the photograph actually obtained is about eight
inches. Even with this great enlargement, the light of the sun is
so intense that with the slowest photographic plates that are made
the exposure has to be for only a very small fraction of a second.
This is managed by arranging a very narrow slit in a strip of brass.
The strip is made to run in a groove across the principal focus.
Before the exposure, it is fastened up so as to cut off all light
from entering the camera part of the telescope. When all is ready,
it is released and drawn down very rapidly by a powerful spring, and
the slit, flying across the image of the sun, gives exposure to the
plate for a very minute fraction of a second--in midsummer for less
than a thousandth of a second.
Two of these photographs are taken every fine day at Greenwich;
occasionally more, if anything specially interesting appears to
be going on. But in our cloudy climate at least one day in three
gives no good opportunity for taking photographs of the sun,
and in the winter time long weeks may pass without a chance. The
present Astronomer-Royal, Mr. Christie, has therefore arranged that
photographs with precisely similar instruments should be taken in
India and in the Mauritius, and these are sent over to Greenwich as
they are required, to fill up the gaps in the Greenwich series. We
have therefore at Greenwich, from one source or another, practically
a daily record of the state of the sun's surface.
More recently the 'Dallmeyer' photo-heliograph, though still
retained for occasional use, has been superseded generally by the
'Thompson'; a photographic refractor of nine inches aperture, and
nearly nine feet focal length, presented to the Observatory by Sir
Henry Thompson. The image of the sun obtained after enlargement in
the telescope, with this instrument, is seven and a half inches in
diameter. The 'Thompson' is mounted below the great twenty-six-inch
photographic refractor,--also presented to the Observatory by Sir
Henry Thompson,--in the dome which crowns the centre of the New
Observatory.
A photograph of the sun taken, it has next to be measured, the four
following particulars being determined for each spot: First, its
distance from the centre of the image of the sun; next, the angle
between it and the north point; thirdly, the size of the spot; and
fourthly, the size of the umbra of the spot, that is to say, of
its dark central portion. The size or area of the spot is measured
by placing a thin piece of glass, on which a number of cross-lines
have been ruled one-hundredth of an inch apart, in contact with the
photograph. These cross-lines make up a number of small squares,
each the ten-thousandth (1/10000 in.) part of a square inch in
area. When the photograph and the little engraved glass plate are
nearly in contact, the photograph is examined with a magnifying
glass, and the number of little squares covered by a given spot are
counted. It will give some idea of the vast scale of the sun when
it is stated that a tiny spot, so small that it only just covers
one of these little squares, and which is only one-millionth of the
visible hemisphere of the sun in area, yet covers in actual extent
considerably more than one million of square miles.
The dark spots are not the only objects on the sun's surface. Here
and there, and especially near the edge of the sun, are bright
marks, generally in long branching lines, so bright as to appear
bright even against the dazzling background of the sun itself. These
are called 'faculæ,' and they, like the spots, have their times of
great abundance and of scarcity, changing on the whole at the same
time as the spots.
After the solar photographs have been measured, the measures must be
'reduced,' and the positions of the spots as expressed in longitude
and latitude on the sun computed. There is no difficulty in doing
this, for the position of the sun's equator and poles have long been
known approximately, the sun revolving on its axis in a little more
than twenty-five days, and carrying of course the spots and faculæ
round with him.
There are few studies in astronomy more engrossing than the watch on
the growth and changes of the solar spots. Their strange shapes,
their rapid movements, and striking alterations afford an unfailing
interest. For example, the amazing spectacle is continually being
afforded of a spot, some two, three, or four hundred millions of
square miles in area, moving over the solar surface at a speed
of three hundred miles an hour, whilst other spots in the same
group are remaining stationary. But a higher interest attaches to
the behaviour of the sun as a whole than to the changes of any
particular single spot; and the curious fact has been brought
to light, that not only do the spots increase and diminish in a
regular cycle of about eleven years in length, but they also affect
different regions of the sun at different points of the cycle.
At the time when spots are most numerous and largest, they are
found occupying two broad belts, the one with its centre about 15°
north of the equator, the other about as far south, the equator
itself being very nearly free from them. But as the spots begin to
diminish, so they appear continually in lower and lower latitudes,
until instead of having two zones of spots there is only one, and
this one lies along the equator. By this time the spots have become
both few and small. The next stage is that a very few small spots
are seen from time to time in one hemisphere or the other at a great
distance from the equator, much farther than any were seen at the
time of greatest activity. There are then for a little time three
sun-spot belts, but the equatorial one soon dies out. The two belts
in high latitude, on the other hand, continually increase; but as
they increase, so do they move downwards in latitude, until at
length they are again found in about latitude 15° north or south,
when the spots have attained their greatest development.
[Illustration: PHOTOGRAPH OF A GROUP OF SUN-SPOTS.
(_From a photograph taken at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich,
April, 1882, 20 d. 10 h. 6 m._)]
The clearest connection between the magnetic movements and the
sun-spot changes is seen when we take the mean values of either for
considerable periods of time, as, for instance, year by year. But
occasionally we have much more special instances of this connection.
Some three or four times within the last twenty years an enormous
spot has broken out on the sun, a spot so vast that worlds as great
as our own could lie in it like peas in a breakfast saucer, and in
each case there has been an immediate and a threefold answer from
the earth. One of the most remarkable of these occurred in November,
1882. A great spot was then seen covering an area of more than three
thousand millions of square miles. The weather in London happened
to be somewhat foggy, and the sun loomed, a dull red ball, through
the haze, a ball it was perfectly easy to look at without specially
shading the eyes. So large a spot under such circumstances was quite
visible to the naked eye, and it caught the attention of a great
number of people, many of whom knew nothing about the existence of
spots on the sun.
This great disturbance, evidently something of the nature of a storm
in the solar atmosphere, stretched over one hundred thousand miles
on the surface of the sun. The disturbance extended farther still,
even to nearly one hundred millions of miles. For simultaneously
with the appearance of the spot the magnetic needles at Greenwich
began to suffer from a strange excitement, an excitement which grew
from day to day until it had passed half-way across the sun's disc.
As the twitchings of the magnetic needle increased in frequency and
violence, other symptoms were noticed throughout the length of the
British Isles. Telegraphic communication was greatly interfered
with. The telegraph lines had other messages to carry more urgent
than those of men. The needles in the telegraph instruments
twitched to and fro. The signal bells on many of the railway lines
were rung, and some of the operators received shocks from their
instruments. Lastly, on November 17, a superb aurora was witnessed,
the culminating feature of which was the appearance, at about six
o'clock in the evening, of a mysterious beam of greenish light, in
shape something like a cigar, and many degrees in length, which rose
in the east and crossed the sky at a pace much quicker than but
nearly as even as that of sun, moon, or stars, till it set in the
west two minutes after its rising.
So far we have been dealing only with effects. Their causes still
rest hidden from us. There is clearly a connection between the solar
activity as shown by the spots and the agitation of the magnetic
needles. But many great spots find no answer in any magnetic
vibration, and not a few considerable magnetic storms occur when we
can detect no great solar changes to correspond.
Thus even in the simplest case before us we have still very much
to explain. Two far more difficult problems are still offered us
for solution. What is the cause of these mysterious solar spots?
and have they any traceable connection with the fitful vagaries of
earthly weather? It was early suggested that probably the first
problem might find an answer in the ever-varying combinations and
configurations of the various planets, and that the sun-spots in
their turn might hold the key of our meteorology. Both ideas were
eagerly followed up--not that there was much to support either,
but because they seemed to offer the only possible hope of our
being able to foretell the general current of weather change for
any long period in advance. So far, however, the first idea may be
considered as completely discredited. As to the second, there would
appear to be, in the case of certain great tropical and continental
countries like India, some slight but by no means conclusive
evidence of a connection between the changes in the annual rainfall
and the changes in the spotted surface of the sun. Dr. Meldrum, the
late veteran Director of the great Meteorological Observatory in
Mauritius, has expressed himself as confident that the years of most
spots are the years of most violent cyclones in the Indian Ocean.
But this is about as far as real progress has been made, and it may
be taken as certain that many years more of observation will be
required, and the labours of many skilful investigators, before we
can hope to carry much farther our knowledge as to any connection
between storm and sun.
A further relation of great interest has come to light within the
last few years. The year 1868 opened a new epoch in the study of
eclipses of the sun. These, perhaps, scarcely lie within the scope
of a book on the Royal Observatory, since Greenwich has seen but
one in all its history. That fell in the year 1715; for the next
it must wait many centuries. Yet, as the late Astronomer Royal
conducted three expeditions to see total eclipses, and as the
present Astronomer Royal has undertaken a like number, and members
of the staff have been sent on other occasions, it may not be deemed
quite a digression to refer to one feature which they have brought
to light.
When the dark body of the moon has entirely hidden the sun,
we have revealed to us, there and then only, that strange and
beautiful surrounding of the sun which we call the corona. The
earlier observations of the corona seem to reveal it as a body of
the most weird and intricate form, a form which seemed to change
quite lawlessly from one eclipse to another. But latterly it has
been abundantly clear that the forms which it assumes may be
grouped under a few well-defined types. In 1878 the corona was of
a particularly simple and striking character. Two great wings shot
out east and west in the direction of the sun's equator; round
either pole was a cluster of beautiful radiating 'plumes.' It was
then recollected that the corona of 1867 had been of precisely the
same character, both years being years when sun-spots were at their
fewest. The coronæ, on the other hand, seen at times when sun-spots
are more abundant, were of an altogether different character, the
streamers being irregularly distributed all round the sun. Other
types also have been recognized, and it is perfectly apparent
that the corona changes its shape in close accordance with the
eleven-year period. The eclipses of 1889 and 1900, for example,
showed coronæ that bore the very closest resemblance to those of
1878 and 1866, the interval of eleven years bringing a return to the
same form.
The further problem, therefore, now confronts us: Does the corona
produce the sun-spots, or do the sun-spots produce the corona, or
are both the result of some mysterious magnetic action of the sun,
an action powerful enough on occasion to thrill through and through
this world of ours, ninety-three millions of miles away?