PART III.--A. _Chemical Trials._

1. Muriatic acid, hot or cold, produces no effect; hot

nitro-muriatic dissolves the ore with energy, red fumes are

evolved, and generally a red solution obtained, from which ammonia

precipitates red oxyd of iron abundantly.

2. A heavy lemon-yellow powder remains, insoluble of course in

acids, but easily and completely soluble in warm ammonia.

3. A dark powder, in diminished quantity, again appears, more acid

dissolves it in part, and again reveals the yellow powder, which

ammonia again dissolves, and so on, till nothing remains but some

portion of the gangue.

4. The ammoniacal solution, which contains the oxyd of tungsten, is

decomposed by acids, and by heat, and instantly deposits a white

heavy powder, becoming yellowish by standing, and full yellow by

heat.

5. This powder is infusible by the blow-pipe, but ignited with

borax in a platinum crucible, it became of a superb blue, like

smalt, or between that and Prussian blue.

6. The quantity obtained was too small to make it convenient to

attempt its reduction to the metallic state; no doubt remained,

however, that it was oxyd of tungsten, or as it is sometimes

called, tungstic acid.

7. There were traces of manganese, and all the facts perhaps

justify the conclusion, that the ore is very similar to the

ferruginous tungsten or wolfram.

8. The calcareous tungsten occurs in octahedral crystals, but we

have not before heard of this form in the ferruginous species,

which generally affects the prismatic forms.

B. REMARK.

We had been for some time inclined to believe, that the above ore

was ferruginous tungsten, but although fortified by the opinion of

Col. Gibbs, we were withheld from announcing it, because the form

of the crystals, the specific gravity, the colour, and perhaps

some other characters, were not perfectly accordant with European

descriptions, and with the specimens in our possession, which are

from Saxony and Cornwall.

During the necessary chemical trials (which have, we trust,

established the correctness of the above opinion,) we very

unexpectedly discovered in some of the ores of tungsten, proofs

of the existence of tellurium. The conclusion was induced by the

phenomena, for nothing was farther from our expectations.

Two fragments were pulverized _by an assistant_, and we therefore

cannot say whether they had any external characters different from

those of the other pieces; they came, however, from the same part

of the vein, and their powder resembled that of the other pieces.

1. Digested in nitro-muriatic acid, a straw-yellow solution,

slightly inclining to green, was obtained, and a black powder was

left behind.

2. More acid digested on this powder, gave a deep red solution of

iron, and left the yellow oxyd of tungsten, which being dissolved

in ammonia, the black powder again appeared, and so on, as under 3.

Part III.

3. The solution 1, diluted largely with water, deposited an

abundant white precipitate, which was very heavy and rapidly

subsided.

4. Alcohol and ammonia, respectively produced the same effect, only

more decidedly.

5. This precipitate, evidently an oxyd of a metal, being collected

on a filter and dried, exhibited the following properties.

6. Heated by the blow-pipe on charcoal, it was instantly

volatilized in part, and in part decomposed, with an almost

explosive effervescence; numerous ignited globules of metal

appeared on the charcoal, and burned with an abundant flame of a

delicate blue colour, edged occasionally with green.

7. In many trials, these results always occurred, and sometimes

a peculiar odour was perceived, at first thought to be owing to

arsenic, but it was incomparably feebler, and somewhat resembled

that of radishes.[72]

8. Zinc, iron, and tin, plunged into separate portions of the

nitro-muriatic solution, precipitated abundantly a black flocculent

substance.

9. On charcoal before the blow-pipe, this substance was very

combustible, with a blue flame, and was completely dissipated in

the form of white oxyd, with the above smell.

10. Some of it was obtained on the charcoal in metallic globules;

it was a brittle metal, white, with a tinge of red, and foliated,

but not so distinctly as bismuth and antimony.

11. The filters on which the white oxyd had been deposited, burned

almost with explosion, nearly as rapidly as if they had been soaked

with nitrate of potash, or of ammonia, and the characteristic blue

flame appeared while the burning lasted.

12. Other experiments were made upon the metal, (not the oxyd.) It

gave to strong sulphuric acid, (simply by standing in it in the

cold) an amethystine colour, which disappeared as the acid grew

weaker, by attracting water from the air.

13. With nitric acid it formed a colourless solution, not

decomposed by water.

14. It did not dissolve in muriatic acid, till a few drops of

nitric acid were added.

15. The white oxyd heated with charcoal in a small coated recurved

glass tube, afforded brilliant metallic globules, which rose by

distillation, collected in the bend of the tube, and resembled

drops of quicksilver, except that they were solid.

C. REMARK.

The above facts having induced the conclusion that the metal, thus

unexpectedly discovered in the ores of tungsten, was tellurium,[73]

we were led to search for external characters by which to judge

what specimens contained it. The ores from Transylvania, (the

only telluric ores with which we are acquainted,) bearing no

analogy in appearance or composition to those before us, we were

led to inquire whether the tellurium in these latter ores was _in

combination_ with tungsten, or merely _in mixture_. The external

characters detailed in part II, tend perhaps to fortify the

latter opinion. If we mistake not, we there found a proper ore of

tellurium mixed with a proper ore of tungsten, but we have also by

chemical means, found tellurium where similar external characters

were not apparent. Before the appearance of our next Number, we

hope to obtain purer and better specimens. In the mean time we add

the following facts.

1. A crystal, and a massive piece of the kind described under part

I, and specimens of two varieties of those described under part II,

were digested in nitro-muriatic acid.

2. Both oxyd of tungsten, and oxyd of tellurium were obtained from

all of them.

3. Many specimens have been examined which have afforded tungsten

only, and no tellurium.

At a convenient time, it is hoped that a more complete examination

of this subject may be presented to the public.

In the mean time, we may submit to mineralogists and chemists,

whether if this is not a new mineral, it is not at least a new

association of two minerals before known. It has not been forgotten

that gold and silver are frequently combined with tellurium:

neither of them has, however, been discovered, (although sought

after by proper tests) during the above trials.

_Yale College, March, 1819._

ART. XVIII. _A Substitute for Woulfe's or Nooth's Apparatus,

by_ ROBERT HARE, M. D. _Professor of Chemistry in the Medical

Department of the University of Pennsylvania, and Member of various

Learned and Scientific Societies_. With a Plate.

Few subjects have more occupied the attention of chemists, than

the means of impregnating fluids with gaseous substances. The

contrivances of Woulfe and Nooth, especially the former, have

been almost universally used; and have gained for the inventors

merited celebrity. Various improvements in Woulfe's bottles have

been devised. Still I believe an apparatus replete with similar

advantages, but less unwieldy, less liable to fracture; and having

fewer junctures to make at each operation, has been a great

desideratum with every practical chemist. It has, however, ceased

to be so with me, since I contrived the apparatus which I am about

to describe.

Fig. 1. represents 3 jars placed concentrically within each other,

and so proportioned and situated, as to admit 2 open-necked

concentric bell glasses alternately between them. The neck of

the exterior bell glass is introduced into the tubulure of the

receiver above, and receives the neck of the interior bell glass.

Into this is inserted a trumpet-shaped tube. The two interior jars

are furnished with feet F, _f_. In order to put this apparatus into

operation, remove (without taking them apart) the bell glasses,

receiver, and tube from the jars. Pour into the latter the fluid,

to be impregnated, till it reaches the height marked by the dots.

The funnel mouth, _m_, of the receiver being provided with a

suitable cork soaked in wax, fasten into it firmly the beak of the

retort, containing the generating materials. The bell glasses are

then to be replaced in the jars, and arranged as in the figure. It

must be self-evident that the gas proceeding from the retort, (if

the juncture at _m_ be air tight) must press on the fluid in the

innermost jar, through the trumpet-shaped tube. If not imbibed with

adequate speed, it must soon press on the fluid at _a_, causing it

to subside to the narrow part of the foot _f_, and thus to expose

a much larger surface. If the absorption be still inadequate, a

further subsidence must ensue, and the gas escaping round the

brim of the interior bell glass will act on the fluid at _b_, and

enlarge its surface by depressing it to the narrow part of the foot

F. Should the increased pressure and more extended contact thus

obtained, be still incompetent to effect a complete absorption, the

excess of the gas may escape round the brim of the external bell

glass into the atmosphere.

[Illustration: _Fig. 1._

_Fig. 4._

_Fig. 5._

_Fig. 3._

_Fig. 2._

_Drawn & Engraved by Kneass, Young & Co._]

But so effectual is this process in promoting impregnation, that

I have obtained strong muriatic acid in the central jar, without

producing any sensible acidity in the outside one. Absorption

into the retort or receiver, is prevented by not allowing as much

fluid to be above the mouth of the trumpet-shaped tube, as would

be competent to fill the cavity between it, and the termination

of the open neck of the exterior bell glass at _t_. As this neck

rises about 2 or 3 inches into the receiver, it prevents any foul

matter which may condense or boil over, from getting into the jars.

If practicable, it would be better that the bell glasses, and

tube, and receiver, should be united together while hot, at the

glass-house. If all could not be joined in this way, it would still

be advantageous to unite thus the receiver, and the exterior bell

glass. The interior bell and tube might then be fastened together,

by grinding or luting. As yet I have only used lutings of waxed

cloth, or cork. It may be proper to point out, that 3 or more

concentric bell glasses, and 4 or more jars, might be used. The

union of the bells, receiver, and tube once effected, it is hardly

more troublesome to use 3 than 2. When the fluid in the central jar

is saturated, this may be emptied and replenished from the middle

jar, the latter from the external one. Then supplying the external

jar anew, the process may be continued.

The other figures are to explain an apparatus on the same

principle, constructed of hollow, oblong paralellopipeds, differing

in length more than in breadth; so as to allow a serpentine tube to

wind into the interior, and deliver gas under a vessel shaped like

a T.

Fig. 2. represents a vertical section of the whole as when situated

for use.[74]

Fig. 3. a vertical section of the lower vessels only.

Fig. 4. a vertical section of the covers alone.

Fig. 5. a horizontal section, or ground plan of the lower vessels.

The upper vessels are so proportioned as to divide the distances

between the lower ones equally.

It may be well to mention, that this apparatus, from the facility

with which it may be cleaned and inspected internally, admits of

being made of porcelain or stone ware.[75] I have had a cylindrical

one constructed of the latter material, in which the covers are

in one piece, with a tube in the centre for introducing gas. The

apparatus may be made more efficacious, by drilling a series of

small holes round the brims of the bell glasses or covers, so as to

cause the gas, instead of passing round the brims in large bubbles,

to divide itself into very small ones. By this means it will be

more thoroughly intermingled with fluid.

ART. XIX. _A New Theory of Galvanism, supported by some Experiments

and Observations made by means of the Calorimotor, a new Galvanic

Instrument. Read before the Academy of Natural Sciences,

Philadelphia,[76] by_ ROBERT HARE, M. D. _Professor of Chemistry

in the Medical Department of the University of Pennsylvania, and

Member of several Learned Societies_.

(With an Engraving.)

I have for some time been of opinion that the principle extricated

by the Voltaic pile is a compound of caloric and electricity, both

being original and collateral products of Galvanic action.

The grounds of this conviction and some recent experiments

confirming it, are stated in the following paper.

It is well known that heat is liberated by the Voltaic apparatus,

in a manner and degree which has not been imitated by means of

mechanical electricity; and that the latter, while it strikes at a

greater distance, and pervades conductors with much greater speed,

can with difficulty be made to effect the slightest decompositions.

Wollaston, it is true, decomposed water by means of it; but the

experiment was performed of necessity on a scale too minute to

permit of his ascertaining, whether there were any divellent polar

attractions exercised towards the atoms, as in the case of the

pile. The result was probably caused by mechanical concussion, or

that process by which the particles of matter are dispersed when

a battery is discharged through them. The opinion of Dr. Thomson,

that the fluid of the pile is in quantity greater, in intensity

less, than that evolved by the machine, is very inconsistent with

the experiments of the chemist above mentioned, who, before he

could effect the separation of the elements of water by mechanical

electricity, was obliged to confine its emission to a point

imperceptible to the naked eye. If already so highly intense,

wherefore the necessity of a further concentration? Besides, were

the distinction made by Dr. Thomson correct, the more concentrated

fluid generated by a galvanic apparatus of a great many small

pairs, ought most to resemble that of the ordinary electricity;

but the opposite is the case. The ignition produced by a few

large Galvanic plates, where the intensity is of course low,

is a result most analogous to the chemical effects of a common

electrical battery. According to my view, caloric and electricity

may be distinguished by the following characteristics. The former

permeates all matter more or less, though with very different

degrees of facility. It radiates through air, with immeasurable

celerity, and distributing itself in the interior of bodies,

communicates a reciprocally repellent power to atoms, but not to

masses. Electricity does not radiate in or through any matter; and

while it pervades some bodies, as metals, with almost infinite

velocity; by others, it is so far from being conducted, that it can

only pass through them by a fracture or perforation. Distributing

itself over surfaces only, it causes repulsion between masses, but

not between the particles of the same mass. The disposition of the

last-mentioned principle to get off by neighbouring conductors, and

of the other to combine with the adjoining matter, or to escape by

radiation, would prevent them from being collected at the positive

pole, if not in combination with each other. Were it not for a

modification of their properties, consequent to some such union,

they could not, in piles of thousands of pairs, be carried forward

through the open air and moisture; the one so well calculated to

conduct away electricity, the other so favourable to the radiation

of caloric.

Pure electricity does not expand the slips of gold-leaf, between

which it causes repulsion, nor does caloric cause any repulsion

in the ignited masses which it expands. But as the compound fluid

extricated by Galvanic action, which I shall call electro-caloric,

distributes itself through the interior of bodies, and is evidently

productive of corpuscular repulsion, it is in this respect more

allied to caloric than to electricity.

It is true, that when common electricity causes the deflagration

of metals, as by the discharge of a Leyden jar, it must be supposed

to insinuate itself within them, and cause a reaction between

their particles. But in this case, agreeably to my hypothesis, the

electric fluid combines with the latent caloric previously existing

there, and, adding to its repulsive agency, causes it to overpower

cohesion.[77]

Sir Humphry Davy was so much at a loss to account for the continued

ignition of wire at the poles of a Voltaic apparatus, that he

considers it an objection to the materiality of heat; since the

wire could not be imagined to contain sufficient caloric to keep

up the emission of this principle for an unlimited time. But if we

conceive an accumulation of heat to accompany that of electricity

throughout the series, and to be propagated from one end to the

other, the explanation of the phenomenon in question is attended by

no difficulty.

The effect of the Galvanic fluid on charcoal is very consistent

with my views, since, next to metals, it is one of the best

conductors of electricity, and the worst of heat, and would

therefore arrest the last, and allow the other to pass on. Though

peculiarly liable to intense ignition, when exposed between

the poles of the Voltaic apparatus, it seems to me it does not

display this characteristic with common electricity. According to

Sir Humphry Davy, when in connexion with the positive pole, and

communicating by a platina wire with the negative pole, the latter

is less heated than when, with respect to the poles, the situation

of the wire and charcoal is reversed. The rationale is obvious:

charcoal, being a bad conductor, and a good radiator, prevents the

greater part of the heat from reaching the platina, when placed

between it and the source whence the heat flows.

I had observed that as the number of pairs in Volta's pile had

been extended, and their size and the energy of the interposed

agents lessened, the ratio of the electrical effects to those

of heat had increased; till in De Luc's column they had become

completely predominant; and, on the other hand, when the pairs were

made larger and fewer (as in Children's apparatus) the calorific

influence had gained the ascendancy. I was led to go farther in

this way, and to examine whether one pair of plates of enormous

size, or what might be equivalent thereto, would not exhibit heat

more purely, and demonstrate it, equally with the electric fluid,

a primary product of Galvanic combinations. The elementary battery

of Wollaston, though productive of an evanescent ignition, was too

minute to allow him to make the observations which I had in view.

Twenty copper and twenty zinc plates, about nineteen inches

square, were supported vertically in a frame, the different metals

alternating at one half inch distance from each other. All the

plates of the same kind of metal were soldered to a common slip, so

that each set of homogeneous plates formed one continuous metallic

superficies. When the copper and zinc surfaces, thus formed, are

united by an intervening wire, and the whole immerged in an acid,

or aceto-saline solution, in a vessel devoid of partitions, the

wire becomes intensely ignited; and when hydrogen is liberated

it usually takes fire, producing a very beautiful undulating, or

coruscating flame.

I am confident, that if Volta and the other investigators of

Galvanism, instead of multiplying the pairs of Galvanic plates,

had sought to increase the effect by enlarging one pair as I have

done, (for I consider the copper and zinc surfaces as reduced to

two by the connexion) the apparatus would have been considered

as presenting a new mode of evolving heat, as a primary effect

independently of electrical influence. There is no other indication

of electricity when wires from the two surfaces touch the tongue,

than a slight taste, such as is excited by small pieces of zinc and

silver laid on it and under it, and brought into contact with each

other.

It was with a view of examining the effects of the proximity and

alternation in the heterogeneous plates that I had them cut into

separate squares. By having them thus divided, I have been enabled

to ascertain that when all of one kind of metal are ranged on one

side of the frame, and all of the other kind on the other side of

it, the effect is no greater than might be expected from one pair

of plates.

Volta, considering the changes consequent to his contrivance as

the effect of a movement in the electric fluid, called the process

electro-motion, and the plates producing it electro-motors. But

the phenomena show that the plates, as I have arranged them, are

calori-motors, or heat movers, and the effect calori-motion.

That this is a new view of the subject, may be inferred from the

following passage in Davy's Elements. That great chemist observes,

"When very small conducting surfaces are used for conveying very

large quantities of electricity, they become ignited; and of the

different conductors that have been compared, charcoal is most

easily heated by electrical discharges,[78] next iron, platina,

gold, then copper, and lastly, zinc. The phenomena of electrical

ignition, whether taking place in gaseous, fluid, or solid

bodies, always seem to be the result of a violent exertion of the

electrical attractive and repellent powers, which may be connected

with motions of the particles of the substances affected. That no

subtile fluid, such as the matter of heat has been imagined to be,

can be discharged from these substances, in consequence of the

effect of the electricity, seems probable, from the circumstance,

that a wire of platina may be preserved in a state of intense

ignition in vacuo, by means of the Voltaic apparatus, for an

unlimited time; and such a wire cannot be supposed to contain an

inexhaustible quantity of subtile matter."

But I demand where are the repellent and attractive powers to

which the ignition produced by the Calorimotor can be attributed?

Besides, I would beg leave respectfully to inquire of this

illustrious author, whence the necessity of considering the heat

evolved under the circumstances alluded to as the effect of the

electrical fluid; or why we may not as well suppose the latter

to be excited by the heat? It is evident, as he observes, that

a wire cannot be supposed to contain an inexhaustible supply of

matter however subtile; but wherefore may not one kind of subtile

matter be supplied to it from the apparatus as well as another;

especially, when to suppose such a supply is quite as inconsistent

with the characteristics of pure electricity, as with those of pure

caloric?

It is evident from Mr. Children's paper in the Annals of

Philosophy, on the subject of his large apparatus, that the

ignition produced by it was ascribed to electrical excitement.

For the purpose of ascertaining the necessity of the alternation

and proximity of the copper and zinc plates, it has been mentioned

that distinct square sheets were employed. The experiments have

since been repeated and found to succeed by Dr. Patterson and Mr.

Lukens, by means of two continuous sheets, one of zinc, the other

of copper, wound into two concentric coils or spirals. This, though

the circumstance was not known to them, was the form I had myself

proposed to adopt, and had suggested as convenient for a Galvanic

apparatus to several friends at the beginning of the winter;[79]

though the consideration above stated induced me to prefer for a

first experiment a more manageable arrangement.

Since writing the above, I find that when, in the apparatus of

twenty copper and twenty zinc plates, ten copper plates on one side

are connected with ten zinc on the other, and a communication made

between the remaining twenty by a piece of iron wire, about the

eighth of an inch in diameter, the wire enters into a vivid state

of combustion on the immersion of the plates. Platina wire equal to

No. 18 (the largest I had at hand) is rapidly fused if substituted

for the iron.

This arrangement is equivalent to a battery of two large Galvanic

pairs; excepting that there is no insulation, all the plates being

plunged in one vessel. I have usually separated the pairs by a

board, extending across the frame merely.

Indeed, when the forty plates were successively associated in

pairs, of copper and zinc, though suspended in a fluid held in

a common recipient without partitions; there was considerable

intensity of Galvanic action. This shows that, independently of

any power of conducting electricity, there is some movement in the

solvent fluid which tends to carry forward the Galvanic principle

from the copper to the zinc end of the series. I infer that

electro-caloric is communicated in this case by circulation, and

that in non-elastic fluids the same difficulty exists as to its

retrocession from the positive to the negative end of the series,

as is found in the downward passage of caloric through them.

It ought to be mentioned, that the connecting wire should be placed

between the heterogeneous surfaces before their immersion, as the

most intense ignition takes place immediately afterward. If the

connexion be made after the plates are immersed, the effect is much

less powerful; and sometimes after two or three immersions the

apparatus loses its power, though the action of the solvent should

become in the interim much more violent. Without any change in the

latter, after the plates have been for some time suspended in the

air, they regain their efficacy. I had observed in a Galvanic pile

of three hundred pairs of two inches square, a like consequence

resulting from a simultaneous immersion of the whole.[80] The bars

holding the plates were balanced by weights, as window-sashes are,

so that all the plates could be very quickly dipped. A platina

wire, No. 18, was fused into a globule, while the evolution of

potassium was demonstrated by a rose-coloured flame arising from

some potash which had been placed between the poles. The heat

however diminished in a few seconds, though the greater extrication

of hydrogen from the plates indicated a more intense chemical

action.

Agreeably to an observation of Dr. Patterson, electrical excitement

may be detected in the apparatus by the condensing electroscope;

but this is no more than what Volta observed to be the consequence

of the contact of heterogeneous metals.

The thinnest piece of charcoal intercepts the calorific agent,

whatever it may be. In order to ascertain this, the inside of a

hollow brass cylinder, having the internal diameter two inches,

and the outside of another smaller cylinder of the same substance,

were made conical and correspondent, so that the greater would

contain the less, and leave an interstice of about one-sixteenth

of an inch between them. This interstice was filled with wood, by

plugging the larger cylinder with this material, and excavating the

plug till it would permit the smaller brass cylinder to be driven

in. The excavation and the fitting of the cylinders was performed

accurately by means of a turning lathe. The wood in the interstice

was then charred by exposing the whole covered by sand in a

crucible to a red heat. The charcoal, notwithstanding the shrinkage

consequent to the fire, was brought into complete contact with

the inclosing metallic surfaces by pressing the interior cylinder

further into the exterior one.

Thus prepared, the interior cylinder being made to touch one of

the Galvanic surfaces, a wire brought from the other Galvanic

surface into contact with the outside cylinder, was not affected in

the least, though the slightest touch of the interior one caused

ignition. The contact of the charcoal with the containing metals

probably took place throughout a superficies of four square inches,

and the wire was not much more than the hundredth part of an inch

thick, so that unless it were to conduct electricity about forty

thousand times better than the charcoal, it ought to have been

heated; if the calorific influence of this apparatus result from

electrical excitement.

I am led finally to suppose, that the contact of dissimilar metals,

when subjected to the action of solvents, causes a movement in

caloric as well as in the electric fluid, and that the phenomena

of Galvanism, the unlimited evolution of heat by friction, the

extrication of gaseous matter without the production of cold,

might all be explained by supposing a combination between the

fluids of heat and electricity. We find scarcely any two kinds

of ponderable matter which do not exercise more or less affinity

towards each other. Moreover, imponderable particles are supposed

highly attractive of ponderable ones. Why then should we not infer

the existence of similar affinities between imponderable particles

reciprocally? That a peculiar combination between heat and light

exists in the solar beams, is evident from their not imparting

warmth to a lens through which they may pass, as do those of our

culinary fires.

Under this view of the case, the action of the poles in Galvanic

decomposition is one of complex affinity. The particles of

compounds are attracted to the different wires agreeably to their

susceptibilities to the positive and negative attraction, and the

caloric leaving the electric fluid with which it had been combined,

unites with them at the moment that their electric state is

neutralized.

As an exciting fluid, I have usually employed a solution of one

part sulphuric acid, and two parts muriate of soda with seventy of

water; but, to my surprise, I have produced nearly a white heat by

an alkaline solution barely sensible to the taste.

For the display of the heat effects, the addition of manganese, red

lead, or the nitrates, is advantageous.

The rationale is obvious. The oxygen of these substances prevents

the liberation of the gaseous hydrogen, which would carry off the

caloric. Adding to diluted muriatic acid, while acting on zinc,

enough red lead to prevent effervescence, the temperature rose from

70 to 110 Fahrenheit.

The power of the calorimotor is much increased by having the

communication between the different sheets formed by very large

strips or masses of metal. Observing this, I rendered the sheets

of copper shorter by half an inch, for a distance of four inches

of their edges, where the communication was to be made between the

zinc sheets; and, vice versa, the zinc was made in the same way

shorter than the copper sheets where these were to communicate with

each other. The edges of the shortened sheets being defended by

strips of wood, tin was cast on the intermediate protruding edges

of the longer ones, so as to embrace a portion of each equal to

about one quarter of an inch by four inches. On one side, the tin

was made to run completely across, connecting at the same time

ten copper and ten zinc sheets. On the other side there was an

interstice of above a quarter of an inch left between the stratum

of tin embracing the copper, and that embracing the zinc plates.

On each of the approaching terminations of the connecting tin

strata was soldered a kind of forceps, formed of a bent piece of

sheet brass, furnished with a screw for pressing the jaws together.

The distance between the different forceps was about two inches.

The advantage of a very close contact was made very evident by the

action of the screws; the relaxation or increase of pressure on the

connecting wire by turning them being productive of a correspondent

change in the intensity of ignition.

It now remains to state, that by means of iron ignited in this

apparatus, a fixed alkali may be decomposed extemporaneously.[81]

If a connecting iron wire, while in combustion, be touched by the

hydrate of potash, the evolution of potassium is demonstrated by

a rose-coloured flame. The alkali may be applied to the wire in

small pieces in a flat hook of sheet iron. But the best mode of

application is by means of a tray made by doubling a slip of sheet

iron at the ends, and leaving a receptacle in the centre, in which

the potash may be placed covered with filings. This tray being

substituted for the connecting wire, as soon as the immersion of

the apparatus causes the metal to burn, the rose-coloured flame

appears, and if the residuum left in the sheet iron be afterward

thrown into water, an effervescence sometimes ensues.

I have ascertained that an iron heated to combustion, by a

blacksmith's forge fire, will cause the decomposition of the

hydrate of potash.

The dimensions of the Calorimotor may be much reduced without

proportionably diminishing the effect. I have one of sixty plates

within a cubic foot, which burns off No. 16, iron wire. A good

workman could get 120 plates of a foot square within a hollow cube

of a size no larger. But the inflammation of the hydrogen which

gives so much splendour to the experiment, can only be exhibited

advantageously on a large scale.

[Illustration: CALORIMETER

_Fig. 1._

_Fig. 2._

_Fig. 3._

_Fig. 4._

_Drawn & Engraved by Kneass, Young & Co._]

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE.

A _a_, Fig. 1st, two cubical vessels, 20 inches square, inside.

_b b b b_ a frame of wood containing 20 sheets of copper, and 20

sheets of zinc, alternating with each other, and about half an

inch apart. T T _t t_ masses of tin cast over the protruding edges

of the sheets which are to communicate with each other. Fig. 2,

represents the mode in which the junction between the various

sheets and tin masses is effected. Between the letters _z z_, the

zinc only is in contact with the tin masses. Between _c c_ the

copper alone touches. It may be observed, that, at the back of

the frame, ten sheets of copper between _c c_, and ten sheets of

zinc between _z z_, are made to communicate, by a common mass of

tin extending the whole length of the frame, between T T: but in

front, as in fig. 1, there is an interstice between the mass of

tin connecting the ten copper sheets, and that connecting the ten

zinc sheets. The screw forceps, appertaining to each of the tin

masses, may be seen on either side of the interstice: and likewise

a wire for ignition held between them. The application of the rope,

pulley, and weights, is obvious. The swivel at S permits the frame

to be swung round and lowered into water in the vessel _a_, to wash

off the acid, which, after immersion in the other vessel, might

continue to act on the sheets, encrusting them with oxide. Between

_p p_ there is a wooden partition which is not necessary, though it

may be beneficial.

Fig. 3, represents an apparatus alluded to, page 419. It consists

of a couronne des tasses, reduced to a form no less compact

than that of the trough. Hollow parallelopipeds of glass are

substituted for tumblers or cells. The plates are suspended to bars

counterpoised like window-sashes.

The advantages are as follows. The material is one of the best

non-conductors, is easily cleansed, and is the most impervious to

solvents. The fracture of one of the cups is easily remedied by

a supernumerary. They may be procured (as in the United States)

where porcelain cannot be had. The shock from 300 pairs is such as

few will take a second time. Some of the effects have already been

stated.[82]

At Fig. 4, one of the hollow glass parallelopipeds on an enlarged

scale is represented.

MATHEMATICS.

ART. XX. _An improved Method of obtaining the Formulæ for the Sines

and Cosines of the Sum and Difference of two Arcs, by_ PROFESSOR

STRONG, _of Hamilton College_.

[Illustration]

In the circle ABCD let AB and BC denote any two arcs contiguous

to each other. Draw their limiting diameters A_a_, C_c_; their

sines B_x_, B_y_; and join _x_, _y_. Then will _xy_ = sine of (AB

+ BC): for if upon OB as a diameter we describe a circle, it will

manifestly pass through the points _x_ and _y_, (since the angles

O_x_B, O_y_B are right, see Euc. 31. 3.) therefore O_x_B_y_ is a

quadrilateral inscribed in a circle described on OB as a diameter,

and the angle _y_O_x_ at the circumference stands upon an arc

whose chord is _xy_. Again, if from _a_ we draw _ad_ perpendicular

to C_c_, it will be the sine of the arc _ac_ (= AB + BC). If now

we describe a circle on _a_O as diameter, it will pass through

_d_, (see Euc. 31. 3.) therefore _ad_ is the chord of an arc on

which the angle _a_O_c_ stands in the circle described on _a_O.

But in equal circles the chords of arcs on which equal angles at

the centres or circumferences stand are equal; (see Euc. 26. and

29. 3.) hence _xy_ = _ad_ = sin(AB + BC). Now sine O_x_B_y_ is a

quadrilateral inscribed in the circle described on OB as diameter,

we shall have (Euc. D. 6.)

OB · xy = Bx · Oy + By · Ox = sinAB · cosCB + sinCB · cosAB.

If OB be denoted by r, we shall have xy, or

sin(AB + BC) = (sinAB · cosCB + sinCB · cosAB)/r.

If AB = A, BC = B, and the radius r = 1,

sin(A + B) = sinA · CosB + sinB · cosA;

which is the known formula for the sine of the sum of two arcs, to

the radius 1.

Again, if through O we draw the diameter DE perpendicular to A_a_,

then will DC be the complement of (AB + BC). Draw C_p_, the sine of

DC = cos(AB + BC). Through B draw the diameter B_b_; from _b_, draw

the sines _bz_, _br_, of the arcs _bc_, _b_E respectively, and join

_z_, _r_. Then by describing two circles, one on _b_O as diameter,

the other on OC, it may be proved as before that the circle

described on _b_O passes through the points _z_ and _r_, and that

the circle described on CO passes through _p_: and hence, by the

same reasoning as before, _zr_ = C_p_ = cos(AB + BC). Now O_bzr_

being a quadrilateral inscribed in the circle described on _b_O, we

have (by the prop. before cited)

bO · zr + Or · bz = br · Oz;

and hence bO · zr = br · Oz - Or · bz.

But _br_ = sine arc _b_E = sine arc BD; and since BD is the

complement of AB, _br_ = cosAB. In like manner O_z_ = cosBC, O_r_ =

sinAB, and _bz_ = sinBC; hence by substitution,

bO · zr = cosAB · cosBC - sinAB · sinBC.

By using the same notation as before, we have

cos(A + B) = (cosA · cosB - sinA · sinB)/r

= (if r = 1) cosA · cosB - sinA · sinB,

which is the known formula for the cosine of the sum of two arcs.

The same construction will answer for the two remaining cases: for

if we suppose that _b_E and _bc_ are two arcs, then will _c_E be

their difference, and _zr_ the sine of _c_E, as proved above; hence

zr (= sin(bE - bc)) = (br · Oz - Or · bz)/bO.

But _br_ = sin_b_E, and O_r_ = its cosine; and _bz_ = sine _bc_,

and O_z_ = its cos., hence if _b_E be denoted by _a_, _bc_ by _b_,

and O_b_ as before, then will

sin(a - b) = (sina · cosb - sinb · cosa)/r

= (if r = 1) sina · cosb - sinb · cosa.

Again, AB + BC is the complement of DC or _c_E; hence by the first

part of the above investigation,

xy = sin(AB + BC) = coscE:

but xy or sin(A + B) = cos(a - b) = (sinA · cosB + sinB · cosA)/r;

and as sinA or AB = cosBD = cos_b_E, O_x_ = cosA or AB = sinBD =

sin_b_E, B_y_ = _bz_ = sin_bc_, and O_y_ = O_z_ = cos_bc_, we

shall have, by substitution,

cos(a - b) = (cosa · cosb + sina · sinb)/r,

= (if r = 1) cosa · cosb + sina · sinb.

From what has been said it appears, that if A and B be any two

arcs, of which A is the greatest, then

Sin(A ± B) = (sinA · cosB ± sinB · cosA)/r;

Cos(A ± B) = (cosA · cosB ∓ sinA · sinB)/r.

When the radius _r_ is supposed = 1, the denominators in these

formulæ disappear. In the latter, A and B are used for _a_ and _b_,

for the sake of homogeneity. The propriety of this is manifest; for

as _a_ and _b_ denote two indefinite arcs, the same reasoning will

apply to A and B, as to _a_ and _b_, the first being supposed in

each case the greatest.

* * * * *

The following Diophantine Problem was proposed for solution

some months ago in a Periodical Journal, which has since been

discontinued. To those who are interested in speculations of this

nature, we presume that the following solution, forwarded by

Professor STRONG, of Hamilton College, will not be unacceptable.

PROBLEM.

_To find three positive rational Numbers, x, y, and z, such that

x^2 - y, x^2 - z, y^2 - x, and y^2 - z may all be squares._

Assume x - ay for the root of the square x^2 - y:

then x^2 - y = (x - ay)^2, whence x = (a^2y + 1)/2a.

In like manner, by assuming x - bz for the root of the square x^2 - z,

we find z = (2bx - 1)/b^2.

But y^2 - x = y^2 - (a^2y + 1)/2a, (since x = (a^2y + 1)/2a);

and as this is to be made a square, assume y - c((a^2y + 1)/2a)

for its root; whence, by proceeding as before, we find

y = (2a + c^2)/(4ca - a^2c^2).

But x = (a^2y + 1)/2a = (by substituting for y its value)

(a^2 + 2c)/(4ca - c^2a^2).

Again z = (2bx - 1)/b^2 = (by substituting for x its value)

[2b((a^2 + 2c)/(4ca - c^2a^2)) - 1]/b^2; hence

y^2 - z = [((2a + c^2)/(4ca - c^2a^2))^2 × b^2

- 2b((a^2 + 2c)/(4ca - c^2a^2)) + 1]/b^2

(by substituting for y and z their values;) and as this also is

to be made a square, assume for its root (be - 1)/b. Then we shall have

((2a + c^2)/(4ca - c^2a^2))^2 × b^2

- 2b((a^2 + 2c)/(4ca - c^2a^2)) + 1 = (be - 1)^2;

from which, by reduction,

b = 2 × [e(4ca - c^2a^2)^2 - (a^2 + 2c)(4ca - c^2a^2)]

/ [e^2(4ca - c^2a^2)^2 - (2a + c^2)^2].

Hence the values of the required numbers are as follows:

z = (2bx - 1)/b^2,

(in which the value of b is to be found from the last equation,)

x = (a^2 + 2c)/(4ca - c^2a^2), and

y = (2a + c^2)/(4ca - c^2a^2).

The numbers _a_, _c_, and _e_, are to be so assumed that _x_, _y_,

and _z_ may come out positive. If _a_ = 1, _c_ = 2, and _e_ = 2,

then will _x_ = 5/4, _y_ = 3/2, and _z_ = 14/9, which numbers

will be found upon trial to satisfy the question. It may also be

observed that _c_ and _a_ being positive, _ca_ must not exceed 4;

but the form of the above expressions for _x_, _y_, _z_, will be

sufficient to direct us how _a_, _c_, and _e_, are to be assumed.

MISCELLANEOUS.

ART. XXI. _An Account of several Ancient Mounds, and of two Caves,

in East Tennessee, by_ MR. JOHN HENRY KAIN, _of Knoxville_.

(Communicated for the American Journal of Science, &c.)

_Mounds._

On the plantation of Mr. John Kain of Knox county, near the north

bank of the Holston River, 5 miles above its junction with the

French Broad, is a curious collection of mounds of earth, evidently

the work of art, but of an almost antediluvian antiquity, if we may

form any conjecture of their age, from that of the forest which

grows around and upon them. They are about half a dozen in number,

and arise on about half an acre of level ground without any seeming

regularity. They are pyramidal in their shape, or rather sections

of pyramids, whose bases are from 10 to 30 paces in diameter. The

largest one in this group rises about 10 feet above the level

ground, and is remarkably regular in its figure. A perpendicular

section of this mound was made about a year since, but no important

discovery was made. It was found to consist of the surface thrown

up, and contained a good deal of ashes and charcoal.

This group of mounds is surrounded by a ditch, which can be

distinctly traced on three sides, and enclosing besides the mounds,

several acres of ground. It is like the mounds covered with trees,

which grow in it and about it. At every angle of this ditch, it

sweeps out into a semicircle, and it appears in many respects well

calculated for defence.

There are many other mounds of the same form in Tennessee. At the

junction of the French Broad with the Holston, there is one in

which human bones are said to have been found. Farther up French

Broad, near Newport, is a very large mound. It reposes on a very

level and extensive plain, and is itself the largest I ever saw. It

is thirty feet high, and its base covers half an acre of ground.

As it ascends from its base, there is a slight inclination from

a perpendicular on all sides, and the upper surface is as level

as the rest is regular. From the great size of this mound, its

commanding situation, and the mystery which veils its history, it

is a most interesting spot of ground. There are many other mounds

of this description in the State of Tennessee, but I have not

visited them.

Though not immediately connected with this subject, I take the

liberty to subjoin an account of a remarkable cave or grotto, in

a bluff of limestone, on the south bank of the Holston River,

opposite the mounds first described. The bluff is perhaps 100 feet

high and 50 wide. The grotto is a large natural excavation of the

rock, 60 feet high and 30 feet wide. It is very irregular, and to

the very top bears marks of the attrition of waves. The river to

have been so high, must have covered the valley through which it

now winds its quiet way. The excavation gradually diminishes in

size as you proceed backward, till at 100 feet from the entrance,

it terminates. A remarkable projection of the rock divides the

back part into two stories. This grotto, whose walls are hung with

ivy, and the bluff crowned with cedars, and surrounded by an aged

forest, on which the vine clambers most luxuriantly, viewed from

the river which winds slowly around it, and reflects its image, is

more than beautiful: it is even venerable. But what renders it most

interesting to many visitors, is a number of rude paintings, which

were, as tradition reports, left on it by the Cherokee Indians.

These Indians are known to have made this cave a resting-place,

as they passed up and down the River Holston. These paintings

are still distinct, though they have faded somewhat within my

remembrance. They consist of representations of the sun and moon,

of a man, of birds, fishes, &c. They are all of red paint, and

resemble in this respect, the paintings on Paint Rock near the warm

springs.

Much has been said of the objects of curiosity in the country

north of us; and I took the liberty to describe some of them in

my preceding communication. Indeed we may say, without danger of

exaggeration, that the range of Alleghany Mountains presents a

variety of the most curious features, and many objects of beauty

and sublimity. I have noticed a few of the most prominent, but "the

half is not told."

_Extract of a Letter, &c._

_Knoxville, Nov. 24, 1818._

I was on a visit to a friend a few days since, about 30 miles to

the north of this, and was invited by him to visit an interesting

curiosity in the neighbourhood. We crossed the Clynch River where

it is much confined by mountains, and banks as high as mountains.

Our guide conducted us to the foot of a steep declivity, where we

left our horses, and with some difficulty ascended about 70 yards.

Here we came to the mouth of a cave which had been stopped up by a

stone wall. The wall was made of limestone and mortar, which is now

harder than the stone itself. It is, without a doubt, artificial,

for besides the evidence afforded by its structure, it contains

bones and animal remains.

What was this wall built for? There was a tradition among

the inhabitants that it contained money, and they were much

disappointed on opening it, not to find any. Like other caves,

it contains a variety of calcareous concretions, and I obtained

some fine specimens of brown spar, which I will take the first

opportunity to send you.

I remain your Friend,

JOHN H. KAIN.

N. B. This wall is 10 feet thick.

_For the American Journal of Science, &c._

BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, ESQ.

_Dear Sir_,

Should you think the facts detailed in the following statement

worthy of publication, you are at liberty to publish them. The

knowledge of the first, I derived in the year 1802, from a

gentleman and a lady, both inhabitants of the town where the person

whose case is detailed, lived: of the third in 1802, from the same

lady: and of the second in 1802, from a lady, a near relative of

Mrs. S. When the facts were communicated to me, I immediately

committed them to writing, and to avoid mistakes, read what I had

written to the persons communicating them.

I am very respectfully,

Your Friend, and obedient Servant,

BENJAMIN W. DWIGHT.

ART. XXII. _Facts illustrative of the Powers and Operations of the

Human Mind in a Diseased State._

1. Some years ago a farmer of fair character, who resided in an

interior town in New England, sold his farm, with an intention of

purchasing another in a different town. His mind was naturally

of a melancholy cast. Shortly after the sale of his farm, he was

induced to believe that he had sold it for less than its value.

This persuasion brought on dissatisfaction, and eventually a

considerable degree of melancholy. In this situation, one of his

neighbours engaged him to enclose a lot of land, with a post and

rail fence, which he was to commence making the next day. At the

time appointed he went into the field, and began with a beetle and

wedges to split the timber, out of which the posts and rails were

to be prepared. On finishing his day's work, he put his beetle and

wedges into a hollow tree, and went home. Two of his sons had been

at work through the day in a distant part of the same field. On

his return, he directed them to get up early the next morning, to

assist him in making the fence. In the course of the evening he

became delirious, and continued in this situation several years;

when his mental powers were suddenly restored. The first question

which he asked after the return of his reason, was, whether his

sons had brought in the beetle and wedges. He appeared to be wholly

unconscious of the time that had elapsed from the commencement of

his delirium. His sons, apprehensive that any explanations might

induce a return of his disease, simply replied that they had been

unable to find them. He immediately arose from his bed, went into

the field where he had been at work a number of years before, and

found the wedges, and the rings of the beetle, where he had left

them, the beetle itself having mouldered away. During his delirium,

his mind had not been occupied with those subjects with which it

was conversant in health.

2. Mrs. S., an intelligent lady, belonging to a respectable family

in the State of New-York, some years ago undertook a piece of fine

needlework. She devoted her time to it almost constantly for a

number of days. Before she had completed it, she became suddenly

delirious. In this state, without experiencing any material

abatement of her disease, she continued for about seven years; when

her reason was suddenly restored. One of the first questions which

she asked after her reason returned, related to her needlework.

It is a remarkable fact, that during the long continuance of her

delirium she said nothing, so far as was recollected, about her

needlework, nor concerning any such subjects as usually occupied

her attention when in health.

3. A lady in New England, of a respectable family, was for a

considerable period subject to paroxysms of delirium. These

paroxysms came on instantaneously, and after continuing an

indefinite time, went off as suddenly; leaving her mind perfectly

rational. It often happened that when she was engaged in rational

and interesting conversation, she would stop short in the midst

of it, become in a moment entirely delirious, and commence a

conversation on some other subject, not having the remotest

connexion with the previous one, nor would she advert to that

during her delirium. When she became rational again, she would

pursue the same conversation in which she had been engaged during

the lucid interval, beginning where she had left off. To such a

degree was this carried, that she would complete an unfinished

story or sentence, or even an unfinished word. When her next

delirious paroxysm came on, she would continue the conversation

which she had been pursuing in her preceding paroxysm; so that she

appeared as a person might be supposed to do, who had two souls,

each occasionally dormant, and occasionally active, and utterly

ignorant of what the other was doing.

INTELLIGENCE.

ART. XXIII. 1. _Discovery of American Cinnabar and Native Lead._

_Extract of a letter from Dr. Comstock of Hartford, to the Editor._

SIR,

In answer to your inquiry concerning the discovery of sulphuret of

mercury and native lead in this country, I send you the following

summary of a letter I received from B. F. Stickney, Esq. Indian

agent, dated Fort Wayne, Dec. 1, 1818.

Mr. Stickney states, that the situation of Fort Wayne, and the

country surrounding, is a high level, probably about 800 feet

above the sea. From this place the water-courses divide and take

different directions, on the one hand falling into the Gulf of

Mexico, and on the other into the Bay of St. Lawrence. The whole

country is of secondary formation, chiefly calcareous and aluminous.

Bitumen and sulphur are every where to be found, and as usual,

accompanied by the metals.

In speaking of the cinnabar, his words are, "I have found a black

and garnet-coloured sand, in great abundance on the shores of

the Lakes Erie and Michigan, this is a sulphuret of mercury, and

yields about sixty per cent. It is so easy to be obtained, and

in so convenient a form for distillation, that it must become an

important article of commerce."

The native lead was found on the Anglaize River, at a considerable

distance from the fort.

Of this he says, "metallic lead is so interspersed with galena, as

to prove incontestably the existence of native lead."

Respectfully,

Your obedient Servant,

J. L. COMSTOCK.

_Hartford, Conn. Feb. 17, 1819._

_Benjamin Silliman, M. D., &c._

2. _Theoretical views of Professor Hare of Philadelphia._

We are authorized to mention, that Dr. Robert Hare has taught in

his lectures during the last eighteen months, that acid properties

never appearing in the absence of water, this fluid or its elements

are most entitled to be considered as the acidifying principle:

but that probably it does not exist in acids as water, but is

decomposed when added to them, the particles of hydrogen and oxygen

by their different polarities taking opposite sides of those

composing the base. The extrication of hydrogen by the action of

diluted sulphuric acid on iron or zinc, being the consequence of

a previous, not simultaneous decomposition of water. Hence when

sulphuric or nitric acids are so concentrated as to char or ignite,

they are not acids really.

3. _New Work on Chemistry._

Dr. John Gorham of Boston, Professor of Chemistry in Harvard

University, &c. has published the first volume of his Elements of

Chemical Science. The work will be comprised in two volumes, and

its completion will be anticipated with interest by the scientific

public.

4. _Botanical._

Dr. Romer of Zurich, has begun, since 1815, to publish a new

edition of the Systema Vegetabilium of Linnæus; he proceeds in its

publication; it will form several volumes.

Robert Brown of London, is endeavouring to group the natural orders

of plants into natural classes, or rather into larger natural

orders, with determinate characters: he has communicated some parts

of his labour to the botanists of Paris. He has been the first to

employ as a new character in the distinction of natural orders, the

estivation of flowers, or the manner in which they are folded in

the buds.

C. S. Rafinesque, in his Analysis of Nature, has adopted a new

practice, that of giving single substantive Latin names to the

natural orders and families of plants.

Mirbel has proposed a new nomenclature of fruits in his Elements of

Botany.

Decandolle, after publishing the principles of the science in

his Theory of Botany, has begun to undertake a general species

plantarum, according to the natural classification.

Three splendid Floras of the south of Europe have been undertaken.

1. Flora Græca, by Sibthorp and Smith in England. 2. Flora

Lusitanica, by Link and Hoffmansegg in Germany. 3. Flora

Nepolitana, by Tenore in Naples. They are very expensive works, and

are not yet terminated. _Received in January, 1819._

5. _Staurotide._

Extract of a letter to the Editor, from John Torrey, M.D., of

New-York.

[Illustration]

"Mr. Pierce and myself lately found staurotide on the island of

New-York. It occurs in considerable quantity in a rock of _mica

slate_, on the banks of the Hudson, about three and a half miles

from the city. The crystals very seldom form the perfect cross,

though many were found, intersecting each other imperfectly at

angles of 60°. Several single crystals were obtained exceedingly

perfect. They were short 4-sided prisms, with the acute lateral

edges truncated at each extremity on the two solid angles of

the most obtuse lateral edges, forming diedral terminations at

each extremity of the prism. The faces of these terminations were

inclined to each other at an angle of 67° and a few minutes. The

annexed figure shows the form of the crystal."

6. _Supplement to the "Remarks on the Geology and Mineralogy of a

Section of Massachusetts, on Connecticut River, &c." contained in

No. 2, Art. I, of this Journal, by_ E. HITCHCOCK, A. M.

The following minerals, found in the region above named, were

either omitted in the former list, or have been noticed since that

was made out.

_Bog-iron Ore._ In Greenfield and Warwick.

_Hornstone._ Rare; in Deerfield and Conway.

_Silicious Slate._ In rolled pieces, on the banks of Deerfield

river; not abundant.

_Basanite_, or _Lydian Stone_. Same locality.

_Augite._ In an aggregate of greenstone, quartz, and calcareous

spar, in the greenstone range, Deerfield. Colour black, and the

crystals usually imperfect, or broken.

_Staurotide._ In mica slate, Northfield, one mile east of the

village, on the turnpike to Boston. The crystals observed were

six-sided prisms. The same rock contains reddish garnets.

THE LEVERETT RANGE OF GRANITE.

This name is given to a granite range that emerges from the

puddingstone near the centre of Amherst, and extends northerly,

with some interruption, nearly thirty miles, through Leverett

and Montague to Northfield. And, indeed, there is some reason to

suppose that it again appears to the north of Northfield. The range

is widest in Leverett, where its breadth is more than a mile. It

is noticed in the "Remarks," No. 2, Art. I, of this Journal, and

may be seen on the section accompanying that communication. But on

further examination it has been found to be more extensive than was

supposed. The texture of the rock is coarse. Plates of mica, 3 or

4 inches across, are common in it; and one specimen of a beautiful

blue feldspar, the fragment only of a crystal, measured in one

direction 8 inches.

Two circumstances in this range give it an interest in the eye of a

geologist. The one is its proximity to sandstone and puddingstone;

and the other, its small elevation in comparison with the

surrounding rocks of later formations. In some places no other rock

could be found lying between the granite and puddingstone; though

the soil prevented my observing whether there is an actual contact.

But in general there is a stratum of mica slate a few rods wide

between these rocks, and not unfrequently gneiss lies between the

mica slate and granite.

Standing on this range in Leverett, you have on the west, at

about 100 rods distant, a precipitous mountain of sandstone and

puddingstone, five or six hundred feet higher than the granite. On

the east, a mile or two distant, a mountain of sienite gradually

rises to a still greater height than the puddingstone; and on the

southwest, at nearly the same distance, you can see an alluvial

formation. In general this granite does not rise so high as the

adjacent rocks, whether secondary or primitive.

VEINS OF ORE IN THIS GRANITE.

1. _Of Galena in Leverett._

This ore forms a narrow vein in the southwest part of the town,

on land of Moses Smith, two miles from the Congregational

meeting-house. The direction of the vein is nearly north and south,

and where I saw it, only a foot wide. The gangue is sulphate of

barytes.

2. _Of Galena, Copper Pyrites, and Blende._

This vein is a little more than a mile north of the one above

described, and it may be a continuation of the same vein. The

gangue is nearly an equal admixture of sulphate of barytes and

quartz; and galena and sulphuret of copper are disseminated through

it in about the same, that is, equal proportions. The blende, which

is of a yellowish aspect when the fractured crystal is held in a

certain position, appears only occasionally. This vein is several

feet wide, has been wrought to a small extent in two places, and

its direction is nearly north and south. It is on land of Mr. Field.

_Radiated quartz._ In the above vein. A considerable tendency to

crystallization appears at this place, not only in the quartz, but

in the foliated structure of the barytes.

_Brown spar._ In the same place. But little of this mineral was

noticed. It exfoliated before the blowpipe, turned black, and

became magnetic.

3. _Of Specular Oxide of Iron in Montague._

This is found in a partially detached eminence, 100 feet high, near

the north line of Montague, on land of Mr. Taft, a little southwest

from the confluence of Miller's river with the Connecticut. The

whole hill, not less than 100 rods in circumference at its base, is

traversed by numerous veins of this ore; and scarcely a foot of the

rock is to be seen that does not contain these, varying in width

from a mere line to several inches. The principal vein appears on

the top of the hill; and is, as nearly as I could determine, not

less than ten feet wide, lying in a north and south direction. The

ore seems to be abundant, and generally pure. Masses, that have

been separated by blasting, and weighing from 100 to 200 pounds,

lie on the surface. A small proportion of sulphuret of iron was

observed in some specimens. The gangue is quartz, and the walls and

hill granite.

No opinion is here intended to be offered concerning the probable

value of these ores, if worked. If they be useless to the present

generation, they may not be so to some future one, when labour

shall be cheaper; and therefore it was thought to be of some

consequence to point out their localities.

In the remarks, to which this paper is a supplement, _blue quartz_

was inadvertently put down among the minerals found in Deerfield.

I presume it does not exist there. It is also probable that the

variety of garnets found in Conway, is not, as formerly stated, the

melanite.

7. _New Process for Tanning._

A process for effecting the tanning of leather in a neat,

expeditious, and thorough manner, has been discovered by a Mr.

Steel, of Connecticut: some account of it may be given hereafter.

8. _Connexion between Chemistry and Medicine._

This subject has been discussed in an able and interesting manner

by Professor Cooper, of Philadelphia, in a public discourse, which

has now been some months before the public.

9. _Brucite._

A new Species in Mineralogy, discovered by the late Dr. Bruce. We

hope to publish in the next Number a description and analysis of it.

10. _Lithography._

We are promised for our next Number, a full account of this art,

of which we have received a beautiful specimen, _A Minerva_,

executed by Mr. Bates Otis, an ingenious and enterprising artist

of Philadelphia, who, under the patronage of Dr. Samuel Brown, is

preparing to disseminate the productions of his skill, and to make

this important art (executed with American materials,) extensively

useful in this country.

N. B. As this number has already much exceeded its proper size, we

are obliged to suppress many articles of domestic, and all those of

foreign intelligence.

CONCLUSION.

In the prospectus of this work, the expectation was expressed that

each Number would contain from 64 to 80 pages; that as many as

four Numbers might be issued within the year, and engravings were

promised for such subjects as might require them.

The Numbers published, have actually contained from 104 to 132

pages, the four have been issued within a period of ten months, and

twelve copper-plate engravings and several woodcuts, illustrate the

present volume.

Of the subjects proposed in the plan of the work, our pages contain

notices, more or less extensive, of Geology, Mineralogy, Botany,

Zoology, Chemistry, Natural Philosophy, Mathematics, Useful Arts,

Fine Arts, Inventions, Reviews, Biography, and Intelligence. How

far then we have redeemed our pledge, we leave it for our readers

to decide.

In the commencement of an enterprise, for the first time attempted

in this country, an enterprise arduous in its nature and uncertain

in its issue, it will not be doubted that considerable solicitude

was experienced.

To concentrate American efforts in science and the arts, by

furnishing a Journal to record their proceedings, will, in our

view, not only have a direct influence in promoting the honour

and prosperity of the nation as connected with its physical

interests, but will also tend in no small degree to nourish an

enlarged patriotism, by winning the public mind from the odious

asperities of party. That entire success will attend our efforts,

it would perhaps be presumptuous to expect, but we trust that

the interesting previous question, whether such a work can be

adequately sustained, by appropriate materials, may be considered

as now decided. The support which we have received, and for which

we are deeply grateful, has been far beyond our most sanguine

hopes, and has caused us to dispense with no small portion of those

less important efforts of our own, with which we were prepared to

succour our infant undertaking.

If we may be allowed to express a wish relative to the nature of

future communications, it would be, that those of a scientific

nature should not be diminished, while those relating to the arts,

to agriculture, and to domestic economy, should be increased; we

particularly solicit the communications of practical men, versed in

the useful and ornamental arts, and they will be acceptable should

they not even be clothed in a scientific dress.

Arrangements have been made for the reception of an increased

number of the best European Journals, both from the continent and

from Britain; they have already begun to arrive, and we hope to

give in future numbers, more full details of foreign scientific

intelligence, although it is true that this species of information

has hitherto been stinted, not from poverty of materials, but from

the pressure of original American communications.

* * * * *

In justice to the publishers of this work, we add, that _this

publication is an expensive one_; very heavy advances have been

already made by them, while only a trivial amount has been received

in return. It is hoped, therefore, that subscribers will promptly

remit, _free from postage_, the small stipulated sum, and also make

the required advance for the succeeding volume. This last is not

due till the first number of that volume has been issued, but it

would save postage to remit both sums at once, and thus also it

will be known what subscriptions are continued. In a subscription

so widely dispersed over a large portion of the United States, an

inattention to _punctual payment_, must soon put in hazard the

existence of a work, having otherwise the fairest prospects of

continuance, and we hope of usefulness.

Should this appeal be promptly answered, the first number of

the next volume (already in considerable forwardness,) will be

published in the course of the summer; and should men of ability

continue to furnish communications, and _the public be willing to

pay for the work_, it is our wish to publish future numbers with

greater frequency, and to complete our volumes whenever we are

prepared, without confining ourselves to particular periods of time.

_New-Haven, Conn. May 17, 1819._

POSTSCRIPT.

AMERICAN GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

We have the pleasure to announce, that an American Geological

Society has been recently organized by an association of gentlemen,

residing in various parts of the United States. An Act of

Incorporation, conferring the necessary powers, has been granted by

the Legislature of Connecticut, and farther accounts of the plan

and progress of the Society may be expected in future numbers of

this work.

FOOTNOTES:

[46] See Number 1. page 59.

[47] The proper name of these prairies, and of one of the places

where they are found, being illegible in the MS, we were obliged

to omit those names; we believe however that the sense is not

injured.--_Editor._

[48] Former orthography, _Toghconnuck_ and _Toghconnuc_. That of

the text deviates farther from the _Indian_, but is later and

preferable.

[49] See Map.

[50] If this memoir should ever meet the eye of this amiable

man, I trust he will excuse the notice to which his labours so

justly entitle him. To him we are indebted for a complete science

of crystallography, and for having determined the existence and

limit of species, which mineralogists had not obtained, and

chemists could not determine. He has devoted a long life to the

improvement of science, and it is his praise, that he has preserved

the meekness of religion amidst the most flattering success.

Our scientific countrymen, who have visited Paris, have been

particularly indebted to him; and this notice is, in their behalf,

both the tribute of justice and gratitude.

[51] _Mr. Nuttall_ will excuse me for retaining _my own specific

name_. His knowledge of this plant was derived from my Herbarium,

where he found it under the name of _tripsacum cylindricum, Mich_?

Although it can hardly be the plant of _Michaux_, it was so

considered by the late _Dr. Muhlenberg_, when specimens were first

communicated to him. It remains under this name in his Herbarium,

but is not included in his _work on the grasses_. He left it for me

to describe along with other new and doubtful plants from the south.

[52] This is the specific name found in my Herbarium by _Mr.

Nuttall_, under which it had been previously transmitted to Mr.

Elliott. _Vid._ _Nuttall's North American Genera_, v. I. p. 83.

[53] _Mr. Nuttall_ was probably deceived from having examined the

_spikes_ before they were fully evolved.

[54] Mr. Stephen Elliott has confirmed the description of Aublet,

in his Botany of the Southern States. (Received January, 1818.

_Editor._)

[55] I refer the scientific reader for further particulars to

"_An account of a storm of Salt_, which fell in January, 1803. By

Richard Salisbury, F.R.S. L.S." in the Transactions of the Linnæan

Society of London. Vol. VIII. p. 207-10.

[56] Linnæan Transactions. Vol. VIII. p. 289.

[57] P. 339. Lond. ed.

[58] Maintained by Dr. Mitchill.

[59] My friend, Dr. John Torrey, has favoured me with the following

results of some experiments, which he made at my request upon

the last snow which fell. "A pint and a half of snow water was

reduced by evaporation to a few drops. On testing this with

vegetable blue infusions no alteration of colour took place. It was

afterward evaporated to dryness, and about a quarter of a grain

of a solid residuum was obtained. This was redissolved in a small

quantity of pure rain water, and prussiate of potash added to it,

without occasioning any precipitate. Nitrate of silver produced

a white precipitate so copious, that the solution was thick with

it. Carbonate of soda produced no effect. The transparency of a

solution of muriate of barytes was not disturbed by it. These

experiments prove, that a _free acid_ does not exist in snow water,

but that the muriate exists in it combined with an alkali, which is

most probably soda."

[60] Mr. J. Murray, of London, considers this to be a mistake.

_Free muriatic acid_, and not muriate of soda, he says, will be

found in the recipient.--_Elements of Chemistry._ Part I. p. 212.

Lond. ed. 1818.

[61] That is, in those oaks which grow near the salt water, the

branches that directly face the sea do not attain so great size and

strength as those on the opposite side; this has also been observed

on the south side of Long-Island.

[62] Volney's Travels in Syria and Egypt. Vol. I. p. 48. Perth ed.

[63] Volney's Travels in Syria and Egypt. Vol. I. p. 217.

[64] Darwin's Botanic Garden. P. 256.

[65] To prove that salt is absorbed into land plants growing near

the sea, the following facts, for which I am indebted to my friend,

Dr. D. V. Knevels, are conclusive. The fruit of those cocoa-nut

trees which grow near the seashore in the West-Indies is generally

found to have a saltish taste; and even the milk in the nut is

perceptibly impregnated with it. Those trees on the contrary which

grow in the interior, beyond the influence of salt water, have

their fruit perfectly fresh and sweet.

The same gentleman informs me, that in a plantation of his

father's, in the West-Indies, situated on the seashore, a whole

crop of the cane was rendered unfit for the purpose of making

sugar, in consequence of the great quantity of salt which it had

imbibed.

[66] Journal of Science and the Arts. No. X.

[67] Volney's Travels in Syria and Egypt, Vol. I. p. 167.

[68] On the subject of the Egyptian ophthalmia, it may be asked

"why it does not appear in innumerable other situations, equally

exposed to salt air, as Cape Cod, and the West-India Islands?"

To this it may be replied, that in the production of any disease

whatever, a _predisposing_ state of the system is as necessary as

an _exciting_ cause. This predisposition appears to exist in a

great degree among the Egyptians, and depends upon the nature of

their climate, their habits, and mode of living, all of which have

a tendency to produce _debility_ of the eyes, and thus render them

more susceptible of the impression of those causes which excite

inflammation.

[69] Rush's Medical Observations and Inquiries, Vol. II. p. 132.

[70] Volney's Travels, Vol I. p. 226.

[71] Rush's Observations and Inquiries, Vol. II. p. 133.

[72] This was most remarkably perceived on one occasion, where,

under the idea that possibly chrome might exist in the ores, they

had been intensely heated in a forge along with pearl ashes. The

mass, when lixiviated, gave only a greenish solution, becoming

colourless by nitric acid, and again greenish by an alkali; this

was supposed to be owing to iron and manganese. No metal was

obtained, except a few minute globules of attractable iron, but the

laboratory was filled with white fumes, having the peculiar odour

alluded to.

[73] Several of the facts, we are aware, accord with the properties

of bismuth, between which and tellurium there are several strong

points of resemblance, but a number of other facts appear

irreconcilable with the properties of that metal, and of every

other except tellurium.

[74] Excepting, that the covers ought to be so depressed, as that

their brims may be lower than the bottoms of the interior vessels

over which they are placed respectively. This is necessary to

prevent the gas from escaping, ere it have access to the surface of

the fluid beneath those bottoms.

[75] The apparatus may also be made of glass bottles, duly

proportioned, and cut (truncated) alternately near the shoulder and

near the bottom.

[76] In whose Journal it was ordered to be printed, but, to prevent

delay, it was published, by the Author, in a separate paper, and

forwarded by him to the Editor of this Journal.

[77] Possibly the electric fluid causes decompositions when emitted

from an impalpable point (as in the experiments of Wollaston)

because its repulsive agency is concentred between integral atoms,

in a mode analogous to that here referred to; a filament of water

in the one case, and of wire in the other, being the medium of

discharge.

[78] The conclusions are drawn from experiments made by the

electricity of the Voltaic apparatus.

[79] Especially to Dr. T. P. Jones, and Mr. Rubens Peale, who

remember the suggestion.

[80] See Plate. Fig. 3.

[81] This evidently differs from the common mode of decomposing the

fixed alkalies by galvanism: there the effect depends on electrical

attractions and repulsions--here on the chemical agency of ignited

iron produced _extemporaneously_ in the galvanic circuit: this mode

of operating appears to be new. _Editor._

[82] The glasses may be had by applying to Edw. A. Pearson, No. 71

Cornhill, Boston.

INDEX.

_Accidents_ from fulminating powders, 168.

_Acid_, (sulphuric) lake of, 49, 58

river of, 59.

_Address_ to the people of the Western Country, 203.

_Agates_, 49, 134, 236.

_Alkali_, a new one, 309, 310.

_Alleghany_ mountains, 60.

_Alluvial_ formation, 324.

_Alveolites_, 383.

_Alumine_, pure, 310.

_American_ Geological Society, 442.

_Amianthus_, 55.

_Analcime_, at Deerfield, 134.

_Antigua_, silicious petrifactions of, 56

--geology of, 141.

_Apatite_, 236.

_Apparatus_, improvement on Woolf's, &c., 410.

_Asbestos_, 237, 243.

_Asclepias_ lanceolata, 252.

_Atwater_, (Caleb, Esq.) on prairies, 116

--on Ohio, 207

--on Belmont county, 226

--on winds of the west, 276.

_Augite_, 244, 310.

B.

_Baldwin_, (Dr. William) on Rottböllia, 355.

_Barbuda_, (island of) its geology, 142.

_Barrens_ and Prairies of the West, 116.

_Barrow's_ travels, extract from, 148.

_Barytes_, (sulphat of) 63, 237, 240.

_Basins_, peculiar formation of, 213.

_Battery_, (electrical) of Dr. Dana, 292.

_Beck_, (Dr. John B.) on salt storms, 388.

_Belmont_ county, Ohio, its geology, &c., 227.

_Beryl_ of Haddam, 242.

_Bigelow_, (Prof.) on American climate, 76.

_Blende_, 50.

_Blow-pipe_, compound, priority of discovery and use of, 97.

_Boats_, steam, 8.

_Bodies_, dead, preservation of, 307, 8.

_Bones_, extraction of gelatine from, 170.

_Botany_, American, 5.

_Brace_, (Mr. John J.) on cut-worm, 154

--on minerals of Litchfield county, &c., 350.

_Breccia_ of the Potomack, 216.

_Brest_, experiments at, 174.

_Bridge_, natural, 66, 319.

_Brongniart_ on organized remains, 71

--his address in Paris, 74.

_Brown_, (Dr. Samuel) 147, 439.

_Bruce_, (Dr.) 3, 37, 255, 299, 439.

_Bufo_ cornuta, 265.

_Burial_ ground of the Aborigines, 108.

_Burrstone_ of Indiana, 132.

C.

_Cabinet_ of Col. Gibbs, 6

--of B. D. Perkins and Dr. Bruce, 37.

_Calendar_, floral, of United States, 76

--near Philadelphia, 77

--of Plainfield, 255

--of Deerfield, 359.

_Calorimotor_ of Prof. Hare, 413.

_Calton_ hill, its structure, 230.

_Carbonats_, hard, of lime, 63

--of magnesia, pulverulent, at Hoboken, 54

--crystallized, 142.

_Cave_, Wier's, 59, 64, 317

--in Mount Toby, 111

--at Corydon, with Epsom salt, 133.

_Caves_, in Tennessee, 429.

_Chabasie_, at Deerfield, 49, 134.

_Chalcedony_ in silicious wood, 57,

at Deerfield and East Haven, 134.

_Characters_ of minerals, 43-45.

_Cinnabar_, in Michigan, 433.

_Clays_, porcelain, 57, 58, 242.

_Cleaveland_, (Prof.) Review of his mineralogy, 35

--notice of, 308.

_Coal_ mines of Virginia, 125

--of Tennessee, 63

--of Ohio, 239

--of Connecticut, _ibid._ and 240.

_College_, (Medical) of Ohio, 311.

_Coluber_ trivittata, &c., 260-262.

_Comstock_, (Dr.) 433.

_Cooper_, (Prof. Thomas) 439.

_Copal_, identity of, with amber, 307.

_Copper-head_ snake, 84.

_Copper_, native, 55.

_Cornelius_, (Rev. Elias) 59, 214, 317.

_Crotali_, 263.

_Cumberland_ mountain, 221-223.

_Cut-worm_, 154.

_Cuvier's_ geology, 68.

_Cylactis_, &c., 377.

D.

_Dana_, (Dr. J. F.) on electrical battery, 292

--on Myrica cerifera, 293

--on flame, 301.

_Deerfield_, Floral Calendar of, 359.

_Delirium_, intermissions of, 431.

_Dewey_, (Prof. Chester) his sketch, &c., 337.

_Diplocea_ barbata, 252.

_Disruption_ of the ground at Deerfield, 286.

_Distillation_ of seawater, 172.

_Doolittle_, (Mr. Isaac) on gelatine, 170.

_Drake_, (Dr. Daniel) and others, 206.

_Dust_, atmospherical, 397.

_Dwight_, (Dr. B. W.) on delirium, 431.

E.

_Earthquakes_ of 1811 and 1812, 93.

_Eaton_, (Mr. Amos) on New-England geology, 69

--on Southampton level, 136.

_Elliott_ (Stephen, Esq.) 5.

_Engine_, (Steam) its importance, 7.

_Exoglossum_ (a freshwater fish) 155.

F.

_Falls_ in Connecticut river, 111.

_Favosites_, 389.

_Fish_, impressions of, 110.

_Fisher_, (Prof.) his essay, &c., 9, 179.

_Flame_, how affected by steam, &c., 401.

_Flint_, 225.

_Floral_ calendar of the United States, 76

--Plainfield, 254

--Deerfield, 359.

_Floerkea_, genus, 373.

_Fluor_ Spar, 49-52.

G.

_Galvanism_, Dr. Hare's discovery in, 413.

_Gambold_, (Mrs.) on the Cherokee plants, 245.

_Gas_, (Oxygen) respiration of, 95.

_Gases_, (Inflammable) in Ohio, 49.

_Guadaloupe_, minerals from, 237.

_Gelatine_, how obtained from bones in Paris, 170.

_Geological_ society, (American) 442.

_Geology_ and mineralogy of Virginia, &c., 50, 317

--New-England, index of, 59

--Deerfield and vicinity, 107

--Indiana, 131

--Antigua, &c., 140

--introduction to the study of, 50.

_Gibbs_, (Col. George) on gunpowder, 87

--on light and magnetism, 89, 207

--on tourmalines, &c., 346.

_Gill_, (Mr. Thomas) his new lamp, 207.

_Gnaphalium_, new species of, 380.

_Gneiss_, 339.

_Gorham_, (Prof. John) elements of chemistry, 434.

_Granite_, 237, 339, 437.

_Grammer_, (Mr. John) on coal mines of Virginia, 125.

_Graphite_, 237.

_Grindstones_, 62.

_Gunpowder_, its force, how increased, 87.

_Gypsum_, 62, 211, 245.

H.

_Hard_ carbonate of lime, 63.

_Hare_, (Dr. Robert) his blow-pipe, 97

--on Woulfe's apparatus, 411

--his calorimotor, 413

--theoretical views, 434.

_Harrodsburg_ salts, analysis of, 403.

_Hayden_, (Dr. H. H.) on new minerals, 244, 306.

_Heat_ and light, new mode of producing, 91.

_Herpetology_, Thomas Say on, 256.

_Hitchcock_, (Mr. Ed.) on Deerfield, &c., 105

--disruption, 286

--supplement, 426.

_Hoboken_, carbonate of magnesia at, 54.

_Hematite_, brown, 236.

_Hornstones_, 62, 225.

I.

_Ice_, (Greenland) 101.

_Indiana_, geology of, 131.

_Insect_, destructive, 328.

_Intelligence_, botanical, 435.

_Iron_ ores, 50, 62, 438.

_Ives_, (Prof. Eli) on limosella, 74

--asclepias, 252

--the potato, 297

--gnaphalium, 380.

J.

_Java_, river and lake of sulphuric acid in, 58, 59.

_Jameson_, (Prof.) his additions to Cuvier, 69.

_Jasper_, 62, 236.

_Journals_, scientific, 1-3

--of vegetation, 76, 77, 255, 359.

K.

_Kain_, (Mr. John H.) on geology, &c., 60

--mounds and caves, 428-430.

L.

_Lane_, (Ephraim) his mine, 316.

_Lamp_ without flame, 207.

_Lead_ ore, 53, 63

--native, in Michigan, 434.

_Light_, connexion between, and magnetism, 89, 207

--and heat, new mode of producing, 91.

_Lime_, augments the force of gunpowder, 87.

_Limestone_, with shells, 61

--carbonates of, 63, 131, 237, 241, 307, 341.

_Limosella_, description of, 74.

_Lithia_, a new alkali, 309.

_Lithography_, art of, 439.

_Localities_, (American) of minerals, 49.

M.

_Maclure_, (William, Esq.) his geological survey, 37

--map, 61

--on geology, 209.

_Magnesia_, sulphat of, 49

--carbonat, 49, 54, 236

--of hydrate, 55.

_Magnetic_, iron mine of, 89.

_Magnetism_ and light, their connexion, 89.

_Malachite_, compact, 236.

_Manganese_, 50.

_Marten_, new species of, 82.

_Matches_ kindling without fire, 308.

_Mercury_, fulminating explosion of, 168.

_Metal_, new, 310.

_Meteors_, theory of, 266.

_Mica_, plumose, 50

--of Porto Rico, 237

--of slate, 339.

_Mill_ stones, 62, 132.

_Mineralogy_, elementary works on, 38.

_Minerals_ of Deerfield, &c., 112

--of Indiana, &c., 132

--of Southampton level, 136

--silicious, 224

--localities, by Rev. Mr. Schaeffer, 237

--American collections, of, 310.

_Mineral_ springs, 66.

_Mind_, human, its operations in a diseased state, 431.

_Mitchill_, (Dr. S. L.) 37, 55

--his edition of Cuvier, 68.

_Molybdena_, 50, 238, 242.

_Morey_, (Samuel) his fire apparatus, 91

--steam engine, 162.

_Mounds_, ancient, 322, 428.

_Mountains_, Alleghany, 60.

_Mustela_ vulpina, 82.

_Myosurus_ Shortii, 379.

_Myrica_ cerifera, analysis of, 294.

N.

_Native_ copper, near New-Haven, 55

--sulphur of Java, 58

--237.

_Natural_ Bridge, 66.

_Necronite_, 306.

_New_ England, its geology, 69.

_Nitrate_ of lime and of potash, 65.

_Nitre_, natural, 321.

_Nomenclature_ of minerals, 45.

_Nugent_, (Dr.) on Antigua, &c., 56, 141.

O.

_Ohio_, notes on, 207

--its medical college, 311.

_Opal_, semi, 225, 237.

_Ophisaurus_ ventralis, 262.

_Organized_ remains, Brongniart on, 71.

_Oxygen_ gas, respiration of, 95.

P.

_Paint_, rock, 77.

_Paris_, porcelain of, 56.

_Paris_, (Dr. John Ayston) on sandstone, 234.

_Passage_, northwest, 101.

_Peat_ of Dutchess county, 139.

_Peril_, (Mr Pelatiah) 85.

_Perkins_, (Dr. Benjamin) 37.

_Petroleum_, 49.

_Phalæna_ devastator, 154.

_Picture_ of Independence, 200.

_Pierce_, (James, Esq.) on magnesia, 54, 142

--on Staten-Island, 143.

_Plants_ of Cherokee country, 245.

_Plumbago_, 239.

_Pole_, north, attempts to discover the, 101.

_Pomeroy_, (T.) his certificate, 87.

_Porcelain_ and porcelain clays, 57.

_Porter_, (Dr. J.) on vegetation at Plainfield, 254.

_Potato_, Prof. Ives on, 297.

_Powders_, fulminating, 168.

_Prairies_ and barrens of the west, 116, 331.

_Prehnite_, 50, 135.

_Pyrites_, magnetical, 49.

_Pyroxene_, red, 244.

Q.

_Quartz_, 53, 237, 238, 241, 340, 345.

R.

_Ray_ (solar) connexion with magnetism, 90.

_Rafinesque_ (C. S., Esq.) on vegetation, 77

--on mustela vulpina, 83

--on copper-head, 84

--on sponges, 149

--on Xanthium maculatum, 151

--Exoglossum, 155

--on Diplocea barbata, 252

--on discoveries in the West, 311

--on genus Floerkea, 373

--on Cylactis, &c., 377

--on Myosurus shortii, 379

--atmospheric dust, 397.

_Rain_, red, 309.

_Refraction_, (polar) effects on magnetism, 90.

_Respiration_ of oxygen gas, 95.

_Review_ of Cleaveland's Mineralogy, 35.

_Reynolds_ (Dr. W. G.) on meteors, 266.

_Ridge_, (Blue) its geology, 217.

_River_, (White) in Java, 59

--In a cave, 320.

_Rock paint_, 67.

_Rocks_, transition, of East Tennessee, 61

--Of Indiana, 131

--Secondary, 213.

_Rottböllia_, 355.

S.

_Sandstone_, old red, 212

--of the Capitol, Washington, 215

--of Cornwall, England, 234.

_Salt_, its effects on vegetation, 389-391

--on animals, 394.

_Salts_ of Harrodsburg, 403.

_Say_ (Mr. Thomas) on Herpetology, 256

--on zoophytes, &c., 381.

_Schaeffer_, (Rev. F. C.) on peat, 139

--localities, 236.

_Sea-water_, (distilled) 172.

_Seybert_, (Dr. Adam) 37.

_Sienite_, 106.

_Sheldon_ (Wm.) on tanning, &c., 312.

_Silver_, (fulminating) accidents from, 169.

_Sines and Cosines_, formulæ for, 424.

_Slate_, argillaceous, 62, 67, 70, 342.

_Smith_ (Professor E. D.) on earthquakes, &c., 93.

_Soapstone_, 62.

_Society_, (American Geological) 442.

_Southampton level_, 137.

_Spar_, (fluor) 49, 52.

_Sponges_, on Long Island, 149.

_Springs_, saline, 49

--mineral, 66.

_Steam_ decomposed, 92

--engine, 93

--rotatory of S. Morey, 162.

_Stilbite_, 134.

_Stilson_ (Mr. W. B.) on Indiana.

_Storms_, salt, 388.

_Strong's_ (Prof.) mathematical papers, 424.

_Sullivan_ (John S., Esq.) on heat and light, 91

--on steam engines, 157.

_Sulphur_, (native) 237

--springs in Indiana, 133.

T.

_Tabular view_, 46, 134.

_Talc_, fibrous and scaly, 237.

_Tanning_, by means of chesnut wood, 312

--notice of a new mode of, 439.

_Tar_, used to afford light, 92

--to work steam engines, 164.

_Tennessee_, (East) its Geology, &c., 60.

_Temperament_, (Musical) essay on, 9, 176.

_Thorax_, (affection of) relieved by oxygen gas, 95.

_Titanium_, oxyde of, 50, 134, 355.

_Tom_ (Mount) rests on sandstone, 109.

_Torpedoes_ of fulminating silver, 169.

_Torrey_, (Dr. John) on Staurotide, &c., 437.

_Tourmaline_, 237.

_Tourmalines_ of Goshen, &c., Col. Gibbs on, 346.

_Trap_, what it is, 51

--primitive and transition, 212.

_Trumbull_, (Col.) his picture of Independence, 206.

_Tungsten_ and Tellurium, American, 312, 316, 405.

V.

_Vapour_, effects of, on flame, 401.

_Vauquelin_, a new alkali, 310.

_Vegetables_, effects of their combustion, 334.

_Vegetation_, Journals of, 76, 77, 256, 359.

_View_, tabular, 46.

_Virginia_, geology and mineralogy of, &c., 60.

W.

_Wacke_, of aqueous origin, 233

--analysis of, 296.

_Warm_ springs, 66.

_Waterhouse_, (Dr. Benjamin) 37.

_Webster_ (Dr. I. W.) on Calton Hill, 230

--letter from, 243

--on wacke, 296

--his lectures, 304

--cabinet, 305.

_Wells_ (Mr. R. W.) on Prairies, &c., 331

--of Columbia affected by earthquakes, 93.

_Western_ Museum Society, 203.

_Williams_, (Dr. Stephen) his calendar, &c., 359.

_Williamstown_, its geology, &c., 337.

_Winds_ of the West, 276.

_Wood_, petrifactions of, 50-56

--chesnut applied to tanning, 313.

_Woolf's_ apparatus, substitute for, 410.

_Works_ (elementary) on mineralogy, 38.

X.

_Xanthium_ maculatum, 151.

Z.

_Zoology_, American, 5

--fossil, 381.

_Zoophytes_, &c., 381.

TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE

Four illustrations have been moved from their book location to be

close to the text describing them. One from page 289 to p293;

another from p413 to p337; another from p414 to p423; another

from p448 to p91.

Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been

corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within

the text and consultation of external sources.

Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text,

and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained. For example,

knifeblade, knife-blade; New England, New-England; carbonat, carbonate;

musqueto; illy; chesnut; connexion.

Pg 2, 'these scources' replaced by 'these sources'.

Pg 13, 'arch AGN .. VA' replaced by 'arc AGN..VA'.

Pg 14, 'Vth A´D´G' replaced by 'Vth A´D´G´'.

Pg 39, 'sooner, in might' replaced by 'sooner, it might'.

Pg 50, 'are two limited' replaced by 'are too limited'.

Pg 51, 'importance usally' replaced by 'importance usually'.

Pg 58, 'shall be acertained' replaced by 'shall be ascertained'.

Pg 60, 'Geology of the the' replaced by 'Geology of the'.

Pg 77, '20th of Ferbuary' replaced by '20th of February'.

Pg 90, 'than elswhere;' replaced by 'than elsewhere;'.

Pg 91, 'convenient mothod' replaced by 'convenient method'.

Pg 94, 'heretofore peccolated' replaced by 'heretofore percolated'.

Pg 104 Footnote [16], 'by inadventence' replaced by 'by inadvertence'.

Pg 108, 'aud three feet' replaced by 'and three feet'.

Pg 113, 'Some has' replaced by 'Some have'.

Pg 133, 'tress; insects' replaced by 'trees; insects'.

Pg 138, 'three huudred feet' replaced by 'three hundred feet'.

Pg 147, 'quantitites of sandrock' replaced by 'quantities of sandrock'.

Pg 149, 'is is not a proper' replaced by 'is not a proper'.

Pg 158, Illustration caption, 'P. IV' replaced by 'Pl. IV'.

Pg 171, 'much of the gelantine' replaced by 'much of the gelatine'.

Pg 173, 'empyxeuma arising' replaced by 'empyreuma arising'.

Pg 204, 'unknown to to all' replaced by 'unknown to all'.

Pg 238, 'Honsatonuck River' replaced by 'Housatonick River'.

Pg 247, 'Inis, low' replaced by 'Iris, low'.

Pg 249, 'Yacca filamentosa' replaced by 'Yucca filamentosa'.

Pg 257, 'eleven apicial' replaced by 'eleven apical'.

Pg 261, 'the tripple series' replaced by 'the triple series'.

Pg 269, 'situation of of the' replaced by 'situation of the'.

Pg 285, 'my own observatiou' replaced by 'my own observation'.

Pg 290, 'thrown purmiscuously' replaced by 'thrown promiscuously'.

Pg 308, 'for sometime made' replaced by 'for some time made'.

Pg 315, 'chrystallography of Haüy' replaced by 'crystallography

of Haüy'.

Pg 315, 'in cold weather.' replaced by 'in cold water.'.

Pg 316, 'common iron pyrytes' replaced by 'common iron pyrites'.

Pg 344, 'regular octaedrons' replaced by 'regular octahedrons'.

Pg 345, 'Hill in Cattskill' replaced by 'Hill in Catskill'.

Pg 346, 'The schorl cruciforn' replaced by 'The schorl cruciform'.

Pg 359, 'Deerfield, Massachuchusetts,' replaced by 'Deerfield,

Massachusetts,'.

Pg 363, 'Humingbirds arrived' replaced by 'Hummingbirds arrived'.

Pg 367, 'American hazle' replaced by 'American hazel'.

Pg 370, 'been unusully warm' replaced by 'been unusually warm'.

Pg 371, 'and mullin' replaced by 'and mullein'.

Pg 409, 'appear irreconcileable' replaced by 'appear irreconcilable'.

Pg 415, 'inerposed agents' replaced by 'interposed agents'.

Pg 416, 'corruscating flame' replaced by 'coruscating flame'.

Pg 429, 'to many visiters' replaced by 'to many visitors'.

Index.

'Diplocœa barbata, 282.' replaced by 'Diplocea barbata, 252.'.

'Localites' replaced by 'Localities'.

'Rafinesque', 'on Diplocœa barbata, 352' replaced by 'on Diplocea

barbata, 252'.

'Slate', '70--342.' replaced by '70, 342.'.

'Torrey' page number '437' added.

End of Project Gutenberg's American Journal of Science, Vol. 1., by Various