of defense, than almost any other member of the animal kingdom. Had it
not been for his superior intellect from the first, he would
undoubtedly have been exterminated long ago. From the earliest time he
has been forced to exercise his ingenuity to make amends for the
natural inferiority he labored under in striving for his food, yet he
has advanced step by step until he has proved his superiority by
subduing all the other creatures of his kingdom, standing to-day
without a rival, his only capable adversary being his fellow man.
There was, of course, a very early prehistoric time, at which he was
forced to procure his food without artificial aid, the Inupash will
tell you; then, as his inventive genius began exercising itself, a
stone with a thong attached was employed to dispatch the game he
sought. The stick sharpened at one end was probably introduced about
the same time, it being the forerunner of the spear, which has proved
as useful for small game as it has for the great brown bear. When the
animal charged, the hunter quickly placed the butt of the spear on the
ground, and the bear, thus coming in contact with the sharpened end,
was pierced and killed. The noose also proved of service for bear and
deer. If hunting the former, a steep bank, where the creature was known
to walk, was chosen and the noose set. On becoming entangled, the bear
in its struggle fell over the bank, where it would hang until dead. The
sling probably never proved very efficacious, as its accuracy for birds
on the wing is too uncertain. It was useful for casting stones into the
ocean to frighten and drive the beluga into the nets set for that
purpose. The "kalimetown" was a far more effective instrument. It was
made of seven small ivory balls, each having a string of deer sinew
attached, the strings being joined at the end by a feather. On being
thrown into a flock of ducks on the wing, any one of the balls striking
a bird would act as a pivot for the others to encircle the victim and
bring it to the ground.
Bone or ivory hooks were used in fishing through the ice, the line
being made from strips of whalebone or spines from the feather of the
gannet. A spear formed from two pieces of bone arranged in the shape of
a V proved effective in capturing fish. The net was of service, not
only for fish and beluga, but also for ptarmigan and foxes. For the
latter, it was set stationary, the hunters remaining hidden in snow
shelters constructed for the occasion. On the approach of a fox, the
men in hiding jumped up and made a noise, and the frightened creature
in its efforts to escape was driven forward into the net. In netting
ptarmigan, the only caution necessary is not to frighten the birds, but
to keep them walking forward slowly. The meshes of the net are large
and of fine sinew; the bird on attempting to pass through, becomes
entangled. On the cliffs, during the summer months, the hand-net on a
pole is a favorite device for capturing the murres, which fly back and
forth among the rocks in immense numbers, making one continuous war
night and day. These methods of hunting are all very old, yet all are
still in use among the Inupash with the exception of that of netting
foxes, the net having been abandoned for the steel trap.
Bows and arrows are of very ancient origin, too remote to trace out
their first introduction. The bow was made from selected pieces of
driftwood, reinforced by strips of whalebone, and bound with deer
sinew. The arrow had two principal forms of head, one of brown flint,
the other of deer horn, much longer than the first and nicked on the
sides, to make it hold in the wounded game. On being struck, an animal
would try to dislodge the arrow, giving the hunter a chance to send a
second one, and so it would continue until a lucky shot proved fatal.
In constructing the flint arrow-heads, two instruments were used, the
"natkenn," a small hammer made preferably from the base of the horn of
a deer where it enters into the bony portion of the skull, and the
"kigleen," a kind of sharpener made from a piece of deer horn, with a
small round piece of ivory overlapping and bound to its upper surface.
A piece of flint being chosen, the man making the arrow-head would
place a deerskin mitten on his left hand, then, placing the flint on
the palm and wrist of the protected hand, would strike the edge of the
flint with the "natkenn" so that small slivers would be detached from
the under surface. The operation would be continued until the flint had
assumed the proper shape, and then the "kigleen" was employed to drive
and make the edge even.
For the horn arrow-heads, deer horns were immersed in hot water, then
straightened and shaped with stone knives. Two pieces of feather,
properly bound at the lower end of the shaft, gave the arrow a rotary
motion as it passed through the air, and insured a greater accuracy. It
is a principle that has been adopted by manufacturers of modern rifle
guns to impart to the projectile a spinning motion in its flight.
The first guns introduced among the Inupash were the old flintlocks,
although this was probably not over thirty-five or forty years ago;
they must have been the flintlocks left over with some trading company,
after the introduction of the percussion caps, that had found their way
this long distance across the country.
"Koonooya" is the name of the villager who was the first to own a
double-barreled shotgun; previous to that he had killed fourteen white,
and two brown bears with his bow and arrow. The older people laugh as
they relate how those standing near the man firing would place their
hands over their ears to deaden the sound, while the little girls
cried, declaring the big noise hurt their ears.
The first knives were of flint, jade and slate; the boring tools of
flint; the adze of jade; hammers were made mostly from jade and wedges
of bone; while flint was used to saw the jade, and the brown variety
was employed for tools. The women's knives were largely of slate, but
sometimes of jade, and their needles of ivory or bone.
Pots were crudely manufactured by mixing clay with heavy-spar that had
been roasted and powdered fine,--called "k[=e]tik," blood from a seal
being added and sometimes the pin-feathers from a bird. Utensils thus
made were less liable to fracture than those formed simply from clay.
Occasionally a flat stone was hollowed out to about the depth of a
frying-pan, and used for a cooking utensil, it having the advantage of
boiling more quickly than the clay vessel over the seal-oil lamp. These
lamps were simply flat stones, hollowed out with the flint instruments
so as to hold oil. A few copper kettles of Russian make found their way
into Tigara from the Diomedes about sixty years back; they were very
expensive and could be afforded by but few. The "Ongootkoots"
frequently broke up these kettles and pounded the copper into knives,
these being the first metal blades known among the Inupash.
[Illustration: AN ELEVATED GRAVE]
Wood shovels, tipped with bone, and picks made from whale jaws, were
employed in cutting sods and excavating the ground for the iglos, and
also for digging pits in the deep snow, back in the valleys, into which
the deer would fall and could then be easily captured.
The first spear heads were of bone or ivory; later on they were nicked
on the sides so as to hold more firmly. Afterward, the heads were made
movable with a line attached, having the advantage of holding crosswise
when driven well in. About one hundred miles east of the village of
Tigara, in the land of the Kivalinyas, a man once darted a beluga, but
becoming entangled in the line he was dragged off into the ocean. The
beluga was afterward killed at the mouth of the Mackenzie River, it
having towed the body considerably more than one thousand miles.
For clothing, deerskins were stretched and scraped with flint
instruments, then dressed with powdered heavy-spar, making the skin
soft and pliable. Fresh skins from the common seal were rolled up and
kept in a warm place until the hair loosened, then stretched and dried,
and afterward scraped and worked until soft. These were employed to
make the upper portions of the summer waterproof boots and shoes. The
skin of the giant seal, treated in the same way, was used for boot
soles, the soles being crimped into shape by biting with the teeth. All
sewing was done with deer or whale sinew, the former being considered
the best. The same methods are yet employed for dressing skins and
making clothing as of old.
Lines for the seal spear, hauling lines for the boat or sled, and all
lashings, are made from the skin of the giant seal, treated as above,
then cut into long strings.
All the stone implements that were formerly in use have been rendered
obsolete by the introduction of iron, and it is now difficult to
procure any of these old reminders of the past.
XV
MUSIC
The Polarites have but two musical instruments, the "ahtooktoora," or
one-string fiddle, and the "calown," or one-headed drum. The latter is
by far the more important, being used on all festive occasions both to
beat time for the dancers and also to accompany the singers.
Many of the songs of these people relate fragments of tradition, while
others deal with a crude mythology. There is yet another class, looked
upon as prayers; some of these are very old, and are highly treasured
by the possessors, being guarded as great secrets. When a father is
about to pass away, he will call his son and impart to him the song as
a legacy. No one else is allowed to be present on such an occasion, it
being regarded in the same solemn light as a dying parent's blessing.
The son in his turn, when he has grown old, and is about ready to take
leave of the world, will impart the song to the next one in line of
inheritance. These heirlooms have descended through families from one
generation to another for an immense length of time. They are supposed
to have a mystic charm and are never sung loud, but are hummed in a low
voice. No outsider is allowed to learn the words or hear the tunes. If
a seal on the ice is very watchful, the hunter that has received such a
legacy will lie still and sing the magic words, at which the animal is
supposed to go to sleep and so be readily approached. The same is said
about the whale; if it has been struck, and there is danger of its
being lost, the initiated will sing the magic words, after which the
whale can be captured.
One song of the first named class relates the experiences of a young
woman. Her parents, who are growing old, are desirous that she should
choose a husband from among the young men of the village. She, refusing
to do so, selects a skull as her lover. Her mother is indignant, and
one day during the daughter's absence accuses her son-in-law of keeping
her awake the previous night by too much whispering. Taking a stick she
thrusts it into the eye socket, then tosses the skull out-of-doors. The
wind rolls it down the beach and far out into the ocean. The daughter,
on returning and finding her lover absent, eagerly inquires where he
is. On going outside the trail of the skull is discovered and followed
to the water. A mouse coming along the trail is killed and, on its
being thrown into the ocean, a path is made visible which leads down
into the shades. There the lover is found; he has grown a new body and
is living with two old women. The young woman is overjoyed at finding
her Orpheus, but he, pointing to the wound in the eye, tells her that
her mother was the cause of it and refuses to return with her. She
mournfully retraces her steps to earth and decides to choose the other
road thence leading to Paradise.
Taking the winding path that ascends toward the sky, she finds that the
scene grows more enchanting as she proceeds. At last she arrives at the
moon, where everything is found to be most beautiful. After viewing the
amazing scene, she expresses a desire to cast her eyes upon the earth
again, but the keeper refuses to open the door. Finally, however, her
earnest pleadings have the desired effect, and he concedes to her
request by opening the door a little. While she is looking down, a
great shout is heard, as the villagers cry out, "There's the new moon!"
One man, taking a cup, tosses water so high that it enters the door of
the moon; at the same time he shouts, "Send me a whale." A second man
does the same, but tosses the water only a short distance, for he has
met with disappointment in his whaling. All these scenes, with the
distinctness of the voices, have the effect of making her homesick to
return to the village. She pleads with the doorkeeper to allow her to
retrace her steps, but he declares that the path has vanished, and that
no one entering the moon can return by the same road. She, becoming
disconsolate, is at last informed that if she will braid a rope long
enough to reach the earth a descent can be made by that means; so she
sets to work and after diligent labor the task is ultimately completed.
As she starts to lower herself, the doorkeeper tells her to keep her
eyes closed until her feet touch the ground, and following his
instructions she at last reaches the earth once more.
XVI
WOODEN FACES
Many families treasure old family portraits--paintings of ancestors who
have rendered themselves famous in one way or another. Such paintings
have their unwritten stories, repeated by word of mouth from one
generation to another, thereby preserving the family history which is
looked back upon with pride by the descendants.
Among the inhabitants of the Arctic regions the same sentiment long ago
prevailed. They had no pencils or paints, neither did they know
anything of the painter's art, so with their stone knives or other rude
tools they carved faces from driftwood, which were hung up in their
homes as mementos of former great men and ancestors. With these faces
were always associated the unwritten stories of the men they
represented, descending by word of mouth from one generation to
another, thereby preserving the family history. Sometimes the accounts
of the deeds these men performed were carved on ivory, thus aiding in
the preservation of their stories.
It is doubtful if these masks were very good likenesses of the
individuals, but they have served their purpose remarkably well. It is
also doubtful if our more civilized artists could have done much better
than these untrained sculptors with the same rude tools and materials
with which they had to work. Sometimes the untutored artist would
create an unsatisfactory face, one rather hideous in its appearance;
then he would declare that he had made the face of Toongna. At other
times faces would be created without any intention of their
representing any particular individual. Such faces were hung up in
homes for the same reason that we adorn our walls with oil paintings or
photographs, simply to look at them. Other large faces were made and
used in the festivities of a feast, but I have never learned that such
faces were looked upon with any degree of superstition, as many have
supposed.
XVII
THE EVOLUTION OF THE COOK
The Arctic cook's necessary tools are first a fire, then a pot and a
spoon or stick, and a piece of seal meat. Judging from tradition, these
must have been known to the first old woman. The forerunner of the
spoon was the "allutok," a name derived from two words, "allukto," to
lick, and "tock," occurring only in the construction of compound words
and having a reference to bringing. The first "allutok" was simply a
small stick like the Chinese chop-stick. It continued in use for a
great many centuries, or to within the past ten or twelve years. Since
then it has been entirely replaced by the modern spoon, which has
retained the same name.
Calling boiled seal meat the first, we will look upon "pooy[=a]" as the
second triumph of the culinary art. I give the recipe for number two.
At the same time, it is doubtful if any of the modern ladies of the
kitchen will care to experiment with its manufacture. The only things
of interest about "pooy[=a]" are its age, the ingredients and style of
its construction, and its one great product (according to the
Inupash)--the first man.
During those very early days, the woman appears not to have washed her
dishes, although she may have spent a great deal of time in the water.
The recipe says: Scrape the old dried dinner from the "allutok" used at
a previous feast of seal meat. To the scrapings add a small pinch of
the tender pin feathers of a bird. The two ingredients are to be mixed,
then masticated until metamorphosed into chewing-gum.
There were no clocks or watches in those early days, so the Polar man's
first mother had lots of time. After a few centuries had passed, some
genius invented a new form of chewing-gum called "[=a]noon." It appears
to have been the third triumph in the culinary line. Seal oil is
boiled; the upper portion being poured off, the thick sediment
remaining is again boiled until it becomes black and nearly burnt, when
it is ready for chewing. The use of this is said to shorten time
considerably, but the mass does not look inviting.
"Keveh," made by warming deer tallow, then beating it into a light mass
with salmon berries, was the fourth innovation, and "ahkootoo," the
fifth. "Ahkootoo" is made from deer marrow, mixed with whale oil, a
small amount of soup from boiled deer meat and also some of the meat
cut fine. The mass is to be beaten until it becomes quite light. It is
an article of food very highly esteemed by the Inupash.
These remained the only dishes known to the cook for a vast length of
time, but I take it that much meat and fish were devoured raw. On the
first introduction of flour, the people did not care for it, but about
1890 they learned the art of making "nookpowras," flour mixed with a
small amount of water, then dropped into boiling seal or whale oil.
"Nookpowras" proved quite popular, and flour became a demand.
A few years back instructions were begun among the young people at
Tigara in the simple art of cooking. At first the girls viewed it in
the line of a novelty, but when they noticed the eligible young men
picking out the cooks for their wives, it was astonishing to see what
zeal all the marriageable girls suddenly developed. As soon as they had
learned to turn a slapjack, or to make a cup of coffee, they would, on
returning to their homes in the evening, pass around among the young
men, bragging of what good cooks they were; or if a whale ship was
sighted, off would scamper the cooks, anxious to be the first on board,
invariably hunting up the cooks' galley, where they introduced
themselves as cooks, seeming to feel that there should be a
professional bond of sympathy between them.
It was not alone in cooking that instructions were given, but also in
the art of sewing; simple cutting was taught and the making of such
things as towels, snow shirts and trousers.
At one time the young tribal princess and her companion were under
instruction. They tried to excel all previous apprentices in various
ways. No sooner would the breakfast dishes be through with than the
girls would disappear out-of-doors. On searching for them, they would
be found in some secluded corner playing housekeeping; or, if a
doctor's patient came along, after his departure they would prescribe
small powders of flour for each other. When the time came for them to
receive instruction in sewing, they were set to making woolen trousers.
A great amount of whispering and tittering went on; then when the work
was brought for inspection it was found that, as before these girls had
tried to excel all previous attempts. They had procured some bright
pieces of calico with which they had trimmed the garments in a style
the princess thought quite pretty. Fancy trousers immediately became
the rage among the villagers. One young man of dudish propensities came
out with a pair that had been worked in rings of various colors down
each leg, while his competitor introduced knee breeches made from fancy
bed ticking, heavily frilled at the knees and fancily embroidered in
bright colors. The village belles, not to be outdone by the young men,
discarded the old bone fish-hooks they had been wearing for ear jewelry
and adopted the more natty safety-pin, at the same time making for
themselves pretty waist belts with can-openers for danglers, and also
giving their cloaks a liberal supply of the same.
It was the beginning of a new era among the people. They were awaking
from the long sleep they had been taking, ever since the beginning of
the Polar race. Old ways that had been followed from the most remote
time were to give way to the new conditions that were advancing, and
would ultimately end in the improvement and benefit of the people.
The art of cooking has now greatly advanced. Nearly all the young
people understand how to cook. It is doubtful if there is an iglo in
the village that has not one or two cooks. Eating raw meat is pretty
much of the past, its place being filled by bread, slapjacks, soup, and
tea or coffee. Nearly all the young people can make their own yeast,
and as good a loaf of bread as is to be found anywhere, far surpassing
their instructor. Soap and water, and with them cleanliness, have also
been introduced. If in traveling along the coast one meets with clean
young natives, who ask for a piece of soap, he may know that they are
from Tigara, or have spent a season or two in the village; at least so
say the persons who have had this experience.
XVIII
CHOKARLUKE
Luke occurs frequently as an affix to many nouns, more especially in
the names of individuals, but no one seems able to throw any light on
the meaning of it. If it ever had any, it has been lost. In the
interpretation of the names of individuals, Katuktorluke becomes Lost
Luke; Covewluke, Slop-bucket Luke; Chummerroyluke, Beads-on-the-hair
Luke; Tatke[=a]luke, Moon Luke; and Chokarluke, Whalebone Luke.
Chokarluke was the traditionary strong man of the Polar race. He lived
in the neighborhood of Cape Lisburne, near which place the traveler may
see two large stones that he has been credited with carrying in his
arms and placing in their present position. They were used for the
purpose of stretching his seal lines to dry. He is also credited with
having been a wonderful pedestrian, having had great power of
endurance. At one time the neighbors had killed a whale but were in
danger of losing their prize, the strong ocean current threatening to
carry it away. Chokarluke, happening along, seized the whale by the
tail and lifted it half out of the water and upon the ice, a deed of
strength far surpassing any of our modern strong men's feats and well
earning for him the name of Whalebone Luke.
XIX
INTRODUCTION OF TOBACCO
There is always a pleasure in recording the deeds of great men, and
although they may have been taking their long sleep for many a year,
yet those innovations they introduced still live on. So I take pleasure
in introducing "Nanoona" for the first time, and leave it to the
historian to record his name along with that of "Bobo," the introducer
of roast pork, or to place this story with that of Sir Walter Raleigh's
involuntary bath.
The inhabitants of the Arctic Circle are as fond of their smoke as any
other race of men, but the high price of the first tobacco necessitated
the invention of the small pipe, and also the method of smoking which
is peculiar to the Inupash. The tobacco is first cut fine, then the
bowl of the pipe, which holds about as much as a thirty-two cartridge
shell, has a pellet of fine wood shavings crowded into its base. A
small amount of tobacco is then introduced, about enough to give one or
two puffs, and a piece of tinder being placed at the edge, fire is
struck with a flint and steel. The smoker is now ready to enjoy
himself; he takes a long pull and then tries to swallow the smoke, but
lower down there is an objection; the stomach refuses to be considered
a smoke bag, and, puckering up, does all in its power to repel the
intrusion, while above the act of swallowing is persisted in. At last
the stomach gains the victory and the smoke is expelled, the smoker
coughs, wipes his eyes and puts the pipe away. He has had a good smoke.
[Illustration: NANOONA'S DESCENDANTS]