BULWER, E.L., (_see_ LYTTON.)

BUNYAN, JOHN (1628-1688).--_B._ at Elstow, near Bedford, the _s._ of a

poor tinker, was _ed._ at a free school, after which he worked at his

father's trade. At 17 he was drafted as a soldier in the Civil War, and

served for two years at Newport Pagnell. At 19 he _m._ a pious young

woman, whose only dowry appears to have been two books, the _Plain Man's

Pathway to Heaven_ and the _Practice of Piety_, by which he was

influenced towards a religious life. In his autobiographical book, _Grace

Abounding_, B. describes himself as having led an abandoned life in his

youth; but there appears to be no evidence that he was, outwardly at any

rate, worse than the average of his neighbours: the only serious fault

which he specifies is profanity, others being dancing and bell-ringing.

The overwhelming power of his imagination led him to contemplate acts of

impiety and profanity, and to a vivid realisation of the dangers these

involved. In particular he was harassed by a curiosity in regard to the

"unpardonable sin," and a prepossession that he had already committed it.

He continually heard voices urging him to "sell Christ," and was tortured

by fearful visions. After severe spiritual conflicts he escaped from this

condition, and became an enthusiastic and assured believer. In 1657 he

joined the Baptist Church, began to preach, and in 1660 was committed to

Bedford Jail, at first for three months, but on his refusing to conform,

or to desist from preaching, his confinement was extended with little

interval for a period of nearly 12 years, not always, however, very

rigorous. He supported his family (wife and four children, including a

blind girl) by making tagged laces, and devoted all the time he could

spare from this to studying his few books and writing. During this period

he wrote among other things, _The Holy City_ and _Grace Abounding_. Under

the Declaration of Indulgence he was released in 1672, and became a

licensed preacher. In 1675 the Declaration was cancelled, and he was,

under the Conventicle Act, again imprisoned for six months, during which

he wrote the first part of _The Pilgrim's Progress_, which appeared in

1678, and to which considerable additions were made in subsequent

editions. It was followed by the _Life and Death of Mr. Badman_ (1680),

_The Holy War_ (1682), and the second part of _The Pilgrim's Progress_

(1684). B. was now widely known as a popular preacher and author, and

exercised a wide influence. In 1688 he set out on a journey to mediate

between a father and son, in which he was successful. On the return

journey he was drenched with rain, caught a chill and _d._ in London on

August 31. He is buried in Bunhill Fields. B. has the distinction of

having written, in _The Pilgrim's Progress_, probably the most widely

read book in the English language, and one which has been translated into

more tongues than any book except the Bible. The charm of the work, which

makes it the joy of old and young, learned and ignorant, and of readers

of all possible schools of thought and theology, lies in the interest of

a story in which the intense imagination of the writer makes characters,

incidents, and scenes alike live in that of his readers as things

actually known and remembered by themselves, in its touches of tenderness

and quaint humour, its bursts of heart-moving eloquence, and its pure,

nervous, idiomatic English, Macaulay has said, "Every reader knows the

straight and narrow path as well as he knows a road on which he has been

backwards and forwards a hundred times," and he adds that "In England

during the latter half of the seventeenth century there were only two

minds which possessed the imaginative faculty in a very eminent degree.

One of these minds produced the _Paradise Lost_, the other _The Pilgrim's

Progress_." B. wrote about 60 books and tracts, of which _The Holy War_

ranks next to _The Pilgrim's Progress_ in popularity, while _Grace

Abounding_ is one of the most interesting pieces of biography in

existence.

There are numerous Lives, the most complete being that by Dr. John Brown

of Bedford (1885 new 1888): others are Southey's (1830), on which

Macaulay's _Essay_ is based, Offor (1862), Froude (1880). On _The

Pilgrim's Progress, The People of the Pilgrimage_, by J. Kerr Bain, D.D.

BURCKHARDT, JOHN LEWIS (1784-1817).--Traveller, _b._ at Lausanne and

_ed._ in Germany, came to England in 1806 and wrote his books of travel

in English. He travelled widely in Africa and in Syria, and the adjoining

countries, became a great oriental scholar, and, disguising himself, made

the pilgrimage to Mecca, and obtained access to places not open to

Christians. He wrote accounts of his travels, and a book on Arabic

proverbs. He _d._ of dysentery at Cairo when about to start on a new

journey into the interior of Africa.

BURKE, EDMUND (1729-1797).--Statesman, orator, and political philosopher,

was the _s._ of an attorney in Dublin, where he was _b._ His _f._ was a

Protestant, but his mother, whose maiden name was Nagle, was a Roman

Catholic. He received his early _ed._ at a Quaker school at Ballitore,

and in 1743 proceeded to Trinity Coll., Dublin, where he graduated in

1748. His _f._ wished him to study for the law, and with this object he,

in 1750, went to London and entered the Middle Temple. He, however,

disliked law and spent more time in literary pursuits than in legal

study. In 1756 his first _pub._ work appeared, _A Vindication of Natural

Society_, a satire on the views of Bolingbroke, but so close was the

imitation of that writer's style, and so grave the irony, that its point

as a satire was largely missed. In the same year he _pub._ his famous

treatise _On the Sublime and Beautiful_, which attracted universal

attention, and three years later (1759) he projected with Dodsley the

publisher _The Annual Register_, for which he continued to write the

yearly Survey of Events until 1788. About the same time he was introduced

to W.G. Hamilton (known as Single-speech H.) then about to go to Ireland

as Chief Sec., and accompanied him in the capacity of private sec., in

which he remained for three years. In 1765 he became private sec. to the

Marquis of Rockingham, the Whig statesman, then Prime Minister, who

became his fast friend until his death. At the same time he entered

Parliament as member for Wendover, and began his brilliant career as an

orator and philosophic statesman. The first great subject in which he

interested himself was the controversy with the American colonies, which

soon developed into war and ultimate separation, and in 1769 he _pub._,

in reply to G. Grenville, his pamphlet on _The Present State of the

Nation_. In the same year he purchased the small estate of Gregories near

Beaconsfield. His speeches and writings had now made him famous, and

among other effects had brought about the suggestion that he was the

author of the _Letters of Junius_. It was also about this time that he

became one of the circle which, including Goldsmith, Garrick, etc., had

Johnson for its central luminary. In 1770 appeared _Thoughts on the

Causes of the Present Discontent_, directed against the growth of the

Royal power on the one hand, and of faction on the other. In 1774 he was

elected member for Bristol, and continued so until 1780, when differences

with his constituency on the questions of Irish trade and Catholic

emancipation led to his resignation, after which he sat for Malton until

his final retirement from public life. Under the administration of Lord

North (1770-1782) the American war went on from bad to worse, and it was

in part owing to the splendid oratorical efforts of B. that it was at

last brought to an end. To this period belong two of his most brilliant

performances, his speech on _Conciliation with America_ (1775), and his

_Letter to the Sheriffs of Bristol_ (1777). The fall of North led to

Rockingham being recalled to power, which, however, he held for a few

months only, dying in the end of 1782, during which period B. held the

office of Paymaster of the Forces, and was made a Privy Councillor.

Thereafter he committed the great error of his political life in

supporting Fox in his coalition with North, one of the most flagitious,

as it was to those concerned in it, one of the most fatal, political acts

in our parliamentary history. Under this unhappy combination he continued

to hold during its brief existence the office of Paymaster, and

distinguished himself in connection with Fox's India Bill. The coalition

fell in 1783, and was succeeded by the long administration of Pitt, which

lasted until 1801. B. was accordingly for the remainder of his political

life in opposition. In 1785 he made his great speech on _The Nabob of

Arcot's Debts_, and in the next year (1786) he moved for papers in regard

to the Indian government of Warren Hastings, the consequence of which was

the impeachment of that statesman, which, beginning in 1787, lasted until

1794, and of which B. was the leading promoter. Meanwhile, the events in

France were in progress which led to the Revolution, and culminated in

the death of the King and Queen. By these B. was profoundly moved, and

his _Reflections on the French Revolution_ (1790) electrified England,

and even Europe. Its success was enormous. The same events and the

differences which arose regarding them in the Whig party led to its break

up, to the rupture of B's friendship with Fox, and to his _Appeal from

the New to the Old Whigs_. In 1794 a terrible blow fell upon him in the

loss of his son Richard, to whom he was tenderly attached, and in whom he

saw signs of promise, which were not patent to others, and which in fact

appear to have been non-existent. In the same year the Hastings trial

came to an end. B. felt that his work was done and indeed that he was

worn out; and he took leave of Parliament. The King, whose favour he had

gained by his attitude on the French Revolution, wished to make him Lord

Beaconsfield, but the death of his son had deprived such an honour of all

its attractions, and the only reward he would accept was a pension of

£2500. Even this modest reward for services so transcendent was attacked

by the Duke of Bedford, to whom B. made a crushing reply in the _Letter

to a Noble Lord_ (1796). His last _pub._ was the _Letter on a Regicide

Peace_ (1796), called forth by negotiations for peace with France. When

it appeared the author was dead.

B. was one of the greatest political thinkers whom England has produced,

and all his writings, like his speeches, are characterised by the welding

together of knowledge, thought, and feeling. Unlike most orators he is

more successful as a writer than as a speaker. He rose too far above the

heads of his audience, which the continued splendour of his declamation,

his inordinate copiousness, and his excessive vehemence, often passing

into fury, at length wearied, and even disgusted: but in his writings are

found some of the grandest examples of a fervid and richly elaborated

eloquence. Though he was never admitted to the Cabinet, he guided and

influenced largely the policy of his party, while by his efforts in the

direction of economy and order in administration at home, and on behalf

of kindly and just government in India, as well as by his contributions

to political philosophy, he laid his country and indeed the world under

lasting obligations.

There are _Lives_ by Prior (1824 and 1854); J. Morley (1867), and various

ed. of his works have appeared. _Select Works_ by Payne (3 vols.

1874-78).

SUMMARY.--_B._ 1729, _ed._ Trinity Coll., Dublin, enters Middle Temple

1750, _pub._ treatise _On the Sublime and Beautiful_ 1756, became friend

of Rockingham 1765, enters Parliament and engages in American

controversy, _pub._ speech on _Conciliation with America_ 1775, Paymaster

of Forces and P.C. 1782, joined coalition of Fox and North 1782, leads in

prosecution of W. Hastings 1787-94, _pub._ _Reflections on French

Revolution_ 1790 and breaks with Fox party, _pub._ _Letter on a Regicide

Peace_ 1796, _d._ 1797.

BURNET, GILBERT (1643-1715).--Theologian and historian, s. of a Royalist

and Episcopalian lawyer, who became a judge, and of the sister of

Johnston of Warristoun, a leader of the Covenanters, was _b._ in Edin.,

and _ed._ at Aberdeen and at Amsterdam, where he studied Hebrew under a

Rabbi. Returning to Scotland, he was successively Episcopal minister at

Saltoun and Prof. of Divinity in Glasgow (1669), and was then offered,

but declined, a Scotch bishopric. His energetic and bustling character

led him to take an active part in the controversies of the time, and he

endeavoured to bring about a reconciliation between Episcopacy and

Presbytery. Going to London he was in some favour with Charles II., from

whom he received various preferments. His literary reputation was greatly

enhanced by the publication in 1679 of the first vol. of his _History of

the Reformation of the Church of England_, for which he received the

thanks of Parliament, and which was completed by other two vols., in 1682

and 1714. On account of a letter of reproof which he ventured to write to

the King, he lost favour at Court, and the policy pursued by James II.

being very repugnant to him, he betook himself in 1687 to Holland, where

he became one of the advisers of the Prince of Orange. Returning to

England at the Revolution, he was made Bishop of Salisbury, which office

he adorned by liberal views and a zealous discharge of duty. The work by

which his fame is chiefly sustained, his _History of my Own Times_, was,

by his direction, not to be _pub._ until 6 years after his death. It

appeared in 1723. It gives a sketch of the history of the Civil Wars and

Commonwealth, and a detailed account of the immediately succeeding period

down to 1713. While not free from egotism and some party feeling, it is

written with a sincere desire for accuracy and fairness, and it has

largely the authority of an eye-witness. The style, if somewhat lacking

in dignity, is lively and picturesque. Among his other writings are a

_History of the Dukes of Hamilton_, and an _Exposition of the 39

Articles_.

His principal works have been repeatedly printed. Clarendon Press ed. of

_My Own Times_ by Routh (1823 and 1833).

BURNET, THOMAS (1635?-1715).--Theologian and writer on cosmogony, was

_b._ at Croft near Darlington, and _ed._ at Camb., and became Master of

Charterhouse and Clerk of the Closet to William III. His literary fame

rests on his _Telluris Theoria Sacra, or Sacred Theory of the Earth_,

_pub._ about 1692, first in Latin and afterwards in English, a work

which, in absence of all scientific knowledge of the earth's structure,

was necessarily a mere speculative cosmogony. It is written, however,

with much eloquence. Some of the views expressed in another work,

_Archæolgiæ Philosophicæ_, were, however, so unacceptable to contemporary

theologians that he had to resign his post at Court.

BURNS, ROBERT (1759-1796).--Poet, was _b._ near Ayr, the _s._ of William

Burness or Burns, a small farmer, and a man of considerable force of

character and self-culture. His youth was passed in poverty, hardship,

and a degree of severe manual labour which left its traces in a premature

stoop and weakened constitution. He had little regular schooling, and got

much of what education he had from his father, who taught his children

reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, and history, and also wrote for

them "A Manual of Christian Belief." With all his ability and character,

however, the elder B. was consistently unfortunate, and migrated with his

large family from farm to farm without ever being able to improve his

circumstances. In 1781 Robert went to Irvine to become a flax-dresser,

but, as the result of a New Year carousal of the workmen, including

himself, the shop took fire and was burned to the ground. This venture

accordingly came to an end. In 1784 the _f._ died, and B. with his

brother Gilbert made an ineffectual struggle to keep on the farm; failing

in which they removed to Mossgiel, where they maintained an uphill fight

for 4 years. Meanwhile, his love affair with Jean Armour had passed

through its first stage, and the troubles in connection therewith,

combined with the want of success in farming, led him to think of going

to Jamaica as bookkeeper on a plantation. From this he was dissuaded by a

letter from Dr. Thomas Blacklock (_q.v._), and at the suggestion of his

brother _pub._ his poems. This first ed. was brought out at Kilmarnock in

June 1786, and contained much of his best work, including "The Twa Dogs,"

"The Address to the Deil," "Hallowe'en," "The Cottar's Saturday Night,"

"The Mouse," "The Daisy," etc., many of which had been written at

Mossgiel. Copies of this ed. are now extremely scarce, and as much as

£550 has been paid for one. The success of the work was immediate, the

poet's name rang over all Scotland, and he was induced to go to Edin. to

superintend the issue of a new ed. There he was received as an equal by

the brilliant circle of men of letters which the city then

boasted--Dugald Stewart, Robertson, Blair, etc., and was a guest at

aristocratic tables, where he bore himself with unaffected dignity. Here

also Scott, then a boy of 15, saw him and describes him as of "manners

rustic, not clownish. His countenance ... more massive than it looks in

any of the portraits ... a strong expression of shrewdness in his

lineaments; the eye alone indicated the poetical character and

temperament. It was large, and of a dark cast, and literally glowed when

he spoke with feeling or interest." The results of this visit outside of

its immediate and practical object, included some life-long friendships,

among which were those with Lord Glencairn and Mrs. Dunlop. The new ed.

brought him £400. About this time the episode of Highland Mary occurred.

On his return to Ayrshire he renewed his relations with Jean Armour, whom

he ultimately married, took the farm of Ellisland near Dumfries, having

meanwhile taken lessons in the duties of an exciseman, as a line to fall

back upon should farming again prove unsuccessful. At Ellisland his

society was cultivated by the local gentry. And this, together with

literature and his duties in the excise, to which he had been appointed

in 1789, proved too much of a distraction to admit of success on the

farm, which in 1791 he gave up. Meanwhile he was writing at his best, and

in 1790 had produced _Tam o' Shanter_. About this time he was offered and

declined an appointment in London on the staff of the _Star_ newspaper,

and refused to become a candidate for a newly-created Chair of

Agriculture in the Univ. of Edin., although influential friends offered

to support his claims. After giving up his farm he removed to Dumfries.

It was at this time that, being requested to furnish words for _The

Melodies of Scotland_, he responded by contributing over 100 songs, on

which perhaps his claim to immortality chiefly rests, and which placed

him in the front rank of lyric poets. His worldly prospects were now

perhaps better than they had ever been; but he was entering upon the last

and darkest period of his career. He had become soured, and moreover had

alienated many of his best friends by too freely expressing sympathy

with the French Revolution, and the then unpopular advocates of reform at

home. His health began to give way; he became prematurely old, and fell

into fits of despondency; and the habits of intemperance, to which he had

always been more or less addicted, grew upon him. He _d._ on July 21,

1797.

The genius of B. is marked by spontaneity, directness, and sincerity, and

his variety is marvellous, ranging from the tender intensity of some of

his lyrics through the rollicking humour and blazing wit of _Tam o'

Shanter_ to the blistering satire of _Holy Willie's Prayer_ and _The Holy

Fair_. His life is a tragedy, and his character full of flaws. But he

fought at tremendous odds, and as Carlyle in his great Essay says,

"Granted the ship comes into harbour with shrouds and tackle damaged, the

pilot is blameworthy ... but to know _how_ blameworthy, tell us first

whether his voyage has been round the Globe or only to Ramsgate and the

Isle of Dogs."

The books about Burns, his life and writings, are innumerable. Among the

Lives are those by Currie (1800); Allan Cunningham (1834); J.G. Lockhart

(1828), on which is based Carlyle's memorable _Essay_ (which _see_).

Among the famous ed. of the _Poems_ may be mentioned the first

(Kilmarnock 1786), Edin. (1787), and the _Centenary_ (1896), by W.E.

Henley and T.F. Henderson.

SUMMARY.--_B._ 1759, flax-dresser at Irvine 1781, farms at Mossgiel, has

love affair with Jean Armour, _pub._ first ed. of poems 1786, visits

Edin. 1786, goes to Ellisland, became exciseman 1789, _pub._ songs, _c._

1791, _d._ 1797.

BURTON, JOHN HILL (1809-1881).--Historian, was _b._ and _ed._ at

Aberdeen, was in 1831 called to the Bar, but had little practice, and in

1854 was appointed Sec. to the Prison Board of Scotland, and in 1877 a

Commissioner of Prisons. He became at an early period of his life a

contributor to _Blackwood's Magazine_ and other periodicals, and in 1846

_pub._ a life of Hume, which attracted considerable attention, and was

followed by Lives of Lord Lovat and Lord President Forbes. He began his

career as an historian by the publication in 1853 of _History of Scotland

from the Revolution to the Extinction of the last Jacobite Insurrection_,

to which he added (1867-70) _History of Scotland from Agricola's Invasion

to the Revolution_, in 7 vols., thus completing a continuous narrative.

Subsequently he _pub._ a _History of the Reign of Queen Anne_ (1880).

Other works of a lighter kind were _The Book-Hunter_ (1862), and _The

Scot Abroad_ (1864). B.'s historical works display much research and a

spirit of candour and honesty, and have picturesque and spirited

passages, but the style is unequal, and frequently lacks dignity. On the

whole, however, his is regarded as the most generally trustworthy and

valuable history of Scotland at present existing.

BURTON, SIR RICHARD FRANCIS (1821-1890).--Explorer and scholar, _s._ of

an officer in the army, was _b._ at Barham House, Herts, and after a

somewhat desultory education abroad as well as at home, entered upon a

life of travel, adventure, and military and civil service in almost every

quarter of the world, including India, Africa, the nearer East, and North

and South America, in the course of which he mastered 35 languages. As an

official his masterful ways and spirit of adventure frequently brought

him into collision with superior powers, by whom he not seldom considered

himself ill-used. He was the author of upwards of 50 books on a great

variety of subjects, including travels, novels, and translations, among

which are _Personal Narrative of a Journey to Mecca_ (1855), _First

Footprints in East Africa_ (1856), _Lake Regions of Equatorial Africa_

(1860), _The Nile Basin_, a translation and life of Camoens, an

absolutely literal translation of the _Arabian Nights_, with notes and

commentaries, of which his accomplished wife _pub._ an expurgated

edition. Lady B., who was the companion of his travels after 1861, also

wrote books on Syria, Arabia, and other eastern countries, as well as a

life of her husband, a number of whose manuscripts she destroyed.

BURTON, ROBERT (1577-1640).--Miscellaneous writer, _b._ at Lindley,

Leicestershire, and _ed._ at Oxf., took orders, and became Vicar of St.

Thomas, Oxf., 1616, and Rector of Segrave, Leicestershire, 1630. Subject

to depression of spirits, he wrote as an antidote the singular book which

has given him fame. _The Anatomy of Melancholy_, in which he appears

under the name of _Democritus Junior_, was _pub._ in 1621, and had great

popularity. In the words of Warton, "The author's variety of learning,

his quotations from rare and curious books, his pedantry sparkling with

rude wit and shapeless elegance ... have rendered it a repertory of

amusement and information." It has also proved a store-house from which

later authors have not scrupled to draw without acknowledgment. It was a

favourite book of Dr. Johnson. B. was a mathematician and dabbled in

astrology. When not under depression he was an amusing companion, "very

merry, facete, and juvenile," and a person of "great honesty, plain

dealing, and charity."

The best ed. is that of Rev. A.R. Shilleto, with introduction by A.H.

Bullen (3 vols. 1893).

BURY, LADY CHARLOTTE (1775-1861).--Novelist, _dau._ of the 5th Duke of

Argyll, and _m._ first to Col. J. Campbell, and second to Rev. E.J. Bury,

wrote a number of novels--_Flirtation_, _Separation_, _The Divorced_,

etc., but is chiefly remembered in connection with a _Diary illustrative

of the Times of George IV._ (1838), a somewhat scandalous work generally,

and probably correctly, ascribed to her. She also wrote some poems and

two devotional works. She held for some time an appointment in the

household of the Princess of Wales.

BURY, RICHARD DE (1281-1345).--_S._ of Sir Richard Aungerville, _b._ at

Bury St. Edmunds, studied at Oxf., and was a Benedictine monk, became

tutor to Edward III. when Prince of Wales, and Bishop of Durham, and held

many offices of State. He was a patron of learning, and one of the first

English collectors of books, and he wrote his work, _Philobiblon_, in

praise of books, and founded a library at Durham.

BUTLER, JOSEPH (1692-1752).--Theologian, _b._ at Wantage, _s._ of a

Presbyterian linen-draper, was destined for the ministry of that Church,

but in 1714 he decided to enter the Church of England, and went to Oxf.

After holding various other preferments he became rector of the rich

living of Stanhope, Bishop of Bristol (1738), and Bishop of Durham

(1750), and was said to have refused the Primacy. In 1726 he _pub._

_Fifteen Sermons_, and in 1736 _The Analogy of Religion_. These two books

are among the most powerful and original contributions to ethics and

theology which have ever been made. They depend for their effect entirely

upon the force of their reasoning, for they have no graces of style. B.

was an excellent man, and a diligent and conscientious churchman. Though

indifferent to general literature, he had some taste in the fine arts,

especially architecture. B.'s works were ed. by W.E. Gladstone (2 vols.

1896), and there are Lives by Bishop W. Fitzgerald, Spooner (1902), and

others, _see_ also _History of English Thought in 18th Century_, by

Leslie Stephen.

BUTLER, SAMUEL (1612-1680).--Satirist, was the _s._ of a Worcestershire

farmer. In early youth he was page to the Countess of Kent, and

thereafter clerk to various Puritan justices, some of whom are believed

to have suggested characters in _Hudibras_. After the Restoration he

became Sec. to the Lord Pres. of Wales, and about the same time _m._ a

Mrs. Herbert, a widow with a jointure, which, however, was lost. In 1663

the first part of _Hudibras_ was _pub._, and the other two in 1664 and

1668 respectively. This work, which is to a certain extent modelled on

_Don Quixote_, stands at the head of the satirical literature of England,

and for wit and compressed thought has few rivals in any language. It is

directed against the Puritans, and while it holds up to ridicule the

extravagancies into which many of the party ran, it entirely fails to do

justice to their virtues and their services to liberty, civil and

religious. Many of its brilliant couplets have passed into the proverbial

commonplaces of the language, and few who use them have any idea of their

source. Butler, notwithstanding the popularity of his work, was neglected

by the Court, and _d._ in poverty.

Ed. of B.'s works have been issued by Bell (3 vols., 1813), and Johnson

(2 vols., 1893).

BUTLER, SAMUEL (1825-1902).--Miscellaneous writer, _ed._ at Shrewsbury

and Camb., wrote two satirical books, _Erewhon_ (nowhere) (1872), and

_Erewhon Revisited_ (1901). He translated the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_ in

prose, and mooted the theory that the latter was written by a woman.

Other works were _The Fair Haven_, _Life and Habit_, _The Way of all

Flesh_ (a novel) (1903), etc., and some sonnets. He also wrote on the

Sonnets of Shakespeare.

BYRON, GEORGE GORDON, 6TH LORD BYRON (1788-1824).--Poet, was _b._ in

London, the _s._ of Captain John B. and of Catherine Gordon, heiress of

Gight, Aberdeenshire, his second wife, whom he _m._ for her money and,

after squandering it, deserted. He was also the grand-nephew of the 5th,

known as the "wicked" Lord B. From his birth he suffered from a

malformation of the feet, causing a slight lameness, which was a cause of

lifelong misery to him, aggravated by the knowledge that with proper care

it might have been cured. After the departure of his _f._ his mother went

to Aberdeen, where she lived on a small salvage from her fortune. She was

a capricious woman of violent temper, with no fitness for guiding her

volcanic son, and altogether the circumstances of his early life explain,

if they do not excuse, the spirit of revolt which was his lifelong

characteristic. In 1794, on the death of a cousin, he became

heir-presumptive to the title and embarrassed estates of the family, to

which, on the death of his great-uncle in 1798, he succeeded. In 1801 he

was sent to Harrow, where he remained until 1805, when he proceeded to

Trinity Coll., Camb., where he read much history and fiction, lived

extravagantly, and got into debt. Some early verses which he had _pub._

in 1806 were suppressed. They were followed in 1807 by _Hours of

Idleness_, which was savagely attacked in the _Edinburgh Review_. In

reply he sent forth _English Bards and Scotch Reviewers_ (1800), which

created considerable stir and shortly went through 5 ed. Meanwhile, he

had settled at Newstead Abbey, the family seat, where with some of his

cronies he was believed to have indulged in wild and extravagant orgies,

the accounts of which, however, were probably greatly exaggerated. In

1809 he left England, and passing through Spain, went to Greece. During

his absence, which extended over two years, he wrote the first two cantos

of _Childe Harold_, which were _pub._ after his return in 1812, and were

received with acclamation. In his own words, "he awoke one morning and

found himself famous." He followed up his success with some short poems,

_The Corsair_, _Lara_, etc. About the same time began his intimacy with

his future biographer, Thomas Moore (_q.v._), and about 1815 he married

Anne Isabella Milbanke, who had refused him in the previous year, a union

which, owing to the total incompatibility of the parties, and serious

provocations on the part of B., proved unhappy, and was in 1816 dissolved

by a formal deed of separation. The only fruit of it was a _dau._,

Augusta Ada. After this break-up of his domestic life, followed as it was

by the severe censure of society, and by pressure on the part of his

creditors, which led to the sale of his library, B. again left England,

as it turned out, for ever, and, passing through Belgium and up the

Rhine, went to Geneva, afterwards travelling with Shelley through

Switzerland, when he wrote the third canto of _Childe Harold_. He

wintered in Venice, where he formed a connection with Jane Clairmont, the

_dau._ of W. Godwin's second wife (_q.v._). In 1817 he was in Rome,

whence returning to Venice he wrote the fourth canto of _Childe Harold_.

In the same year he sold his ancestral seat of Newstead, and about the

same time _pub._ _Manfred_, _Cain_, and _The Deformed Transformed_. The

first five cantos of _Don Juan_ were written between 1818 and 1820,

during which period he made the acquaintance of the Countess Guiccioli,

whom he persuaded to leave her husband. It was about this time that he

received a visit from Moore, to whom he confided his MS. autobiography,

which Moore, in the exercise of the discretion left to him, burned in

1824. His next move was to Ravenna, where he wrote much, chiefly dramas,

including _Marino Faliero_. In 1821-22 he finished _Don Juan_ at Pisa,

and in the same year he joined with Leigh Hunt in starting a short-lived

newspaper, _The Liberal_, in the first number of which appeared _The

Vision of Judgment_. His last Italian home was Genoa, where he was still

accompanied by the Countess, and where he lived until 1823, when he

offered himself as an ally to the Greek insurgents. In July of that year

he started for Greece, spent some months in Cephalonia waiting for the

Greeks to form some definite plans. In January, 1824, he landed at

Missolonghi, but caught a malarial fever, of which he _d._ on April 19,

1824.

The final position of B. in English literature is probably not yet

settled. It is at present undoubtedly lower than it was in his own

generation. Yet his energy, passion, and power of vivid and

richly-coloured description, together with the interest attaching to his

wayward and unhappy career, must always make him loom large in the

assembly of English writers. He exercised a marked influence on

Continental literature, and his reputation as poet is higher in some

foreign countries than in his own.

Among ed. of the works of B. may be mentioned Murray's (13 vols.

1898-1904). Moore's _Life_ (1830), Lady Blessington's _Conversations with

Lord Byron_ (1834, new, 1894).

SUMMARY.--_B._ 1788, spent childhood in Aberdeen, _ed._ Harrow and Camb.,

_pub._ _English Bards etc._, 1809, _Childe Harold_ first two cantos 1812,

married 1815, separated 1816, owing to this and financial difficulties

leaves England, meets Shelley, _pub._ third canto of _Childe Harold_

1816, fourth canto 1817, writes _Don Juan_ cantos 1-4 1818-20, lives at

various places in Italy 1816-24 with Countess Guiccioli, finished _Don

Juan_ 1822, goes to Greece 1823 to assist insurgents, _d._ 1824.

BYRON, HENRY JAMES (1834-1884).--Dramatist, _b._ at Manchester, entered

the Middle Temple, but soon took to writing for the stage, and produced

many popular burlesques and extravaganzas. He also wrote for periodicals,

and was the first editor of _Fun_. Among his best dramatic pieces are

_Cyril's Success_ (1868), _Our Boys_ (1875), and _The Upper Crust_.

CÆDMON (_d._ 1680).--The first English poet of whom we have any

knowledge. Originally employed as cowherd at the Abbey of Whitby, he

became a singer when somewhat advanced in life. The story of how the gift

of song came to him is given by Bede, how having fallen asleep in the

stable he dreamed that one came to him desiring a song, and on his asking

"What shall I sing?" replied "Sing to me of the beginning of created

things." Therefore he began to sing and, on awaking, remembered his song

and added to it. Thereafter he told what had befallen him to the bailiff

who was over him, who repeated the tale to the Abbess Hilda. She having

called together certain learned and pious persons, C. was brought before

them, told his story, and recited his verses. A part of Scripture was

read to him, which he was asked to turn into verse; and this being done

he was received into the Abbey where, for the rest of his life, he lived

as a monk, and continued to make his holy songs. Much that was formerly

attributed to C. is now held to be of later date. All that is known to be

his is a Northumbrian version of Bede's Latin paraphrases of C.'s first

song: although by some the authorship of "The Dream of the Holy Rood,"

and of a fragment on "The Temptation and Fall of Man" is claimed for him.

_English Literature from Beginning to Norman Conquest_, Stopford Brooke

(1898), and _History of Early English Literature_, by the same (1892).

CAIRD, EDWARD (1835-1908).--Philosopher, younger brother of John C.

(_q.v._), was _b._ at Greenock, and _ed._ at Glasgow and Oxf., where he

became Fellow and Tutor of Merton Coll. In 1866 he was appointed to the

Chair of Moral Philosophy at Glasgow, which he held until 1893, when he

became Master of Balliol Coll., from which he retired in 1907. He has

written _Critical Philosophy of Kant_ (1877), _Hegel_ (1883), _Evolution

of Religion_, _Social Philosophy and Religion of Comte_ (1885),

_Evolution of Theology in the Greek Philosophers_ (1904).

CAIRD, JOHN (1820-1898).--Theologian, _b._, at Greenock, and _ed._ at

Glasgow, entered the Church of Scotland, of which he became one of the

most eloquent preachers. After being a minister in the country and in

Edinburgh, he was translated to Glasgow, becoming in 1862 Prof. of

Divinity in the Univ. of that city, and in 1873 Principal. A sermon on

_Religion in Common Life_, preached before Queen Victoria, made him known

throughout the Protestant world. He wrote an _Introduction to the

Philosophy of Religion_ (1880), and a vol. on _Spinoza_ (1888).

CALAMY, EDMUND (1600-1666).--Puritan Divine, _b._ in London, and _ed._ at

Camb., was one of the principal authors of a famous controversial work

bearing the title _Smectymnuus_, made up of the initials of the various

writers, and _pub._ in 1641 in reply to Bishop Hall's _Divine Right of

Episcopacy_. His other chief work is _The Godly Man's Ark_. A

Presbyterian, he was a supporter of monarchy, and favoured the

Restoration, after which he was offered, but declined, the see of

Coventry and Lichfield. He was a member of the Savoy Conference. The

passing of the Act of Uniformity led to his retiring from ministerial

work. He is said to have _d._ of melancholy caused by the great fire of

London.

CALDERWOOD, DAVID (1575-1650).--Scottish Church historian, belonged to a

good family, and about 1604 became minister of Crailing, Roxburghshire.

Opposing the designs of James VI. for setting up Episcopacy, he was

imprisoned 1617, and afterwards had to betake himself to Holland, where

his controversial work, _Altare Damascenum_, against Episcopacy, was

_pub._ In 1625 he returned to Scotland, and began his great work, _The

Historie of the Kirk of Scotland_, which was _pub._ in an abridged form

(1646). The complete work was printed (1841-49) for the Woodrow Society.

C. became minister of Pencaitland, East Lothian, about 1640, and was one

of those appointed to draw up _The Directory for Public Worship in

Scotland_.

CALVERLEY, CHARLES STUART (1831-1884).--Poet and translator, _s._ of the

Rev. H. Blayds (who assumed the name of Calverley), was _ed._ at Harrow,

Oxf., and Camb. He was called to the Bar in 1865, and appeared to have a

brilliant career before him, when a fall on the ice in 1866 changed him

from a distinguished athlete to a life-long invalid. Brilliant as a

scholar, a musician, and a talker, he is perhaps best known as one of the

greatest of parodists. He _pub._ _Verses and Translations_ (1862), and

_Fly-leaves_ (1872). He also translated _Theocritus_ (1869).

CAMDEN, WILLIAM (1551-1623).--Antiquary and historian, _b._ in London,

and _ed._ at Christ's Hospital, St. Paul's School, and Oxf., was in 1575

appointed Second Master in Westminster School, and Head Master in 1593,

and spent his vacations in travelling over England collecting antiquarian

information. His great work, _Britannia_, was _pub._ in 1586, and at once

brought him fame both at home and abroad. It is a work of vast labour and

erudition, written in elegant Latin. In 1597 C. was made Clarencieux

King-at-Arms which, setting him free from his academic duties, enabled

him to devote more time to his antiquarian and historical labours. His

other principal works are _Annals of the Reign of Elizabeth_ (printed

1615-1623), _Monuments and Inscriptions in Westminster Abbey_ (1600), and

a _coll._ of _Ancient English Historians_. He was buried in Westminster

Abbey. The Camden Society for historical research, founded in 1838, is

named after him.

CAMPBELL, GEORGE (1719-1796).--Theologian and philosopher, was a minister

of the Church of Scotland at Aberdeen, and Principal and Prof. of

Divinity in Marischal Coll. there. His _Dissertation on Miracles_ (1763),

in answer to Hume, was in its day considered a masterly argument, and was

admitted to be so by Hume himself. His other principal works were _The

Philosophy of Rhetoric_ (1776), which is still a standard work, and _A

Translation of the Four Gospels with Notes_.

CAMPBELL, JOHN, 1ST LORD CAMPBELL (1779-1861).--Lawyer and biographer,

_s._ of the minister of Cupar-Fife, had a highly successful career as a

lawyer, and held the offices successively of Solicitor and

Attorney-General, Lord Chancellor of Ireland, Lord Chief Justice, and

Lord Chancellor. His contributions to literature were _Lives of the

Chancellors_ and _Lives of the Chief Justices_. These works, though

deficient in research and accuracy, often unfair in judgments of

character, and loose and diffuse in style, are interesting and full of

information.

CAMPBELL, JOHN FRANCIS (1822-1885).--Celtic scholar, _ed._ at Eton and

Edin., was afterwards Sec. to the Lighthouse Commission. He was an

authority on Celtic folk-lore, and _pub._ _Popular Tales of the West

Highlands_ (4 vols., 1860-62), and various Gaelic texts.

CAMPBELL, LEWIS (1830-1908).--Scholar, _s._ of a naval officer, _ed._ at

Edin., Glasgow, and Oxf., took orders, and was Vicar of Milford, Hants,

until 1863, when he was appointed Prof. of Greek at St. Andrews. He

brought out ed. of Sophocles and other works on the Greek classics, and

in conjunction with E. Abbott _The Life and Letters of Prof. Jowett_

(_q.v._), with whom he had collaborated in editing the _Republic of

Plato_. He also ed. the poems of Thomas Campbell, to whom he was related.

CAMPBELL, THOMAS (1777-1844).--Poet, was the youngest _s._ of Alexander

C., a merchant in Glasgow, where he was _b._ After leaving the Univ. of

that city, where he gained some distinction by his translations from the

Greek, and acting for some time as a tutor, he went to Edin. to study

law, in which, however, he did not make much progress, but gained fame by

producing in 1799, at the age of 21, his principal poem, _The Pleasures

of Hope_. In spite of some of the faults of youth, the vigour of thought

and description, and power of versification displayed in the poem, as

well as its noble feeling for liberty, made it a marvellous performance

for so young a man. His other larger poems are _Gertrude of Wyoming_

(1809), _O'Connor's Child_, and _Theodric_ (1824). It is not, however,

for these that he will be chiefly remembered, but for his patriotic and

war lyrics, _Ye Mariners of England_, _Hohenlinden_, and _The Battle of

the Baltic_, which are imperishable. C. was also distinguished as a

critic, and his _Specimens of the British Poets_ (1819) is prefaced by an

essay which is an important contribution to criticism. C. resided in

London from 1803 until the year of his death, which took place at

Boulogne, whither he had repaired in search of health. In addition to the

works mentioned he wrote various compilations, including _Annals of Great

Britain_, covering part of the reign of George III. In 1805 he received a

Government pension, and he was Lord Rector of Glasgow Univ. 1826-29. He

is buried in Westminster Abbey.

_Life and Letters_, Beattie (1840); Poems, _Aldine_ ed. (1875, new,

1890).

CAMPION, THOMAS (_c._ 1575-1620).--Poet and musician, _b._ at Witham,

Essex, and _ed._ at Camb., and on the Continent, studied law at Gray's

Inn, but discarding it, practised medicine in London. He wrote masques,

and many fine lyrics remarkable for their metrical beauty, of which

"Cherry Ripe" and "Lesbia" are well known. He also wrote _Epigrams_ in

Latin, and _Observations on the Arte of Poesie_ (1602). He composed the

music for most of his songs.

CANNING, GEORGE (1770-1827).--Statesman, was _b._ in London, the _s._ of

a lawyer. He lost his _f._ while still an infant, and was brought up by

an uncle, who sent him to Eton and Oxf. In 1793 he entered Parliament as

a supporter of Pitt, and soon became one of the most brilliant debaters

in the House. After filling various offices, including that of Foreign

Sec., with striking ability, he was in 1827 appointed Prime Minister, but

_d._, deeply mourned by the nation, a few months later. He has a place in

literature as the leading spirit in the _Anti-Jacobin_, a paper started

during the French Revolution, in support of the English Constitution, and

which, with Gifford for ed., had many of the most eminent men of the day

as contributors. C. wrote the _Needy Knife-grinder_, _The Loves of the

Triangles_, parts II. and III., a parody on E. Darwin's _Loves of the

Plants_, _The Progress of Man_, etc. His _coll._ _Poems_ were _pub._

1823.

CAPGRAVE, JOHN (1393-1464).--Historian and theologian, _b._ at Lynn,

became an Augustinian Friar, and at length Provincial of the Order in

England. He studied probably at Camb., visited Rome, and was a client of

Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, whose life he wrote. He was the author of

numerous theological and historical works, some of which are of

considerable importance, including in Latin, _Nova Legenda Angliæ_, _De

Illustribus Henricis_: lives of German Emperors, English Kings, etc., of

the name of Henry, and in English, monotonous and dull, lives of St.

Gilbert and St. Katharine, and a _Chronicle_ reaching to 1417.

CAREW, RICHARD (1555-1620).--Translator and antiquary, a county gentleman

of Cornwall, _ed._ at Oxf., made a translation of the first five cantos

of Tasso's _Jerusalem Delivered_ (1594), more correct than that of

Fairfax. Other works were _A Survey of Cornwall_ (1602), and an _Epistle

concerning the Excellencies of the English Tongue_ (1605).

CAREW, THOMAS (1594?-1639).--Poet, _s._ of Sir Matthew C., was _ed._ at

Oxf., entered the Middle Temple, and was one of the first and best of the

courtly poets who wrote gracefully on light themes of Court life and

gallantry. C.'s poems have often much beauty and even tenderness. His

chief work is _Coelum Britannicum_. He lived the easy and careless life

of a courtier of the day, but is said to have _d._ in a repentant frame.

His poems, consisting chiefly of short lyrics, were _coll._ and _pub._

after his death. One of the most beautiful and best known of his songs is

that beginning "He that loves a rosy cheek."

CAREY, HENRY (_d._ 1743).--Dramatist and song-writer, was believed to be

an illegitimate _s._ of George Savile, Marquis of Halifax. He wrote

innumerable burlesques, farces, songs, etc., often with his own music,

including _Chrononhotonthologos_ (1734), a burlesque on the mouthing

plays of the day, and _The Dragon of Wantley_ (1744?). His poem, _Namby

Pamby_, in ridicule of Ambrose Phillips (_q.v._), added a word to the

language, and his _Sally in our Alley_ is one of our best-known songs.

_God Save the King_ was also claimed for him, but apparently without

reason.

CARLETON, WILLIAM (1794-1869).--Novelist, _s._ of a poor Irish cottar,

_b._ and brought up among the Irish peasantry, acquired an insight into

their ideas and feelings which has never been equalled. His finest work

is in his short stories, collected under the title of _Traits and Stories

of the Irish Peasantry_, of which two series were _pub._ in 1830 and 1832

respectively. He also wrote several longer novels, of which the best is

_Fardorougha the Miser_ (1837), a work of great power. Others are _The

Misfortunes of Barny Branagan_ (1841), _Valentine M'Clutchy_ (1845),

_Rody the Rover_ (1847), _The Squanders of Castle Squander_ (1854), and

_The Evil Eye_. C. received a pension of £200 from Government.

CARLYLE, ALEXANDER (1722-1805).--Autobiographer, _s._ of the Minister of

Cummertrees, Dumfriesshire, was _ed._ at Edin. and Leyden, and entering

the Church became Minister of Inveresk, and was associated with Principal

Robertson as an ecclesiastical leader. He was a man of great ability,

shrewdness, and culture, and the friend of most of the eminent literary

men in Scotland of his day. He left an autobiography in MS., which was

ed. by Hill Burton, and _pub._ in 1860, and which is one of the most

interesting contemporary accounts of his time. His stately appearance

gained for him the name of "Jupiter" C.

CARLYLE, THOMAS (1795-1881).--Historian and essayist, was _b._ at

Ecclefechan in Dumfriesshire. His _f._, James C., was a stonemason, a

man of intellect and strong character, and his mother was, as he said,

"of the fairest descent, that of the pious, the just, and the wise." His

earliest education was received at the parish school of Ecclefechan (the

Entepfuhl of _Sartor Resartus_). Thence he went to the Grammar School of

Annan, and in 1809 to the Univ. of Edin., the 90 miles to which he

travelled on foot. There he read voraciously, his chief study being

mathematics. After completing his "Arts" course, he went on to divinity

with the view of entering the Church, but about the middle of his course

found that he could not proceed. He became a schoolmaster first at Annan

and then at Kirkcaldy, where he formed a profound friendship with Edward

Irving (_q.v._), and met Margaret Gordon, afterwards Lady Bannerman,

believed by some to be the prototype of _Blumine_ in _Sartor_. Returning

in 1819 to Edin. he for a time studied law and took pupils; but his

health was bad, he suffered from insomnia and dyspepsia, and he tired of

law. He was also sorely bestead by mental and spiritual conflicts, which

came to a crisis in Leith Walk in June 1821 in a sudden uprising of

defiance to the devil and all his works, upon which the clouds lifted.

For the next two years, 1822-24, he acted as tutor to Charles Buller

(whose promising political career was cut short by his premature death)

and his brother. On the termination of this engagement he decided upon a

literary career, which he began by contributing articles to the

_Edinburgh Encyclopædia_. In 1824 he translated Legendre's _Geometry_ (to

which he prefixed an essay on Proportion), and Goethe's _Wilhelm

Meister_; he also wrote for the _London Magazine_ a _Life of Schiller_.

About this time he visited Paris and London, where he met Hazlitt,

Campbell, Coleridge, and others. Thereafter he returned to Dumfriesshire.

In the following year (1826) he _m._ Jane Baillie Welsh, and settled in

Edin. Here his first work was _Specimens of German Romance_ (4 vols.) A

much more important matter was his friendship with Jeffrey and his

connection with the _Edinburgh Review_, in which appeared, among others,

his essays on _Richter_, _Burns_, _Characteristics_, and _German Poetry_.

In 1828 C. applied unsuccessfully for the Chair of Moral Philosophy in

St. Andrews, and the same year he went to Craigenputtock, a small

property in Dumfriesshire belonging to Mrs. C., where they remained for

several years, and where many of his best essays and _Sartor Resartus_

were written, and where his correspondence with Goethe began. In 1831 he

went to London to find a publisher for _Sartor_, but was unsuccessful,

and it did not appear in book form until 1838, after having come out in

_Fraser's Magazine_ in 1833-34. The year last mentioned found him finally

in London, settled in Cheyne Row, Chelsea, his abode for the rest of his

life. He immediately set to work on his _French Revolution_. While it was

in progress he in 1835 lent the MS. to J.S. Mill, by whose servant nearly

the whole of the first vol. was burned, in spite of which misfortune the

work was ready for publication in 1837. Its originality, brilliance, and

vividness took the world by storm, and his reputation as one of the

foremost men of letters in the country was at once and finally

established. In the same year he appeared as a public lecturer, and

delivered four courses on _German Literature_, _Periods of European

Culture_, _Revolutions of Modern Europe_, and _Heroes and Hero-Worship_,

the last of which was _pub._ as a book in 1841. Although his writings

did not yet produce a large income, his circumstances had become

comfortable, owing to Mrs. C. having succeeded to her patrimony in 1840.

Books now followed each other rapidly, _Chartism_ had appeared in 1839,

_Past and Present_ came out in 1843, and _Letters and Speeches of Oliver

Cromwell_ in 1845, the last named being perhaps the most successful of

his writings, inasmuch as it fully attained the object aimed at in

clearing Cromwell from the ignorant or malevolent aspersions under which

he had long lain, and giving him his just place among the greatest of the

nation. In 1850 he _pub._ his fiercest blast, _Latter Day Pamphlets_,

which was followed next year by his biography of his friend John Sterling

(_q.v._). It was about this time, as is shown by the _Letters and

Memoirs_ of Mrs. C., that a temporary estrangement arose between his wife

and himself, based apparently on Mrs. C.'s part upon his friendship with

Lady Ashburton, a cause of which C. seems to have been unconscious. In

1851 he began his largest, if not his greatest work, _Frederick the

Great_, which occupied him from that year until 1865, and in connection

with which he made two visits to Germany in 1852 and 1858. It is a work

of astonishing research and abounds in brilliant passages, but lacks the

concentrated intensity of _The French Revolution_. It is, however, the

one of his works which enjoys the highest reputation in Germany. In 1865

he was elected Lord Rector of the Univ. of Edin., and delivered a

remarkable address to the students by whom he was received with

enthusiasm. Almost immediately afterwards a heavy blow fell upon him in

the death of Mrs. C., and in the discovery, from her diary, of how

greatly she had suffered, unknown to him, from the neglect and want of

consideration which, owing to absorption in his work and other causes, he

had perhaps unconsciously shown. Whatever his faults, of which the most

was made in some quarters, there can be no doubt that C. and his wife

were sincerely attached to each other, and that he deeply mourned her. In

1866 his _Reminiscences_ (_pub._ 1881) were written. The Franco-German

War of 1870-71 profoundly interested him, and evoked a plea for Germany.

From this time his health began to give way more and more. In 1872 his

right hand became paralysed. In 1874 he received the distinction of the

Prussian Order of Merit, as the biographer of its founder, and in the

same year, Mr. Disraeli offered him the choice of the Grand Cross of the

Bath or a baronetcy and a pension, all of which he declined. The

completion of his 80th year in 1875 was made the occasion of many

tributes of respect and veneration, including a gold medal from some of

his Scottish admirers. He _d._ on February 5, 1881. Burial in Westminster

Abbey was offered, but he had left instructions that he should lie with

his kindred. He bequeathed the property of Craigenputtock to the Univ. of

Edin.

C. exercised a very powerful influence upon the thought of his age, not

only by his own writings and personality, but through the many men of

distinction both in literature and active life whom he imbued with his

doctrines; and perhaps no better proof of this exists than the fact that

much that was new and original when first propounded by him has passed

into the texture of the national ideas. His style is perhaps the most

remarkable and individual in our literature, intensely strong, vivid,

and picturesque, but utterly unconventional, and often whimsical or

explosive. He had in a high degree the poetic and imaginative faculty,

and also irresistible humour, pungent sarcasm, insight, tenderness, and

fierce indignation.

All the works of C. shed light on his personality, but _Sartor Resartus_

especially may be regarded as autobiographical. Froude's _Thomas Carlyle

... First 40 Years of his Life_ (1882), _Thomas Carlyle ... His Life in

London_, by the same (1884), _Letters and Memories of Jane Welsh Carlyle_

(1883), various _Lives_ and _Reminiscences_ by Prof. Masson and Nichol,

etc.

SUMMARY.--_B._ 1795, _ed._ Edin., studies for Church but gives it up,

tries law, then tutor, takes to literature and writes for encyclopædias

and magazines, and translates, _m._ 1826 Jane Welsh, settles in Edin.,

writes essays in _Edinburgh Review_, goes to Craigenputtock 1828, writes

_Sartor_ and corresponds with Goethe, _Sartor_ appears in _Fraser's

Magazine_ 1833-4, settles in London 1834, _pub._ _French Revolution_

1837, lectures, _pub._ _Heroes_, and _Chartism_ and _Sartor_ as a book

1839, _Past and Present_ 1843, _Oliver Cromwell_ 1845, _Latter Day

Pamphlets_ 1850, writes _Frederick the Great_ 1851-65, Lord Rector of

Edin. Univ. 1865, Mrs. C. _d._ 1865, writes _Reminiscences_ 1866 (_pub._

1881), _d._ 1881.

CARRUTHERS, ROBERT (1799-1878).--Journalist and miscellaneous writer,

_b._ in Dumfriesshire, was for a time a teacher in Huntingdon, and wrote

a _History of Huntingdon_ (1824). In 1828 he became ed. of the _Inverness

Courier_, which he conducted with great ability. He ed. Pope's works with

a memoir (1853), and along with Robert Chambers (_q.v._) ed. the first

ed. of _Chambers's Cyclopedia of English Literature_ (1842-44). He

received the degree of LL.D. from Edin.

CARTE, THOMAS (1686-1754).--Historian, _b._ near Rugby, and _ed._ at

Oxf., took orders, but resigned his benefice at Bath when required to

take the oath of allegiance to George I. He was sec. to Francis Atterbury

(_q.v._), and was involved in the consequences of his conspiracy, but

escaped to France, where he remained until 1728. After his return he

_pub._ a life of the Duke of Ormonde (1736), and a _History of England to

1654_ in 4 vols. (1747-54), the latter a work of great research, though

dry and unattractive in style.

CARTER, ELIZABETH (1717-1806).--Miscellaneous writer, _b._ at Deal,

_dau._ of a clergyman. Originally backward, she applied herself to study

with such perseverance that she became perhaps the most learned

Englishwoman of her time, being mistress of Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and

Arabic, besides several modern European languages. She was also well read

in science. She translated Epictetus 1758, and wrote a small vol. of

poems. She was the friend of Dr. Johnson and many other eminent men. She

was of agreeable and unassuming manners.

CARTWRIGHT, WILLIAM (1611-1643).--Dramatist, _s._ of a gentleman of

Gloucestershire, who had run through his fortune and kept an inn at

Cirencester, _ed._ at Westminster School and Oxf., entered the Church,

was a zealous Royalist, and an eloquent preacher, and lecturer in

metaphysics. He also wrote spirited lyrics and four plays. He was the

friend of Ben Jonson, H. Vaughan, and Izaak Walton. He _d._ at Oxf. of

camp fever. Among his plays are _The Royal Slave_, _The Siege_, and _The

Lady Errant_. His virtues, learning, and charming manners made him highly

popular in his day.

CARY, ALICE (1820-1871), and PHOEBE (1824-1871).--Were the _dau._ of a

farmer near Cincinnati. The former wrote _Clovernook Papers_ and

_Clovernook Children_, and other tales, and some poems. The latter wrote

poems and hymns. Both sisters attained considerable popularity.

CARY, HENRY FRANCIS (1772-1844).--Translator, was _b._ at Gibraltar, and

_ed._ at Oxf., where he was distinguished for his classical attainments.

His great work is his translation of the _Divina Commedia_ of Dante

(1805-1814), which is not only faithful to the original, but full of

poetic fire, and rendered into such fine English as to be itself

literature apart from its merits as a translation. He also translated

from the Greek. C., who was a clergyman, received a pension in 1841.

CATLIN, GEORGE (1796-1872).--Painter and writer, _b._ at Wilkesbarre,

Pennsylvania, practised for some time as a lawyer, but yielding to his

artistic instincts he took to painting. He spent the 7 years, 1832-39,

among the Indians of North America, of whom he painted about 500

portraits. He became thoroughly acquainted with their life, and _pub._ an

interesting work, _Illustrations of the Manners, etc., of the North

American Indians_ (1857). His later years were spent chiefly in Europe.

CAVE, EDWARD (1691-1754).--Publisher, _b._ near Rugby, started in 1731

_The Gentleman's Magazine_, for which Dr. Johnson was parliamentary

reporter from 1740. He _pub._ many of Johnson's works.

CAVENDISH, GEORGE (1500-1561).--Biographer, was Gentleman Usher to

Cardinal Wolsey, to whom he was so much attached that he followed him in

his disgrace, and continued to serve him until his death. He left in MS.

a life of his patron, which is the first separate biography in English,

and is the main original authority of the period. Admitting Wolsey's

faults, it nevertheless presents him in an attractive light. The simple

yet eloquent style gives it a high place as a biography.

CAXTON, WILLIAM (1422-1491).--Printer and translator, _b._ in the Weald

of Kent, was apprenticed to a London mercer. On his master's death in

1441 he went to Bruges, and lived there and in various other places in

the Low Countries for over 30 years, engaged apparently as head of an

association of English merchants trading in foreign parts, and in

negotiating commercial treaties between England and the Dukes of

Burgundy. His first literary labour was a translation of a French

romance, which he entitled _The Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye_, and

which he finished in 1471. About this time he learned the art of

printing, and, after being in the service of Margaret Duchess of

Burgundy, an English princess, returned to his native country and set up

at Westminster in 1476 his printing press, the first in England. His

_Recuyell_ and _The Game and Playe of Chesse_ had already been

printed--the first books in English--on the Continent. Here was produced

the first book printed in England, _The Dictes and Sayings of the

Philosophers_ (1477). C. obtained Royal favour, printed from 80 to 100

separate works--many of them translations of his own--and _d._ almost

with pen in hand in 1491. His style is clear and idiomatic.

CENTLIVRE, MRS. SUSANNA (1667-1723).--Dramatist and actress, was the

_dau._ of a gentleman of the name of either Rawkins or Freeman, who

appears to have belonged either to Lincolnshire or Ireland, or was

perhaps connected with both, and who suffered at the hands of the

Stuarts. She _m._ at 16, lost her husband in a year, then _m._ an

officer, who fell in a duel in 18 months, and finally, in 1706, _m._

Joseph C., cook to Queen Anne, with whom she lived happily for the rest

of her days. She wrote 18 or 19 plays, well constructed and amusing,

among which may be mentioned _The Perjured Husband_ (1700), _The

Busybody_ (1709), _The Warder_ (1714), and _A Bold Stroke for a Wife_

(1717). She was a strong Whig, and sometimes made her plays the medium of

expressing her political opinions.

CHALKHILL, JOHN (_fl._ 1600).--Poet, mentioned by Izaak Walton as having

written a pastoral poem, _Thealma and Clearchus_. As nothing else is

known of him it has been held by some that the name was a _nom-de-plume_

of W. himself. It has been shown, however, that a gentleman of the name

existed during the reign of Elizabeth. W. says he was a friend of

Spenser, and that his life was "useful, quiet, and virtuous."

CHALMERS, GEORGE (1742-1825).--Antiquary, _b._ at Fochabers, Elginshire,

emigrated to America and practised law in Baltimore; but on the outbreak

of the Revolutionary War returned to Britain, and settled in London as a

clerk in the Board of Trade. He _pub._ in 1780 a _History of the United

Colonies_, and wrote lives of Sir David Lyndsay, De Foe, and Mary Queen

of Scots. His great work, however, is his _Caledonia_, of which 3 vols.

had been _pub._ at his death. It was to have been a complete _coll._ of

the topography and antiquities of Scotland; and, as it stands, is a

monument of industry and research, though not always trustworthy in

disputed points. Besides those mentioned, C. was the author of many other

works on political, historical, and literary subjects, and had projected

several which he was unable to carry out.

CHALMERS, THOMAS (1780-1847).--Divine, economist, and philanthropist,

_b._ at Anstruther, Fife, _s._ of a shipowner and merchant, studied at

St. Andrews and, entering the ministry of the Church of Scotland, was

first settled in the small parish of Kilmeny, Fife, but, his talents and

eloquence becoming known, he was, in 1815, translated to Glasgow, where

he was soon recognised as the most eloquent preacher in Scotland, and

where also he initiated his schemes for the management of the poor. In

1823, he became Prof. of Moral Philosophy at St. Andrews, and in 1828 of

Divinity in Edin. In 1834 he began his great scheme of Church extension,

the result of which was that in seven years £300,000 had been raised, and

220 churches built. In the same year, 1834, began the troubles and

controversies in regard to patronage and the relations of Church and

State, which in 1843 ended in the disruption of the Church, when 470

ministers with C. at their head, resigned their benefices, and founded

the Free Church of Scotland. C. was chosen its first Moderator and

Principal of its Theological Coll. in Edin. The remaining four years of

his life were spent in organising the new Church, and in works of

philanthropy. He was found dead in bed on the morning of May 30, 1847.

His chief works, which were _coll._ and _pub._ in 34 vols., relate to

natural theology, evidences of Christianity, political economy, and

general theology and science. Those which perhaps attracted most

attention were his _Astronomical Discourses_ and his _Lectures on Church

Establishments_, the latter delivered in London to audiences containing

all that was most distinguished in rank and intellect in the country. The

style of C. is cumbrous, and often turgid, but the moral earnestness,

imagination, and force of intellect of the writer shine through it and

irradiate his subjects. And yet the written is described by

contemporaries to have been immeasurably surpassed by the spoken word,

which carried away the hearer as in a whirlwind. And the man was even

greater than his achievements. His character was one of singular

simplicity, nobility, and lovableness, and produced a profound impression

on all who came under his influence. The character of his intellect was

notably practical, as is evidenced by the success of his parochial

administration and the "Sustentation Fund," devised by him for the

support of the ministry of the Free Church. He was D.D., LL.D., D.C.L.

(Oxon.), and a Corresponding Member of the Institute of France.

_Memoirs_ (Hanna, 4 vols.). Smaller works by Prof. Blaikie (1897), Mrs.

Oliphant (1893), and many others.

CHAMBERLAYNE, WILLIAM (1619-1689).--Poet, practised medicine at

Shaftesbury. On the outbreak of the Civil War he joined the Royalists and

fought at the second battle of Newbury. He wrote a play, _Loves Victory_

(1658), and an epic _Pharonnida_ (1659). With occasional beauties he is,

in the main, heavy and stiff, and is almost forgotten. He influenced

Keats.

CHAMBERS, ROBERT (1802-1871).--Historical and scientific writer, was _b._

at Peebles. Early dependent on his own exertions, he started business as

a bookseller in Edin. at the age of 16, devoting all his spare time to

study, to such purpose that in 1824 he _pub._ _Traditions of Edinburgh_,

a work in which he had the assistance of Sir W. Scott. Thereafter he

poured forth a continuous stream of books and essays on historical,

social, antiquarian, and scientific subjects. He joined his brother

William (_q.v._) in establishing the publishing firm of W. and R.

Chambers, and in starting _Chambers's Journal_, to which he was a

constant contributor. Later ventures were _The Cyclopedia of English

Literature_ (1842-44), of which several ed. have appeared (last 1903-6).

and _Chambers's Cyclopædia_ (10 vols. 1859-68; new 1888-92). Among his

own works may be mentioned _Vestiges of Creation_, _pub._ anonymously

(1844), a precursor of Darwinism, _A Life of Burns_ (1851), _Popular

Rhymes of Scotland_ (1847), _History of the Rebellions in Scotland_,

_Domestic Annals of Scotland_ (1859-61), _Ancient Sea Margins_ (1848),

_Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen_ and _The Book of Days_ (1863). He was

LL.D. of St. Andrews.

CHAMBERS, WILLIAM (1800-1883).--Publisher and miscellaneous author, _b._

at Peebles, started in 1832 with his brother Robert (_q.v._) _Chambers's

Journal_, and soon after joined him in the firm of W. and R. Chambers.

Besides contributions to the _Journal_ he wrote several books, including

a _History of Peeblesshire_ (1864), and an autobiography of himself and

his brother. C. was a man of great business capacity, and, though of less

literary distinction than his brother, did much for the dissemination of

cheap and useful literature. He was Lord Provost of Edin. 1865-69, and

was an LL.D. of the Univ. of that city. He restored the ancient church of

St. Giles there.

CHAMIER, FREDERICK (1796-1870).--Novelist, was in the navy, in which he

rose to the rank of Captain. Retiring in 1827, he wrote several sea

novels somewhat in the style of Marryat, including _Life of a Sailor_

(1832), _Ben Brace_, _Jack Adams_, and _Tom Bowling_ (1841). He also

continued James's _Naval History_, and wrote books of travel.

CHANNING, WILLIAM ELLERY (1780-1842).--American Divine, _b._ at Newport,

Rhode Island, was for a time a minister in the Congregationalist Church,

but became the leader of the Unitarians in New England. He had a powerful

influence on the thought and literature of his time in America, and was

the author of books on Milton and Fénelon, and on social subjects. The

elevation and amiability of his character caused him to be held in high

esteem. He did not class himself with Unitarians of the school of

Priestley, but claimed to "stand aloof from all but those who strive and

pray for clearer light."

CHAPMAN, GEORGE (1559-1634).--Dramatist and translator, was _b._ near

Hitchin, and probably _ed._ at Oxf. and Camb. He wrote many plays,

including _The Blind Beggar of Alexandria_ (1596), _All Fools_ (1599), _A

Humerous Daye's Myrthe_ (1599), _Eastward Hoe_ (with Jonson), _The

Gentleman Usher_, _Monsieur d'Olive_, etc. As a dramatist he has humour,

and vigour, and occasional poetic fire, but is very unequal. His great

work by which he lives in literature is his translation of Homer. The

_Iliad_ was _pub._ in 1611, the _Odyssey_ in 1616, and the _Hymns_, etc.,

in 1624. The work is full of energy and spirit, and well maintains its

place among the many later translations by men of such high poetic powers

as Pope and Cowper, and others: and it had the merit of suggesting

Keats's immortal Sonnet, in which its name and memory are embalmed for

many who know it in no other way. C. also translated from Petrarch, and

completed Marlowe's unfinished _Hero and Leander_.

CHAPONE, HESTER (MULSO) (1727-1801).--Miscellaneous writer, _dau._ of a

gentleman of Northamptonshire, was _m._ to a solicitor, who _d._ a few

months afterwards. She was one of the learned ladies who gathered round

Mrs. Montague (_q.v._), and was the author of _Letters on the Improvement

of the Mind_ and _Miscellanies_.

CHARLETON, WALTER (1619-1707).--Miscellaneous writer, _ed._ at Oxf., was

titular physician to Charles I. He was a copious writer on theology,

natural history, and antiquities, and _pub._ _Chorea Gigantum_ (1663) to

prove that Stonehenge was built by the Danes. He was also one of the

"character" writers, and in this kind of literature wrote _A Brief

Discourse concerning the Different Wits of Men_ (1675).

CHATTERTON, THOMAS (1752-1770).--Poet, _b._ at Bristol, posthumous _s._

of a schoolmaster, who had been a man of some reading and antiquarian

tastes, after whose death his mother maintained herself and her boy and

girl by teaching and needlework. A black-letter Bible and an illuminated

music-book belonging to her were the first things to give his mind the

impulse which led to such mingled glory and disaster. Living under the

shadow of the great church of St. Mary Redcliffe, his mind was impressed

from infancy with the beauty of antiquity, he obtained access to the

charters deposited there, and he read every scrap of ancient literature

that came in his way. At 14 he was apprenticed to a solicitor named

Lambert, with whom he lived in sordid circumstances, eating in the

kitchen and sleeping with the foot-boy, but continuing his favourite

studies in every spare moment. In 1768 a new bridge was opened, and C.

contributed to a local newspaper what purported to be a contemporary

account of the old one which it superseded. This attracted a good deal of

attention. Previously to this he had been writing verses and imitating

ancient poems under the name of Thomas Rowley, whom he feigned to be a

monk of the 15th century. Hearing of H. Walpole's collections for his

_Anecdotes of Painting in England_, he sent him an "ancient manuscript"

containing biographies of certain painters, not hitherto known, who had

flourished in England centuries before. W. fell into the trap, and wrote

asking for all the MS. he could furnish, and C. in response forwarded

accounts of more painters, adding some particulars as to himself on which

W., becoming suspicious, submitted the whole to T. Gray and Mason

(_q.v._), who pronounced the MS. to be forgeries. Some correspondence,

angry on C.'s part, ensued, and the whole budget of papers was returned.

C. thereafter, having been dismissed by Lambert, went to London, and for

a short time his prospects seemed to be bright. He worked with feverish

energy, threw off poems, satires, and political papers, and meditated a

history of England; but funds and spirits failed, he was starving, and

the failure to obtain an appointment as ship's surgeon, for which he had

applied, drove him to desperation, and on the morning of August 25, 1770,

he was found dead from a dose of arsenic, surrounded by his writings torn

into small pieces. From childhood C. had shown a morbid familiarity with

the idea of suicide, and had written a last will and testament, "executed

in the presence of Omniscience," and full of wild and profane wit. The

magnitude of his tragedy is only realised when it is considered not only

that the poetry he left was of a high order of originality and

imaginative power, but that it was produced at an age at which our

greatest poets, had they died, would have remained unknown. Precocious

not only in genius but in dissipation, proud and morose as he was, an

unsympathetic age confined itself mainly to awarding blame to his

literary and moral delinquencies. Posterity has weighed him in a juster

balance, and laments the early quenching of so brilliant a light. His

_coll._ works appeared in 1803, and another ed. by Prof. Street in 1875.

Among these are _Elinoure and Juga_, _Balade of Charitie_, _Bristowe

Tragedie_, _Ælla_, and _Tragedy of Godwin_.

The best account of his life is the Essay by Prof. Masson.

CHAUCER, GEOFFREY (1340?-1400).--Poet, was _b._ in London, the _s._ of

John C., a vintner of Thames Street, who had also a small estate at

Ipswich, and was occasionally employed on service for the King (Edward

III.), which doubtless was the means of his son's introduction to the

Court. The acquaintance which C. displays with all branches of the

learning of his time shows that he must have received an ample education;

but there is no evidence that he was at either of the Univ. In 1357 he

appears as a page to the Lady Elizabeth, wife of Lionel Duke of Clarence,

and in 1359 he first saw military service in France, when he was made a

prisoner. He was, however, ransomed in 1360. About 1366 he was married to

Philippa, _dau._ of Sir Payne Roet, one of the ladies of the Duchess of

Lancaster, whose sister Katharine, widow of Sir Hugh Swynford, became the

third wife of John of Gaunt. Previous to this he had apparently been

deeply in love with another lady, whose rank probably placed her beyond

his reach; his disappointment finding expression in his _Compleynt to

Pité_. In 1367 he was one of the valets of the King's Chamber, a post

always held by gentlemen, and received a pension of 20 marks, and he was

soon afterwards one of the King's esquires. In 1369 Blanche, the wife of

John of Gaunt, died, which gave occasion for a poem by C. in honour of

her memory, _The Dethe of Blaunche the Duchesse_. In the same year he

again bore arms in France, and during the next ten years he was

frequently employed on diplomatic missions. In 1370 he was sent to Genoa

to arrange a commercial treaty, on which occasion he may have met

Petrarch, and was rewarded by a grant in 1374 of a pitcher of wine daily.

In the same year he got from the corporation of London a lease for life

of a house at Aldgate, on condition of keeping it in repair; and soon

after he was appointed Comptroller of the Customs and Subsidy of Wool,

Skins, and Leather in the port of London; he also received from the Duke

of Lancaster a pension of £10. In 1375 he obtained the guardianship of a

rich ward, which he held for three years, and the next year he was

employed on a secret service. In 1377 he was sent on a mission to

Flanders to treat of peace with the French King. After the accession of

Richard II. in that year, he was sent to France to treat for the marriage

of the King with the French Princess Mary, and thereafter to Lombardy, on

which occasion he appointed John Gower (_q.v._) to act for him in his

absence in any legal proceedings which might arise. In 1382 he became

Comptroller of the Petty Customs of the port of London, and in 1385 was

allowed to appoint a deputy, which, enabled him to devote more time to

writing. He had in 1373 begun his _Canterbury Tales_, on which he was

occupied at intervals for the rest of his life. In 1386 C. was elected

Knight of the Shire for Kent, a county with which he appears to have had

some connection, and where he may have had property. His fortunes now

suffered some eclipse. His patron, John of Gaunt, was abroad, and the

government was presided over by his brother Gloucester, who was at feud

with him. Owing probably to this cause, C. was in December, 1386,

dismissed from his employments, leaving him with no income beyond his

pensions, on which he was obliged to raise money. His wife also died at

the same time. In 1389, however, Richard took the government into his own

hands, and prosperity returned to C., whose friends were now in power,

and he was appointed Clerk of the King's works. This office, however, he

held for two years only, and again fell into poverty, from which he was

rescued in 1394 by a pension from the King of £20. On the accession of

Henry IV. (1399) an additional pension of 40 marks was given him. In the

same year he took a lease of a house at Westminster, where he probably

_d._, October 25, 1400. He is buried in Poets' Corner, Westminster Abbey,

where a monument to him was erected by Nicholas Brigham, a minor poet of

the 16th century. According to some authorities he left two sons, Thomas,

who became a man of wealth and importance, and Lewis, who died young, the

little ten-year-old boy to whom he addressed the treatise on the

_Astrolabe_. Others see no evidence that Thomas was any relation of the

poet. An Elizabeth C., placed in the Abbey of Barking by John of Gaunt,

was probably his _dau._ In person C. was inclined to corpulence, "no

poppet to embrace," of fair complexion with "a beard the colour of ripe

wheat," an "elvish" expression, and an eye downcast and meditative.

Of the works ascribed to C. several are, for various reasons, of greater

or less strength, considered doubtful. These include _The Romaunt of the

Rose_, _Chaucer's Dream_, and _The Flower and the Leaf_. After his return

from Italy about 1380 he entered upon his period of greatest

productiveness: _Troilus and Criseyde_ (1382?), _The Parlement of Foules_

(1382?), _The House of Fame_ (1384?), and _The Legende of Goode Women_

(1385), belong to this time. The first of them still remains one of the

finest poems of its kind in the language. But the glory of C. is, of

course, the _Canterbury Tales_, a work which places him in the front rank

of the narrative poets of the world. It contains about 18,000 lines of

verse, besides some passages in prose, and was left incomplete. In it his

power of story-telling, his humour, sometimes broad, sometimes sly, his

vivid picture-drawing, his tenderness, and lightness of touch, reach

their highest development. He is our first artist in poetry, and with him

begins modern English literature. His character--genial, sympathetic, and

pleasure-loving, yet honest, diligent, and studious--is reflected in his

writings.

SUMMARY.--_B._ 1340, fought in France 1359, by his marriage in 1366

became connected with John of Gaunt, employed on diplomatic missions

1369-79, Controller of Customs, etc., _c._ 1374, began _Canterbury Tales_

1373, elected to Parliament 1386, loses his appointments 1386, Clerk of

King's Works 1389-91, pensioned by Richard II. and Henry IV., _d._ _c._

1400.

The best ed. of C. is _The Complete Works of Geoffrey Chaucer_ (6 vols.

1894), ed. by Prof. Skeat. Others are Thos. Wright's for the Percy

Society (1842), and Richard Morris's in Bell's Aldine Classics (1866).

CHERRY, ANDREW (1762-1812).--Dramatist, _s._ of a bookseller at Limerick,

was a successful actor, and managed theatres in the provinces. He also

wrote some plays, of which _The Soldier's Daughter_ is the best. His

chief claim to remembrance rests on his three songs, _The Bay of Biscay_,

_The Green Little Shamrock_, and _Tom Moody_.

CHESTERFIELD, PHILIP DORMER STANHOPE, 4TH EARL OF (1694-1773).--Statesman

and letter-writer, was the eldest _s._ of the 3rd Earl. After being at

Trinity Coll., Camb., he sat in the House of Commons until his accession

to the peerage in 1726. He filled many high offices, including those of

Ambassador to Holland, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, and Sec. of State. He

was distinguished for his wit, conversational powers, and grace of

manner. His place in literature is fixed by his well-known _Letters_

addressed to his natural son, Philip Dormer Stanhope. Though brilliant,

and full of shrewdness and knowledge of the world, they reflect the low

tone of morals prevalent in the age when they were written. He was the

recipient of Johnson's famous letter as to his "patronage."

CHETTLE, HENRY (1565-1607?).--Dramatist. Very little is known of him. He

ed. R. Greene's _Groat's-worth of Wit_ (1592), is believed to have

written 13 and collaborated in 35 plays. He also wrote two satires, _Kind

Harts Dreame_ (1593), and _Pierre Plainnes Prentship_ (1595). He was

imprisoned for debt 1599.

Among his own plays, which have considerable merit, is _Hoffmann_, which

has been reprinted, and he had a hand in _Patient Grissill_ (1603) (which

may have influenced Shakespeare in the _Merry Wives of Windsor_), _The

Blind Beggar of Bethnal Green_, and _Jane Shore_.

CHILD, FRANCIS J. (1825-1896).--English scholar, _b._ at Boston, Mass.,

was a prof. at Harvard, one of the foremost students of early English,

and especially of ancient ballads in America. He ed. the American ed. of

English Poets in 130 vols., and English and Scottish Ballads. He was also

a profound student of Chaucer, and _pub._ _Observations on the Language

of Chaucer_, and _Observations on the Language of Gower's Confessio

Amantis_.

CHILD, MRS. LYDIA MARIA (FRANCIS) (1802-1880).--Was the author of many

once popular tales, _Hobomok_, _The Rebels_, _Philothes_, etc.

CHILLINGWORTH, WILLIAM (1602-1644).--Theologian and controversialist,

_b._ and _ed._ at Oxf., was godson of Archbishop Laud. Falling into

theological doubts he subsequently became a convert to Roman Catholicism,

and studied at the Jesuit Coll. at Douay, 1630. In the following year he

returned to Oxf., and after further consideration of the points at issue,

he rejoined the Church of England, 1634. This exposed him to violent

attacks on the part of the Romanists, in reply to which he _pub._ in 1637

his famous polemic, _The Religion of the Protestants a Safe Way to

Salvation_, characterised by clear style and logical reasoning. For a

time he refused ecclesiastical preferment, but ultimately his scruples

were overcome, and he became Prebendary and Chancellor of Salisbury. C.

is regarded as one of the ablest controversialists of the Anglican

Church.

CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815-1890).--Divine, historian, and biographer,

was _b._ at Lisbon, and _ed._ at Oxf., where he became a friend of J.H.

Newman (_q.v._). He took orders, and became Rector of Whatley, Somerset,

and in 1871 Dean of St. Paul's. He was a leading member of the High

Church party, but was held in reverence by many who did not sympathise

with his ecclesiastical views. Among his writings are _The Beginning of

the Middle Ages_ (1877), and a memoir on _The Oxford Movement_ (1891),

_pub._ posthumously. He also wrote Lives of Anselm, Dante, Spenser, and

Bacon.

CHURCHILL, CHARLES (1731-1764).--Satirist, _s._ of a clergyman, was _ed._

at Westminster School, and while still a schoolboy made a clandestine

marriage. He entered the Church, and on the death of his _f._ in 1758

succeeded him in the curacy and lectureship of St. John's, Westminster.

In 1761 he _pub._ the _Rosciad_, in which he severely satirised the

players and managers of the day. It at once brought him both fame and

money; but he fell into dissipated habits, separated from his wife, and

outraged the proprieties of his profession to such an extent that he was

compelled to resign his preferments. He also incurred the enmity of those

whom he had attacked, which led to the publication of two other satirical

pieces, _The Apology_ and _Night_. He also attacked Dr. Johnson and his

circle in _The Ghost_, and the Scotch in _The Prophecy of Famine_. He

attached himself to John Wilkes, on a visit to whom, at Boulogne, he _d._

of fever.

CHURCHYARD, THOMAS (1520?-1604).--Poet and miscellaneous writer, began

life as a page to the Earl of Surrey, and subsequently passed through

many vicissitudes as a soldier in Scotland, Ireland, France, and the Low

Countries. He was latterly a hanger-on at Court, and had a pension of

eighteenpence a day from Queen Elizabeth, which was not, however,

regularly paid. He wrote innumerable pamphlets and broadsides, and some

poems, of which the best are _Shore's Wife_ (1563), _The Worthiness of

Wales_ (1587) _repub._ by the Spenser Society (1871), and _Churchyard's

Chips_ (1575), an autobiographical piece.

CIBBER, COLLEY (1671-1757).--Actor and dramatist, _b._ in London, _s._ of

a Danish sculptor, and _ed._ at Grantham School. Soon after his return to

London he took to the stage. Beginning with tragedy, in which he failed,

he turned to comedy, and became popular in eccentric _rôles_. In 1696 he

brought out his first play, _Love's Last Shift_, and produced in all

about 30 plays, some of which were very successful. In 1730 he was made

Poet Laureate, and wrote some forgotten odes of no merit, also an

entertaining autobiography. Pope made him the hero of the _Dunciad_.

Among other plays are _The Nonjuror_ (1717), _Woman's Wit_, _She Would

and She Would Not_, _The Provoked Husband_ (1728) (with Vanbrugh).

CLARE, JOHN (1793-1864).--Poet, _s._ of a cripple pauper, was _b._ at

Helpstone near Peterborough. His youth is the record of a noble struggle

against adverse circumstances. With great difficulty he managed to save

one pound, with which he was able to have a prospectus of his first book

of poems printed, which led to an acquaintance with Mr. Drury, a

bookseller in Stamford, by whose help the poems were _pub._, and brought

him £20. The book, _Poems descriptive of Rural Life_ (1820), immediately

attracted attention. Various noblemen befriended him and stocked a farm

for him. But unfortunately C. had no turn for practical affairs, and got

into difficulties. He, however, continued to produce poetry, and in

addition to _The Village Minstrel_, which had appeared in 1821, _pub._

_The Shepherd's Calendar_ (1827), and _Rural Muse_ (1835). Things,

however, went on from bad to worse; his mind gave way, and he _d._ in an

asylum. C. excels in description of rural scenes and the feelings and

ideas of humble country life.

CLARENDON, EDWARD HYDE, EARL of (1608-1674).--Lawyer, statesman, and

historian, _s._ of a country gentleman of good estate in Wiltshire, was

_b._ at Dinton in that county, and _ed._ at Oxf. Destined originally for

the Church, circumstances led to his being sent to London to study law,

which he did under his uncle, Sir Nicholas H., Chief Justice of the

King's Bench. In early life he was the friend of all the leading men of

the day. Entering Parliament in 1640 he at first supported popular

measures, but, on the outbreak of the Civil War, attached himself to the

King, and was the author of many of his state papers. From 1648 until the

Restoration C. was engaged in various embassies and as a counsellor of

Charles II., who made him in 1658 his Lord Chancellor, an office in which

he was confirmed at the Restoration, when he also became Chancellor of

the Univ. of Oxf., and was likewise raised to the peerage. His power and

influence came to an end, however, in 1667, when he was dismissed from

all his offices, was impeached, and had to fly to France. The causes of

his fall were partly the miscarriage of the war with Holland, and the

sale of Dunkirk, and partly the jealousy of rivals and the intrigues of

place hunters, whose claims he had withstood. In his enforced retirement

he engaged himself in completing his great historic work, _The History of

the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England_, which he had begun in 1641, and

which was not _pub._ until 1702-4. C.'s style is easy, flowing, diffuse,

and remarkably modern, with an occasional want of clearness owing to his

long and involved sentences. His great strength is in character-painting,

in which he is almost unrivalled. The _History_ was followed by a

supplementary _History of the Civil War in Ireland_ (1721). C. also wrote

an autobiography, _The Life of Edward Earl of Clarendon_ (1759), a reply

to the _Leviathan_ of Hobbes, and _An Essay on the Active and

Contemplative Life_, in which the superiority of the former is

maintained. C. _d._ at Rouen. He was a man of high personal character,

and great intellect and sagacity, but lacking in the firmness and energy

necessary for the troublous times in which he lived. His _dau._ Anne

married the Duke of York, afterwards James II., a connection which

involved him in much trouble and humiliation.

Agar Ellis's _Historical Enquiry respecting the Character of Clarendon_

(1827), _Life_ by T.H. Lister (1838), _History_ (Macray, 6 vols., 1888).

CLARKE, CHARLES COWDEN (1787-1877).--Writer on Shakespeare, was a

publisher in London. He lectured on Shakespeare and on European

literature. Latterly he lived in France and Italy. His wife, MARY C.-C.

(1809-1898), _dau._ of V. Novello, musician, compiled a complete

_Concordance to Shakespeare_ (1844-45), and wrote _The Shakespeare Key_

(1879) and, with her husband, _Recollections of Writers_ (1878).

CLARKE, MARCUS (1846-1881).--Novelist, _b._ in London, the _s._ of a

barrister. After a somewhat wild youth he went to Australia where, after

more than one failure to achieve success in business, he took to

journalism on the staff of the _Melbourne Argus_, with brilliant results.

He wrote two novels, _Long Odds_ and _For the Term of his Natural Life_

(1874), the latter, which is generally considered his masterpiece,

dealing in a powerful and realistic manner with transportation and

convict labour. He also wrote many short tales and dramatic pieces. After

a turbulent and improvident life he _d._ at 35. In addition to the works

above mentioned, he wrote _Lower Bohemia in Melbourne_, _The Humbug

Papers_, _The Future Australian Race_. As a writer he was keen,

brilliant, and bitter.

CLARKE, SAMUEL (1675-1729).--Divine and metaphysician, _b._ at Norwich,

was _ed._ at Camb., where he became the friend and disciple of Newton,

whose System of the Universe he afterwards defended against Leibnitz. In

1704-5 he delivered the Boyle lectures, taking for his subject, _The

Being and Attributes of God_, and assuming an intermediate position

between orthodoxy and Deism. In 1712 he _pub._ views on the doctrine of

the Trinity which involved him in trouble, from which he escaped by a

somewhat unsatisfactory explanation. He was, however, one of the most

powerful opponents of the freethinkers of the time. In addition to his

theological writings C. _pub._ an ed. of the _Iliad_, a Latin translation

of the _Optics_ of Newton, on whose death he was offered the Mastership

of the Mint, an office worth £1500 a year, which, however, he declined.

The talents, learning, and amiable disposition of C. gave him a high

place in the esteem of his contemporaries. In the Church he held various

preferments, the last being that of Rector of St. James's, Westminster.

He was also Chaplain to Queen Anne. His style is cold, dry, and precise.

CLEVELAND, JOHN (1613-1658).--Poet, _s._ of an usher in a charity school,

was _b._ at Loughborough, and _ed._ at Camb., where he became coll. tutor

and lecturer on rhetoric at St. John's, and was much sought after. A

staunch Royalist, he opposed the election of Oliver Cromwell as member

for Camb. in the Long Parliament, and was in consequence ejected from his

coll. in 1645. Joining the King, by whom he was welcomed, he was

appointed to the office of Judge Advocate at Newark. In 1646, however,

he was deprived of this, and wandered about the country dependent on the

bounty of the Royalists. In 1655 he was imprisoned at Yarmouth, but

released by Cromwell, to whom he appealed, and went to London, where he

lived in much consideration till his death. His best work is satirical,

giving a faint adumbration of _Hudibras_; his other poems, with

occasional passages of great beauty, being affected and artificial. The

_Poems_ were _pub._ in 1656.

CLINTON, HENRY FYNES (1781-1852).--Chronologist, _b._ at Gamston, Notts,

_ed._ at Southwell, Westminster, and Oxf., where he devoted himself

chiefly to the study of Greek. Brought into Parliament by the Duke of

Newcastle in 1806, he took no active part in political life, and retired

in 1826. He bought in 1810 the estate of Welwyn, and there he entered

upon wide and profound studies bearing upon classical chronology, and

wrote various important treatises on the subject, viz., _Fasti Hellenici,

Civil and Literary Chronology of Greece_, part i. (1824), part ii.

(1827), part iii. (1830), part iv. (1841), _Fasti Romani, Civil and

Literary Chronology of Rome and Constantinople_, vol. i. (1850), vol. ii.

(1851), _An Epitome of the Civil and Literary Chronology of Greece_

(1851), the same for Rome (1853). He also wrote a tragedy, _Solyman_,

which was a failure.

CLOUGH, ARTHUR HUGH (1819-1861).--Poet, _s._ of a cotton merchant in

Liverpool, he spent his childhood in America, but was sent back to

England for his education, which he received at Rugby and Oxf. While at

the Univ., where he was tutor and Fellow of Oriel, he fell under the

influence of Newman, but afterwards became a sceptic and resigned his

Fellowship in 1848. In the same year he _pub._ his poem, _The Bothie of

Tober-na-Vuolich_, written in hexameters. After travelling on the

Continent for a year, he was in 1849 appointed Warden of Univ. Hall,

London. In 1849 appeared _Amours de Voyage_, a rhymed novelette, and the

more serious work, _Dipsychus_. In 1854 he was appointed an examiner in

the Education Office, and married. His last appointment was as Sec. of a

Commission on Military Schools, in connection with which he visited

various countries, but was seized with illness, and _d._ at Florence. C.

was a man of singularly sincere character, with a passion for truth. His

poems, though full of fine and subtle thought, are, with the exception of

some short lyrics, deficient in form, and the hexameters which he

employed in _The Bothie_ are often rough, though perhaps used as

effectively as by any English verse-writer. M. Arnold's _Thyrsis_ was

written in memory of C.

COBBE, FRANCES POWER (1822-1904).--Theological and social writer, was

_b._ near Dublin. Coming under the influence of Theodore Parker, she

became a Unitarian. Her first work, _pub._ anonymously, was on _The

Intuitive Theory of Morals_ (1855). She travelled in the East, and _pub._

_Cities of the Past_ (1864). Later she became interested in social

questions and philanthropic work, and wrote many books on these and

kindred subjects, including _Criminals_, _Idiots_, _Women_ and _Minors_

(1869), _Darwinism in Morals_ (1872), and _Scientific Spirit of the Age_

(1888). She was a strong opponent of vivisection.

COBBETT, WILLIAM (1762-1835).--Essayist and political writer, _b._ at

Farnham, Surrey, _s._ of a small farmer, his youth was spent as a farm

labourer, a clerk, and in the army, in which his good conduct and

intelligence led to his promotion to the rank of sergeant-major. After

moving about between England and America, and alternating between

journalism and agriculture, in the former of which his daring opposition

to men in power got him into frequent trouble and subjected him to heavy

fines in both countries, he settled down in England in 1800, and

continued his career as a political writer, first as a Tory and then as a

Radical. His violent changes of opinion, and the force and severity with

which he expressed himself naturally raised up enemies in both camps. In

1817 he went back to America, where he remained for two years. Returning

he stood, in 1821, for a seat in Parliament, but was unsuccessful. In

1832, however, he was returned for Oldham, but made no mark as a speaker.

C. was one of the best known men of his day. His intellect was narrow,

but intensely clear, and he was master of a nervous and idiomatic English

style which enabled him to project his ideas into the minds of his

readers. His chief writings are _English Grammar_, _Rural Rides_, _Advice

to Young Men and Women_. His _Weekly Political Register_ was continued

from 1802 until his death.

COCKBURN, HENRY (1779-1854).--Scottish judge and biographer, _b._

(probably) and _ed._ in Edin., became a distinguished member of the

Scottish Bar, and ultimately a judge. He was also one of the leaders of

the Whig party in Scotland in its days of darkness prior to the Reform

Act of 1832. The life-long friend of Francis Jeffrey, he wrote his life,

_pub._ in 1852. His chief literary work, however, is his _Memorials of

his Time_ (1856), continued in his _Journal_ (1874). These constitute an

autobiography of the writer interspersed with notices of manners, public

events, and sketches of his contemporaries, of great interest and value.

COCKTON, HENRY (1807-1852).--Novelist, _b._ in London, is only remembered

as an author for his novel of _Valentine Vox_ (1840), the adventures of a

ventriloquist.

COLENSO, JOHN WILLIAM (1814-1883).--Mathematician and Biblical critic,

_b._ at St. Austell, Cornwall, and _ed._ at St. John's Coll., Camb.,

where he was a tutor, entered the Church, and _pub._ various mathematical

treatises and _Village Sermons_. In 1853 he was appointed first Bishop of

Natal. He mastered the Zulu language, introduced printing, wrote a Zulu

grammar and dictionary, and many useful reading-books for the natives.

His _Commentary on the Romans_ (1861) excited great opposition from the

High Church party, and his _Critical Examination of the Pentateuch_

(1862-1879), by its then extreme views, created great alarm and

excitement. He was in 1863 deposed and excommunicated by Bishop Gray of

Cape Town, but confirmed in his see by the Courts of Law. His theological

writings are now largely superseded; but his mathematical text-books, for

the writing of which he was much better equipped, hold their place.

COLERIDGE, HARTLEY (1796-1849).--Poet, eldest _s._ of Samuel T.C.

(_q.v._), _b._ at Clevedon, spent his youth at Keswick among the "Lake

poets." His early education was desultory, but he was sent by Southey to

Oxf. in 1815. His talents enabled him to win a Fellowship, but the

weakness of his character led to his being deprived of it. He then went

to London and wrote for magazines. From 1823 to 1828 he tried keeping a

school at Ambleside, which failed, and he then led the life of a recluse

at Grasmere until his death. Here he wrote _Essays_, _Biographia

Borealis_ (lives of worthies of the northern counties) (1832), and a

_Life of Massinger_ (1839). He is remembered chiefly for his _Sonnets_.

He also left unfinished a drama, _Prometheus_.