LIST OF CONTRACTIONS USED THROUGHOUT THE WORK

_b._ born Edin. Edinburgh

_c._ _circa_ _fl._ flourished

Camb. Cambridge Glas. Glasgow

Coll. College _m._ married

_coll._ collected Oxf. Oxford

_cr._ created pres. president

_d._ died _pub._ published

_dau._ daughter Prof. Professor

_ed._ educated sec. secretary

{ edition _s._ son

ed. { editor Univ. University

{ edited

ABBOTT, JACOB (1803-1879).--Educationalist and miscellaneous author,

_b._ at Hallowell, Maine, _ed._ at Bowdoin Coll. and Andover, entered the

ministry of the Congregational Church, but was best known as an

educationist and writer of religious and other books, mainly for the

young. Among them are _Beechnut Tales_ and _The Rollo Books_, both of

which still have a very wide circulation.

ABBOTT, JOHN STEVENS CABOT (1805-1877).--Historian, etc., _b._ Brunswick,

Maine, and _ed._ at Bowdoin Coll. He studied theology and became a

minister of the Congregational Church at various places in Massachusetts

and Connecticut. Owing to the success of a little work, _The Mother at

Home_, he devoted himself, from 1844 onwards, to literature, and

especially to historical writing. Among his principal works, which were

very popular, are: _History of Napoleon Bonaparte_ (1852-55), _History of

the Civil War in America_ (1863-66), and _History of Frederick the Great_

(1871).

À BECKETT, GILBERT ABBOTT (1811-1856).--Comic writer, _b._ in London, the

_s._ of a lawyer, and belonged to a family claiming descent from Thomas à

Becket. Destined for the legal profession, he was called to the Bar. In

addition to contributions to various periodicals and newspapers,

including _Punch_, _The Illustrated London News_, _The Times_, and

_Morning Herald_, he produced over fifty plays, many of which attained

great popularity, and he also helped to dramatise some of Dickens' works.

He is perhaps best known as the author of _Comic History of England_,

_Comic History of Rome_, _Comic Blackstone_, etc. He was also

distinguished in his profession, acted as a commissioner on various

important matters, and was appointed a metropolitan police magistrate.

ABERCROMBIE, JOHN (1780-1844).--Physician and writer on mental science,

_s._ of a minister, was _b._ at Aberdeen, and _ed._ at the Grammar School

and Marischal College there. He studied medicine at Edinburgh, in which

city he practised as a physician. He made valuable contributions to the

literature of his profession, and _pub._ two works, _Enquiry Concerning

the Intellectual Powers_ (1830) and _The Philosophy of the Moral

Feelings_ (1833), which, though popular at the time of their publication,

have long been superseded. For his services as a physician and

philanthropist he received many marks of distinction, including the

Rectorship of Marischal College.

ABERCROMBIE, PATRICK (1656-1716).--Antiquary and historian, was physician

to James II. in 1685; he was a Jacobite and opposed the Union in various

pamphlets. His chief work was _Martial Achievements of the Scots Nation_

(1711-16).

ACTON, JOHN EMERICH EDWARD DALBERG-ACTON, 1ST LORD

(1834-1902).--Historian, _s._ of Sir Richard A., and grandson of Sir John

A., who was Prime Minister of Naples, was _b._ at Naples. He belonged to

an ancient Roman Catholic family, and was _ed._ first at Oscott near

Birmingham under Dr. (afterwards Card.) Wiseman. Thence he went to

Edinburgh, where he studied privately, and afterwards to Munich, where he

resided in the house of Dr. Dollinger, the great scholar and subsequent

leader of the Old Catholic party, by whom he was profoundly influenced.

While at Edinburgh he endeavoured to procure admission to Cambridge, but

without success, his religion being at that time a bar. He early devoted

himself to the study of history, and is said to have been on terms of

intimacy with every contemporary historian of distinction, with the

exception of Guizot. He sat in the House of Commons 1859-65, but made no

great mark, and in 1869 was raised to the peerage as Lord Acton of

Aldenham. For a time he edited _The Rambler_, a Roman Catholic

periodical, which afterwards became the _Home and Foreign Review_, and

which, under his care, became one of the most learned publications of the

day. The liberal character of A.'s views, however, led to its stoppage in

deference to the authorities of the Church. He, however, maintained a

lifelong opposition to the Ultramontane party in the Church, and in 1874

controverted their position in four letters to _The Times_ which were

described as the most crushing argument against them which ever appeared

in so condensed a form. A.'s contributions to literature were few, and,

in comparison with his extraordinary learning, comparatively unimportant.

He wrote upon _Cardinal Wolsey_ (1877) and _German Schools of History_

(1886). He was extremely modest, and the loftiness of his ideals of

accuracy and completeness of treatment led him to shrink from tasks which

men of far slighter equipment might have carried out with success. His

learning and his position as a universally acknowledged master in his

subject were recognised by his appointment in 1895 as Professor of Modern

History at Cambridge. Perhaps his most valuable services to historical

literature were his laying down the lines of the great _Cambridge Modern

History_, and his collection of a library of 60,000 vols., which after

his death was purchased by an American millionaire and presented to Lord

Morley of Blackburn, who placed it in the University of Cambridge.

ADAMNAN, ST. (625?-704).--Historian, _b._ in Donegal, became Abbot of

Iona in 679. Like other Irish churchmen he was a statesman as well as an

ecclesiastic, and appears to have been sent on various political

missions. In the great controversy on the subject of the holding of

Easter, he sided with Rome against the Irish Church. He left the earliest

account we have of the state of Palestine in the early ages of the

Church; but of even more value is his _Vita Sancti Columbæ_, giving a

minute account of the condition and discipline of the church of Iona. He

_d._ 704.

ADAMS, FRANCIS, W.L. (1862-1893).--Novelist, was _b._ at Malta, and _ed._

at schools at Shrewsbury and in Paris. In 1882 he went to Australia, and

was on the staff of _The Sydney Bulletin_. In 1884 he _publ._ his

autobiographical novel, _Leicester_, and in 1888 _Songs of the Army of

the Night_, which created a sensation in Sydney. His remaining important

work is _Tiberius_ (1894), a striking drama in which a new view of the

character of the Emperor is presented. He _d._ by his own hand at

Alexandria in a fit of depression caused by hopeless illness.

ADDISON, JOSEPH (1672-1719).--Poet, essayist and statesman, was the _s._

of Lancelot Addison, Dean of Lichfield. _B._ near Amesbury, Wilts., A.

went to the Charterhouse where he made the acquaintance of Steele

(_q.v._), and then at the age of fifteen to Oxford where he had a

distinguished career, being specially noted for his Latin verse. Intended

at first for the Church, various circumstances combined to lead him

towards literature and politics. His first attempts in English verse took

the form of complimentary addresses, and were so successful as to obtain

for him the friendship and interest of Dryden, and of Lord Somers, by

whose means he received, in 1699, a pension of £300 to enable him to

travel on the continent with a view to diplomatic employment. He visited

Italy, whence he addressed his _Epistle_ to his friend Halifax. Hearing

of the death of William III., an event which lost him his pension, he

returned to England in the end of 1703. For a short time his

circumstances were somewhat straitened, but the battle of Blenheim in

1704 gave him a fresh opportunity of distinguishing himself. The

government wished the event commemorated by a poem; A. was commissioned

to write this, and produced _The Campaign_, which gave such satisfaction

that he was forthwith appointed a Commissioner of Appeals. His next

literary venture was an account of his travels in Italy, which was

followed by the opera of _Rosamund_. In 1705, the Whigs having obtained

the ascendency, A. was made Under-Secretary of State and accompanied

Halifax on a mission to Hanover, and in 1708 was appointed Chief

Secretary for Ireland and Keeper of the Records of that country. It was

at this period that A. found his true vocation and laid the foundations

of his real fame. In 1709 Steele began to bring out the _Tatler_, to

which A. became almost immediately a contributor: thereafter he (with

Steele) started the _Spectator_, the first number of which appeared on

March 1, 1711. This paper, which at first appeared daily, was kept up

(with a break of about a year and a half when the _Guardian_ took its

place) until Dec. 20, 1714. In 1713 the drama of _Cato_ appeared, and was

received with acclamation by both Whigs and Tories, and was followed by

the comedy of the _Drummer_. His last undertaking was _The Freeholder_, a

party paper (1715-16). The later events in the life of A., viz., his

marriage in 1716 to the Dowager Countess of Warwick, to whose son he had

been tutor and his promotion to be Secretary of State did not contribute

to his happiness. His wife appears to have been arrogant and imperious;

his step-son the Earl was a rake and unfriendly to him; while in his

public capacity his invincible shyness made him of little use in

Parliament. He resigned his office in 1718, and, after a period of

ill-health, _d._ at Holland House, June 17, 1719, in his 48th year.

Besides the works above mentioned, he wrote a _Dialogue on Medals_, and

left unfinished a work on the Evidences of Christianity. The character of

A., if somewhat cool and unimpassioned, was pure, magnanimous, and kind.

The charm of his manners and conversation made him one of the most

popular and admired men of his day; and while he laid his friends under

obligations for substantial favours, he showed the greatest forbearance

towards his few enemies. His style in his essays is remarkable for its

ease, clearness, and grace, and for an inimitable and sunny humour which

never soils and never hurts. The motive power of these writings has been

called "an enthusiasm for conduct." Their effect was to raise the whole

standard of manners and expression both in life and in literature. The

only flaw in his character was a tendency to convivial excess, which must

be judged in view of the laxer manners of his time. When allowance has

been made for this, he remains one of the most admirable characters and

writers in English literature.

SUMMARY.--_B._ Amesbury, _ed._ Charterhouse and Oxford; received

travelling pension, 1699; _Campaign_ (1704) leads to political office;

goes to Ireland, 1708; assists Steele in _Tatler_, 1709; _Spectator_

started, 1711; marries Lady Warwick, 1716; Secretary of State, 1716-18;

_d._ 1719.

Lives in _Biographica Britannica_, _Dict. of Nat. Biog._, _Johnson's

Lives of Poets_, and by Lucy Aikin, Macaulay's _Essay_, Drake's _Essays

Illustrative of Tatler, Guardian, and Spectator_; Pope's and Swift's

Correspondence, etc.

The best edition of the books is that in _Bohn's British Classics_ (6

vols., 1856); others are Tickell's (4 vols., 1721); _Baskerville_ edit.

(4 vols., 1761); Hurd's (6 vols., 1811); Greene's (1856); Dent's

_Spectator_ (1907).

ADOLPHUS, JOHN (1768-1845).--Historian, studied law and was called to the

Bar in 1807. He wrote _Biographical Memoirs of the French Revolution_

(1799) and _History of England from_ 1760-1783 (1802), and other

historical and biographical works.

ÆLFRED (849-901).--King of the West Saxons, and writer and translator,

_s._ of Ethelwulf, _b._ at Wantage. Besides being the deliverer of his

country from the ravages of the Danes, and the restorer of order and

civil government, _Æ._ has earned the title of the father of English

prose writing. The earlier part of his life was filled with war and

action, most of the details regarding which are more or less legendary.

But no sooner had he become King of Wessex, in 871, than he began to

prepare for the work of re-introducing learning into his country.

Gathering round him the few scholars whom the Danes had left, and sending

for others from abroad, he endeavoured to form a literary class. His

chief helper in his great enterprise was Asser of St. David's, who taught

him Latin, and became his biographer in a "life" which remains the best

original authority for the period. Though not a literary artist, Æ. had

the best qualities of the scholar, including an insatiable love alike for

the acquisition and the communication of knowledge. He translated several

of the best books then existing, not, however, in a slavish fashion, but

editing and adding from his own stores. In all his work his main desire

was the good of his people. Among the books he translated or edited were

(1) _The Handbook_, a collection of extracts on religious subjects; (2)

_The Cura Pastoralis_, or Herdsman's book of Gregory the Great, with a

preface by himself which is the first English prose; (3) _Bede's

Ecclesiastical History of the English_; (4) _The English Chronicle_,

which, already brought up to 855, he continued up to the date of writing;

it is probably by his own hand; (5) Orosius's _History of the World_,

which he adapted for English readers with many historical and

geographical additions; (6) the _De Consolatione Philosophiæ_ of

Boethius; and (7) a translation of some of the Psalms. He also made a

collection of the best laws of his predecessors, Ethelbert, Ine, and

Offa. It has been said "although King Alfred lived a thousand years ago,

a thousand years hence, if there be England then, his memory will yet be

precious to his country."

ÆLFRIC (955-_c._ 1022).--Called Grammaticus (10th century), sometimes

confounded with two other persons of the same name, Æ. of Canterbury and

Æ. of York, was a monk at Winchester, and afterwards Abbot of Cerne and

Eynsham successively. He has left works which shed an important light on

the doctrine and practice of the early Church in England, including two

books of homilies (990-94), a _Grammar_, _Glossary_, _Passiones Sanctorum_

(Sufferings of the Saints), translations of parts of the Bible with

omissions and interpolations, _Canones Ælfrici_, and other theological

treatises. His writings had an influence on the formation of English

prose. He filled in his age somewhat the same position that Bede did in

his, that of a compiler and populariser of existing knowledge.

AGUILAR, GRACE (1816-1847).--Novelist and writer on Jewish history and

religion, was _b._ at Hackney of Jewish parents of Spanish descent. She

was delicate from childhood, and early showed great interest in history,

especially Jewish. The death of her _f._ threw her on her own resources.

After a few dramas and poems she _pub._ in America in 1842 _Spirit of

Judaism_, and in 1845 _The Jewish Faith_ and _The Women of Israel_. She

is, however, best known by her novels, of which the chief are _Home

Influence_ (1847) and _A Mother's Recompense_ (1850). Her health gave way

in 1847, and she _d._ in that year at Frankfort.

AIKIN, JOHN (1747-1822).--Miscellaneous writer, _s._ of Dr. John A.,

Unitarian divine, _b._ at Kibworth, studied medicine at Edinburgh and

London, and received degree of M.D. at Leyden. He began practice at

Yarmouth but, one of his pamphlets having given offence, he removed to

London, where he obtained some success in his profession, devoting all

his leisure to literature, to which his contributions were incessant.

These consisted of pamphlets, translations, and miscellaneous works, some

in conjunction with his sister, Mrs. Barbauld. Among his chief works are

_England Delineated_, _General Biography_ in 10 vols., and lives of Selden

and Ussher.

AIKIN, LUCY (1781-1864).--Historical and miscellaneous writer, _dau._ of

above and niece of Mrs. Barbauld (_q.v._). After _pub._ a poem,

_Epistles on Women_, and a novel, _Lorimer_, she began the historical

works on which her reputation chiefly rests, viz., _Memoirs of the Courts

of Elizabeth, James I., and Charles I._ (1818-33) and a _Life of

Addison_. She also wrote lives of her father and of Mrs. Barbauld. She

was remarkable for her conversational powers, and was also an admirable

letter-writer. Like the rest of her family she was a Unitarian.

AINGER, ALFRED (1837-1904).--Biographer and critic, _s._ of an architect

in London, _grad._ at Cambridge, entered the Church, and, after holding

various minor preferments, became Master of the Temple. He wrote memoirs

of Hood and Crabbe, but is best known for his biography of Lamb and his

edition of his works in 6 vols. (1883-88).

AINSWORTH, WILLIAM HARRISON (1805-1882).--Novelist, _s._ of a solicitor,

was _b._ in Manchester. He was destined for the legal profession, which,

however, had no attraction for him; and going to London to complete his

studies made the acquaintance of Mr. John Ebers, publisher, and at that

time manager of the Opera House, by whom he was introduced to literary

and dramatic circles, and whose _dau._ he afterwards married. For a short

time he tried the publishing business, but soon gave it up and devoted

himself to journalism and literature. His first successful novel was

_Rookwood_, _pub._ in 1834, of which Dick Turpin is the leading

character, and thenceforward he continued to pour forth till 1881 a

stream of novels, to the number of 39, of which the best known are _The

Tower of London_ (1840), _Old St. Paul's_ (1841), _Lancashire Witches_,

and _The Constable of the Tower_. The titles of some of his other novels

are _Crichton_ (1837), _Jack Sheppard_ (1839), _Guy Fawkes_, _The Star

Chamber_, _The Flitch of Bacon_, _The Miser's Daughter_ (1842), and

_Windsor Castle_ (1843). A. depends for his effects on striking

situations and powerful descriptions: he has little humour or power of

delineating character.

AIRD, THOMAS (1802-1876).--Poet, _b._ at Bowden, Roxburghshire, went to

Edinburgh, where he became the friend of Professor Wilson, Carlyle, and

other men of letters. He contributed to _Blackwood's Magazine_, and was

editor of the _Dumfries Herald_ (1835-63). His chief poem is _The Captive

of Fez_ (1830); and in prose he wrote _Religious Characteristics_, and

_The Old Bachelor in the Old Scottish Village_ (1848), all of which were

received with favour. Carlyle said that in his poetry he found everywhere

"a healthy breath as of mountain breezes."

AKENSIDE, MARK (1721-1770).--Poet, _s._ of a butcher at

Newcastle-upon-Tyne, gave early indications of talent, and was sent to

the University of Edinburgh with the view of becoming a dissenting

minister. While there, however, he changed his mind and studied for the

medical profession. Thereafter he went to Leyden, where he took his

degree of M.D. in 1744. While there he wrote his principal poem, _The

Pleasures of the Imagination_, which was well received, and was

subsequently translated into more than one foreign language. After trying

Northampton, he settled as a physician in London; but was for long

largely dependent for his livelihood on a Mr. Dyson. His talents brought

him a good deal of consideration in society, but the solemn and pompous

manner which he affected laid him open to some ridicule, and he is said

to have been satirised by Smollett (_q.v._) in his _Peregrine Pickle_. He

endeavoured to reconstruct his poem, but the result was a failure. His

collected poems were _pub._ 1772. His works, however, are now little

read. Mr. Gosse has described him as "a sort of frozen Keats."

ALCOTT, LOUISA M. (1832-1888).--Writer of juvenile and other tales,

_dau._ of Amos Bronson Alcott, an educational and social theorist,

lecturer, and author, was _b._ in Pennsylvania. During the American civil

war she served as a nurse, and afterwards attained celebrity as a writer

of books for young people, of which the best is _Little Women_ (1868).

Others are _Little Men_ and _Jo's Boys_. She also wrote novels, including

_Moods_ and _Work_.

ALCUIN or EALHWINE (735-804).--Theologian and general writer, was _b._

and _ed._ at York. He wrote in prose and verse, his subjects embracing

educational, theological, and historical matters. Returning from Rome, to

which he had been sent to procure the _pallium_ for a friend, he met

Charlemagne at Parma, and made upon him so favourable an impression that

he was asked to enter his service as preceptor in the sciences to himself

and his family. His numerous treatises, which include metrical annals,

hagiographical and philosophical works, are not distinguished by

originality or profundity, but he is the best representative of the

culture and mental activity of his age, upon which, as the minister of

education of the great emperor, he had a widely-spread influence.

ALDRICH, THOMAS BAILEY (1836-1906).--Poet and novelist, _b._ at

Portsmouth, N.H., was for some time in a bank, and then engaged in

journalism. His first book was _The Bells, a Collection of Chimes_

(1855), and other poetical works are _The Ballad of Babie Bell_, _Cloth

of Gold_, _Flower and Thorn_, etc. In prose he wrote _Daisy's Necklace_,

_The Course of True Love_, _Marjorie Daw_, _Prudence Palfrey_, etc.

ALESIUS, ALEXANDER (1500-1565).--Theologian and controversialist. His

unlatinised name was Aless or Alane, and he was _b._ at Edinburgh and

_ed._ at St. Andrews, where he became a canon. Originally a strong and

able defender of the Romish doctrines, he was chosen to argue with

Patrick Hamilton, the proto-martyr of the Reformation in Scotland, with

the object of inducing him to recant. The result, however, was that he

was himself much shaken in his allegiance to the Church, and the change

was greatly accelerated by the martyrdom of H. His subsequent protest

against the immorality of the clergy led to his imprisonment, and

ultimately, in 1532, to his flying for his life to Germany, where he

became associated with Luther and Melancthon, and definitely joined the

reforming party. Coming to England in 1535, he was well received by

Cranmer and other reformers. While in England he studied medicine, and

practised as a physician in London. On the fall of T. Cromwell in 1540 he

again retired to Germany, where, at Leipzig, he obtained a professorship.

During the reign of Edward VI. he re-visited England and was employed by

Cranmer in connection with the 1st Liturgy of Edward VI. Returning to

Leipsic he passed the remainder of his days in peace and honour, and was

twice elected Rector of the University. His writings were both exegetical

and controversial, but chiefly the latter. They include _Expositio Libri

Psalmorum Davidis_ (1550). His controversial works refer to such subjects

as the translation of the Bible into the vernacular, against Servetus,

etc.

ALEXANDER, MRS. CECIL F. (HUMPHREYS) (1818-1895).--_dau._ of Maj. H.,

_b._ in Co. Waterford, _m._ the Rev. W. Alexander, afterwards Bishop of

Derry and Archbishop of Armagh. Her _Hymns for Little Children_ had

reached its 69th edition before the close of the century. Some of her

hymns, _e.g._ "There is a Green Hill" and "The Roseate Hues of Early

Dawn," are known wherever English is spoken. Her husband has also written

several books of poetry, of which the most important is _St. Augustine's

Holiday and other Poems_.

ALFORD, HENRY (1810-1871).--Theologian, scholar, poet, and miscellaneous

writer, _s._ of a clergyman, was _b._ in London. After passing through

various private schools, he proceeded to Cambridge, where he had a

distinguished career, and after entering the Church and filling various

preferments in the country, became minister of Quebec Chapel, London,

whence he was promoted to be Dean of Canterbury. His great work was his

_Greek Testament_ in 4 vols., of which the first was _pub._ in 1849 and

the last in 1861. In this work he largely followed the German critics,

maintaining, however, a moderate liberal position; and it was for long

the standard work on the subject in this country. A. was one of the most

versatile men, and prolific authors, of his day, his works consisting of

nearly 50 vols., including poetry (_School of the Heart_ and _Abbot of

Munchelnaye_, and a translation of the _Odyssey_), criticism, sermons,

etc. In addition to the works above mentioned he wrote _Chapters on the

Greek Poets_ (1841), the _Queen's English_ (1863), and many well-known

hymns, and he was the first editor of the _Contemporary Review_. He was

also an accomplished artist and musician. His industry was incessant and

induced a premature breakdown in health, which terminated in his death in

1871. He was the friend of most of his eminent contemporaries, and was

much beloved for his amiable character.

ALISON, ARCHIBALD (1757-1839).--Didactic and philosophical writer, was

_b._ in Edinburgh and _ed._ at Glasgow University and Oxford. After being

presented to various livings in England, A. came to Edinburgh as

incumbent of St. Paul's Episcopal Chapel, where he attained popularity as

a preacher of sermons characterised by quiet beauty of thought and grace

of composition. His chief contribution to literature is his _Essay on the

Nature and Principles of Taste_ (1790), in which the "association" theory

is supported.

ALISON, SIR ARCHIBALD (1792-1867).--Historian, _s._ of the above, was

_b._ at Kenley, Shropshire, and after studying under a private tutor, and

at Edinburgh University, was, in 1814, called to the Bar, at which he

ultimately attained some distinction, becoming in 1834 Sheriff of

Lanarkshire, in which capacity he rendered valuable service in times of

considerable difficulty. It was when travelling in France in 1814 that he

conceived the idea of his _History of Europe_, which deals with the

period from the outbreak of the French Revolution to the restoration of

the Bourbons, and extends, in its original form (1833-42), to 10 vols.

The work is one of vast industry, and gives a useful account of an

important epoch, but is extremely diffuse and one-sided, and often prosy.

Disraeli satirises the author in _Coningsby_ as Mr. Wordy, who wrote a

history to prove that Providence was on the side of the Tories. It had,

however, an enormous sale. A continuation of it (1852-59) brought the

story down to the accession of Louis Napoleon. A. was also the author of

a life of Marlborough, and of two standard works on the criminal law of

Scotland. In his private and official capacities he was highly respected,

and was elected Lord Rector successively of Marischal Coll., Aberdeen,

and of Glasgow University. He was created a baronet by Lord Derby in

1852.

ALLEN, CHARLES GRANT (1848-1899).--Scientific writer and novelist, _b._

in Canada, to which his _f._, a clergyman, had emigrated, and _ed._ at

Birmingham and Oxford. For a time he was a professor in a college for

negroes in Jamaica, but returning to England in 1876 devoted himself to

literature. His first books were on scientific subjects, and include

_Physiological Æsthetics_ (1877) and _Flowers and Their Pedigrees_. After

assisting Sir W.W. Hunter in his _Gazeteer of India_, he turned his

attention to fiction, and between 1884 and 1899 produced about 30 novels,

among which _The Woman Who Did_ (1895), promulgating certain startling

views on marriage and kindred questions, created some sensation. Another

work, _The Evolution of the Idea of God_, propounding a theory of

religion on heterodox lines, has the disadvantage of endeavouring to

explain everything by one theory. His scientific works also included

_Colour Sense_, _Evolutionist at Large_, _Colin Clout's Calendar_, and

the _Story of the Plants_, and among his novels may be added _Babylon_,

_In all Shades_, _Philistia_ (1884), _The Devil's Die_, and _The British

Barbarians_ (1896).

ALLINGHAM, WILLIAM (1824-1889).--Poet, the _s._ of a banker of English

descent, was _b._ at Ballyshannon, entered the customs service, and was

ultimately settled in London, where he contributed to _Leigh Hunt's

Journal_. Hunt introduced him to Carlyle and other men of letters, and in

1850 he _pub._ a book of poems, which was followed by _Day and Night

Songs_ (1854), _Laurence Bloomfield in Ireland_ (1864) (his most

ambitious, though not his most successful work), and _Collected Poems_ in

6 vols. (1888-93). He also edited _The Ballad Book_ for the _Golden

Treasury_ series in 1864. In 1870 he retired from the civil service and

became sub-editor of _Fraser's Magazine_ under Froude, whom he succeeded

as editor (1874-79). His verse is clear, fresh, and graceful. He married

Helen Paterson, the water colourist, whose idylls have made the name of

"Mrs. Allingham" famous also. He _d._ in 1889. Other works are _Fifty

Modern Poems_ (1865), _Songs, Poems, and Ballads_ (1877), _Evil May Day_

(1883), _Blackberries_ (1884), _Irish Songs and Poems_ (1887), and

_Varieties in Prose_ (1893). A selection from his diaries and

autobiography was _pub._ in 1906.

ALLSTON, WASHINGTON (1779-1843).--Painter and poet, _b._ in S. Carolina,

became a distinguished painter, and also wrote a good deal of verse

including _The Sylphs of the Seasons_, etc. (1813), and _The Two

Painters_, a satire. He also produced a novel, _Monaldi_. He was known as

"the American Titian."

AMORY, THOMAS (1691(?)-1788).--Eccentric writer, was of Irish descent. In

1755 he _publ._ _Memoirs containing the lives of several ladies of Great

Britain, a History of Antiquities and Observations on the Christian

Religion_, which was followed by the _Life of John Buncle_ (1756),

practically a continuation. The contents of these works are of the most

miscellaneous description--philology, natural science, theology, and, in

fact, whatever occurred to the writer, treated without any system, but

with occasional originality and felicity of diction. The author, who was

probably more or less insane, is described as having a very peculiar

aspect, with the manner of a gentleman, scarcely ever stirring abroad

except at dusk. He reached the age of 97.

ANDERSON, ALEXANDER (1845-1909).--Poet, _s._ of a quarrier at Kirkconnel,

Dumfriesshire, became a surfaceman on the railway. Spending all his

leisure in self-culture, he mastered German, French, and Spanish

sufficiently to read the chief masterpieces in these languages. His

poetic vein, which was true if somewhat limited in range, soon manifested

itself, and his first book, _Songs of Labour_, appeared in 1873, and

there followed _Two Angels_ (1875), _Songs of the Rail_ (1878), and

_Ballads and Sonnets_ (1879). In the following year he was made assistant

librarian in the University of Edinburgh, and after an interval as

secretary to the Philosophical Institution there, he returned as Chief

Librarian to the university. Thereafter he wrote little. Of a simple and

gentle character, he made many friends, including the Duke of Argyll,

Carlyle, and Lord Houghton. He generally wrote under the name of

"Surfaceman."

ANDREWES, LANCELOT (1555-1626).--Churchman and scholar, was _b._ in

London, and _ed._ at Merchant Taylor's School and Cambridge, where he

took a fellowship and taught divinity. After receiving various other

preferments he became Dean of Westminster, and a chaplain-in-ordinary to

Queen Elizabeth, who, however, did not advance him further on account of

his opposition to the alienation of ecclesiastical revenues. On the

accession, however, of James I., to whom his somewhat pedantic learning

and style of preaching recommended him, he rose into great favour, and

was made successively Bishop of Chichester, of Ely, and, in 1618, of

Winchester. He attended the Hampton Court Conference, and took part in

the translation of the Bible, known as the _Authorised Version_, his

special work being given to the earlier parts of the Old Testament: he

acted, however, as a sort of general editor. He was considered as, next

to Ussher, the most learned churchman of his day, and enjoyed a great

reputation as an eloquent and impassioned preacher, but the stiffness and

artificiality of his style render his sermons unsuited to modern taste.

His doctrine was High Church, and in his life he was humble, pious, and

charitable. Ninety-six of his sermons were published in 1631 by command

of Charles I.

There are lives by A.T. Russell (1863), and R.L. Ottley (1894);

_Devotions_ were edited by Rev. Dr. Whyte (1900).

ANSTEY, CHRISTOPHER (1724-1805).--Poet, _s._ of Dr. A., a wealthy

clergyman, rector of Brinkley, Cambridgeshire, was _ed._ at Eton and

Cambridge. He _pub._ in 1766 a satirical poem of considerable sparkle,

_The New Bath Guide_, from which Smollett is said to have drawn largely

in his _Humphrey Clinker_. He made many other excursions into literature

which are hardly remembered, and ended his days as a country squire at

the age of eighty.

D'ARBLAY, FRANCES (BURNEY) (1752-1840).--Novelist, _dau._ of Dr. Charles

B., a musician of some distinction, was _b._ at Lynn Regis, where her

_f._ was organist. Her mother having died while she was very young, and

her _f._, who had come to London, being too busy to give her any

attention, she was practically self-educated. Her first novel, _Evelina_,

_pub._ anonymously in 1778, at once by its narrative and comic power,

brought her fame, and, through Mrs. Thrale (_q.v._), she made the

acquaintance of Dr. Johnson, with whom she became a great favourite. Her

next literary venture was a comedy, _The Witlings_; but, by the advice of

her _f._, it was not put upon the stage. In 1782, however, she produced

_Cecilia_, which, like its predecessor, had an enormous sale, and which,

though not perhaps so popular as _Evelina_, added to her fame. She now

became the friend of Burke and other distinguished persons, including

Mrs. Delaney, through whom she became known to the royal family, and was

offered the appointment of Second Keeper of the Robes, which, with some

misgivings, she accepted. This situation did not prove a happy one, the

duties being menial, the society uncongenial, and the court etiquette

oppressive and injurious to her health, and in 1791 she obtained

permission to retire on a pension of £100. She had, during her connection

with the court, continued her _Diary_, which she had begun in girlhood,

and continued during her whole life, and which during this period

contains many interesting accounts of persons and affairs of note. She

married (1793) Gen. D'Arblay, a French _emigré_, their only income being

her slender pension. This she endeavoured to increase by producing a

tragedy, _Edwy and Elvira_, which failed. In 1795 she _pub._ by

subscription another novel, _Camilla_, which, though it did not add to

her reputation, considerably improved her circumstances, as it is said to

have brought her £3000. After some years spent in France, where her

husband had obtained employment, she returned to England and _pub._ her

last novel, _The Wanderer_, which fell flat. Her only remaining work was

a life of her father, written in an extraordinarily grandiloquent style.

She died in 1840, aged 87.

ARBUTHNOT, JOHN (1667-1735).--Physician and satirist, was _b._ in

Kincardineshire, and after studying at Aberdeen and Oxford, took his

degree of M.D. at St. Andrews. Settling in London, he taught mathematics.

Being by a fortunate accident at Epsom, he was called in to prescribe for

Prince George, who was suddenly taken ill there, and was so successful in

his treatment that he was appointed his regular physician. This

circumstance made his professional fortune, for his ability enabled him

to take full advantage of it, and in 1705 he became physician to the

Queen. He became the cherished friend of Swift and Pope, and himself

gained a high reputation as a wit and man of letters. His principal works

are the _Memoirs of Martinus Scriblerus_, partly by Pope, but to which he

was the chief contributor, the _History of John Bull_ (1712), mainly

against the Duke of Marlborough, _A Treatise concerning the Altercation

or Scolding of the Ancients_, and the _Art of Political Lying_. He also

wrote various medical treatises, and dissertations on ancient coins,

weights, and measures. After the death of Queen Anne, A. lost his court

appointments, but this, as well as more serious afflictions with which he

was visited, he bore with serenity and dignity. He was an honourable and

amiable man, one of the very few who seems to have retained the sincere

regard of Swift, whose style he made the model of his own, with such

success that writings by the one were sometimes attributed to the other:

his _Art of Political Lying_ is an example. He has, however, none of the

ferocity of S.

ARGYLL, GEORGE JOHN DOUGLAS CAMPBELL, 8TH DUKE OF (1823-1900).--Statesman

and writer on science, religion, and politics, succeeded his _f._, the

7th duke, in 1847. His talents and eloquence soon raised him to

distinction in public life. He acted with the Liberal party until its

break-up under the Irish policy of Mr. Gladstone, after which he was one

of the Unionist leaders. He held the offices of Lord Privy Seal,

Postmaster-General, and Indian Secretary. His writings include _The Reign

of Law_ (1866), _Primeval Man_ (1869), _The Eastern Question_ (1879),

_The Unseen Foundations of Society_ (1893), _Philosophy of Belief_

(1896), _Organic Evolution Cross-examined_ (1898). He was a man of the

highest character, honest, courageous, and clear-sighted, and, though

regarded by some professional scientists as to a certain extent an

amateur, his ability, knowledge, and dialectic power made him a

formidable antagonist, and enabled him to exercise a useful, generally

conservative, influence on scientific thought and progress.

ARMSTRONG, JOHN, M.D. (1709-1779).--Poet, _s._ of the minister of

Castleton, Roxburghshire, studied medicine, which he practised in London.

He is remembered as the friend of Thomson, Mallet, and other literary

celebrities of the time, and as the author of a poem on _The Art of

Preserving Health_, which appeared in 1744, and in which a somewhat

unpromising subject for poetic treatment is gracefully and ingeniously

handled. His other works, consisting of some poems and prose essays, and

a drama, _The Forced Marriage_, are forgotten, with the exception of the

four stanzas at the end of the first part of Thomson's _Castle of

Indolence_, describing the diseases incident to sloth, which he

contributed.

ARNOLD, SIR EDWIN (1832-1904).--Poet, _s._ of a Sussex magistrate, was

_b._ at Gravesend, and _ed._ at King's School, Rochester, London, and

Oxford. Thereafter he was an assistant master at King Edward's School,

Birmingham, and was in 1856 appointed Principal of the Government Deccan

College, Poona. Here he received the bias towards, and gathered material

for, his future works. In 1861 he returned to England and became

connected with _The Daily Telegraph_, of which he was ultimately editor.

The literary task which he set before him was the interpretation in

English verse of the life and philosophy of the East. His chief work with

this object is _The Light of Asia_ (1879), a poem on the life and

teaching of Buddha, which had great popularity, but whose permanent place

in literature must remain very uncertain. In _The Light of the World_

(1891), he attempted, less successfully, a similar treatment of the life

and teaching of Jesus. Other works are _The Song of Songs of India_

(1875), _With Saadi in the Garden_, and _The Tenth Muse_. He travelled

widely in the East, and wrote books on his travels. He was made K.C.I.E.

in 1888.

ARNOLD, MATTHEW (1822-1888).--Poet and critic, _s._ of Dr. A., of Rugby

(_q.v._), was _b._ at Laleham and _ed._ at Rugby, Winchester, and Balliol

Coll., Oxford, becoming a Fellow of Oriel in 1845. Thereafter he was

private secretary to Lord Lansdowne, Lord President of the Council,

through whose influence he was in 1851 appointed an inspector of schools.

Two years before this he had _pub._ his first book of poetry, _The

Strayed Reveller_, which he soon withdrew: some of the poems, however,

including "Mycerinus" and "The Forsaken Merman," were afterwards

republished, and the same applies to his next book, _Empedocles on Etna_

(1852), with "Tristram and Iseult." In 1857 he was appointed to the

Professorship of Poetry at Oxford, which he held for ten years. After

this he produced little poetry and devoted himself to criticism and

theology. His principal writings are, in poetry, _Poems_ (1853),

containing "Sohrab and Rustum," and "The Scholar Gipsy;" _Poems, 2nd

Series_ (1855), containing "Balder Dead;" _Merope_ (1858); _New Poems_

(1867), containing "Thyrsis," an elegy on A.H. Clough (_q.v._), "A

Southern Night," "Rugby Chapel," and "The Weary Titan"; in prose he wrote

_On Translating Homer_ (1861 and 1862), _On the Study of Celtic

Literature_ (1867), _Essays in Celtic Literature_ (1868), _2nd Series_

(1888), _Culture and Anarchy_ (1869), _St. Paul and Protestantism_

(1870), _Friendship's Garland_ (1871), _Literature and Dogma_ (1873),

_God and the Bible_ (1875), _Last Essays on Church and Religion_ (1877),

_Mixed Essays_ (1879), _Irish Essays_ (1882), and _Discourses in America_

(1885). He also wrote some works on the state of education on the

Continent. In 1883 he received a pension of £250. The rationalistic

tendency of certain of his writings gave offence to many readers, and the

sufficiency of his equipment in scholarship for dealing with some of the

subjects which he handled was called in question; but he undoubtedly

exercised a stimulating influence on his time; his writings are

characterised by the finest culture, high purpose, sincerity, and a style

of great distinction, and much of his poetry has an exquisite and subtle

beauty, though here also it has been doubted whether high culture and

wide knowledge of poetry did not sometimes take the place of the true

poetic fire.

There is a bibliography of A.'s works by T.B. Smart (1892), and books

upon him have been written by Prof. Saintsbury (1899), H. Paul (1902),

and G.W.E. Russell (1904), also papers by Sir L. Stephen, F. Harrison,

and others.

ARNOLD, THOMAS (1795-1842).--Historian, _s._ of an inland revenue officer

in the Isle of Wight, was _ed._ at Winchester and Oxford, and after some

years as a tutor, was, in 1828, appointed Head Master of Rugby. His

learning, earnestness, and force of character enabled him not only to

raise his own school to the front rank of public schools, but to exercise

an unprecedented reforming influence on the whole educational system of

the country. A liberal in politics, and a zealous church reformer, he was

involved in many controversies, educational and religious. As a churchman

he was a decided Erastian, and strongly opposed to the High Church party.

In 1841 he was appointed Professor of Modern History at Oxford. His chief

literary works are his unfinished _History of Rome_ (three vols.

1838-42), and his _Lectures on Modern History_. He _d._ suddenly of

angina pectoris in the midst of his usefulness and growing influence. His

life, by Dean Stanley (_q.v._), is one of the best works of its class in

the language.

ASCHAM, ROGER (1515-1568).--Didactic writer and scholar, _s._ of John A.,

house-steward in the family of Lord Scrope, was _b._ at Kirby Wiske,

Yorkshire, and _ed._ first by Sir Humphrey Wingfield, and then at St.

John's Coll., Cambridge, where he devoted himself specially to the study

of Greek, then newly revived, and of which, having taken a fellowship, he

became a teacher. He was likewise noted for his skill in penmanship,

music, and archery, the last of which is the subject of his first work,

_Toxophilus_, _pub._ in 1545, and which, dedicated to Henry VIII., gained

him the favour of the King, who bestowed a pension upon him. The objects

of the book are twofold, to commend the practice of shooting with the

long bow as a manly sport and an aid to national defence, and to set the

example of a higher style of composition than had yet been attempted in

English. Soon afterwards he was made university orator, and master of

languages to the Lady (afterwards Queen) Elizabeth. He then went abroad

in various positions of trust, returning on being appointed Latin

Secretary to Edward VI. This office he likewise discharged to Mary and

then to Elizabeth--a testimony to his tact and caution in these changeful

times. His principal work, _The Schoolmaster_, a treatise on education,

was printed by his widow in 1570. He also _pub._ a book on the political

state of Germany.

Editions: of _Toxophilus_, Arber; _Schoolmaster_, Arber, also Mayer

(1883); English works, Bennet (1767), with life by Dr. Johnson; whole

works, Giles (1864-5).

ASGILL, JOHN (1659-1738).--Eccentric writer, student at the Middle

Temple, 1686, and called to the Bar 1692. In 1699 he _pub._ in an unlucky

hour a pamphlet to prove that death was not obligatory upon Christians,

which, much to his surprise, aroused the public wrath and led to his

expulsion from the Irish and English House of Commons successively. A.

thereafter fell on evil days, and passed the rest of his life between the

Fleet and the King's Bench, where, strange to say, his zeal as a

pamphleteer continued unabated. He _d._ in 1738.

ASHMOLE, ELIAS (1617-1692).--Antiquary, was _ed._ at Lichfield, and

became a solicitor in 1638. On the breaking out of the Civil War he

sided with the royalists; went to Oxford and studied science, including

astrology. The result of his studies in this region of mystery was his

_Theatrum Chymicum Britannicum_, which gained him great repute and the

friendship of John Selden. His last astrological treatise was _The Way to

Bliss_, which dealt with the subject of "the philosopher's stone." He

also wrote various works on antiquarian subjects, and a _History of the

Order of the Garter_. A. held various posts under government, and

presented to the University of Oxford a valuable collection of

curiosities now known as the Ashmolean Museum. He also bequeathed his

library to the University. His wife was a _dau._ of Sir W. Dugdale, the

antiquary.

ASSER (_d._ 909?).--Chronicler, a monk of St. David's, afterwards Bishop

of Sherborne, was the friend, helper, and biographer of Ælfred. In

addition to his life of Ælfred he wrote a chronicle of England from 849

to 887.

ATHERSTONE, EDWIN (1788-1872).--Poet and novelist. His works, which were

planned on an imposing scale, attracted some temporary attention and

applause, but are now forgotten. His chief poem, _The Fall of Nineveh_,

consisting of thirty books, appeared at intervals from 1828 to 1868. He

also produced two novels, _The Sea Kings in England_ and _The Handwriting

on the Wall_.

ATTERBURY, FRANCIS (1662-1732).--Controversialist and preacher, was _b._

near Newport Pagnel, Bucks, and _ed._ at Westminster School and Oxford.

He became the leading protagonist on the High Church side in the

ecclesiastical controversies of his time, and is believed to have been

the chief author of the famous defence of Dr. Sacheverell in 1712. He

also wrote most of Boyle's _Examination of Dr. Bentley's Dissertations on

the Epistles of Phalaris_, and _pub._ sermons, which, with his letters to

Swift, Pope, and other friends, constitute the foundation of his literary

reputation. During the reign of the Tories he enjoyed much preferment,

having been successively Canon of Exeter, Dean of Christ Church, Dean of

Westminster, and Bishop of Rochester. His Jacobite principles, however,

and his participation in various plots got him into trouble, and in 1722

he was confined in the Tower, deprived of all his offices, and ultimately

banished. He _d._ at Paris, Feb. 15, 1732, and was buried privately in

Westminster Abbey.

AUBREY, JOHN (1626-1697).--Antiquary, was a country gentleman who

inherited estates in several counties in England, which he lost by

litigation and otherwise. He devoted himself to the collection of

antiquarian and miscellaneous observations, and gave assistance to

Dugdale and Anthony à-Wood in their researches. His own investigations

were extensive and minute, but their value is much diminished by his

credulity, and want of capacity to weigh evidence. His only publication

is his _Miscellanies_, a collection of popular superstitions, etc., but

he left various collections, which were edited and _publ._ in the 19th

century.

AUSTEN, JANE (1775-1817).--Novelist, _dau._ of a clergyman, was _b._ at

the rectory of Steventon near Basingstoke. She received an education

superior to that generally given to girls of her time, and took early to

writing, her first tale being begun in 1798. Her life was a singularly

uneventful one, and, but for a disappointment in love, tranquil and

happy. In 1801 the family went to Bath, the scene of many episodes in her

writings, and after the death of her _f._ in 1805 to Southampton, and

later to Chawton, a village in Hants, where most of her novels were

written. A tendency to consumption having manifested itself, she removed

in May, 1817, to Winchester for the advantage of skilled medical

attendance, but so rapid was the progress of her malady that she died

there two months later. Of her six novels, four--_Sense and Sensibility_

(1811), _Pride and Prejudice_ (1813), _Mansfield Park_ (1814) and _Emma_

(1816)--were _pub._ anonymously during her life-time; and the others,

_Northanger Abbey_--written in 1798--and _Persuasion_, finished in 1816,

appeared a few months after her death, when the name of the authoress was

divulged. Although her novels were from the first well received, it is

only of comparatively late years that her genius has gained the wide

appreciation which it deserves. Her strength lies in the delineation of

character, especially of persons of her own sex, by a number of minute

and delicate touches arising out of the most natural and everyday

incidents in the life of the middle and upper classes, from which her

subjects are generally taken. Her characters, though of quite ordinary

types, are drawn with such wonderful firmness and precision, and with

such significant detail as to retain their individuality absolutely

intact through their entire development, and they are never coloured by

her own personality. Her view of life is genial in the main, with a

strong dash of gentle but keen satire: she appeals rarely and slightly to

the deeper feelings; and the enforcement of the excellent lessons she

teaches is left altogether to the story, without a word of formal

moralising. Among her admirers was Sir W. Scott, who said, "That young

lady has a talent for describing the involvements of feelings and

characters of ordinary life which is to me the most wonderful I ever met

with;" others were Macaulay (who thought that in the world there were no

compositions which approached nearer to perfection), Coleridge, Southey,

Sydney Smith, and E. FitzGerald.

AUSTIN, JOHN (1790-1859).--Jurist, served in the army in Sicily and

Malta, but, selling his commission, studied law, and was called to the

Bar 1818. He did not long continue to practise, but devoted himself to

the study of law as a science, and became Professor of Jurisprudence in

London University 1826-32. Thereafter he served on various Royal

Commissions. By his works he exercised a profound influence on the views

of jurisprudence held in England. These include _The Province of

Jurisprudence Determined_ (1832), and his _Lectures on Jurisprudence_.

AYTON, SIR ROBERT (1570-1638).--Poet, _s._ of A. of Kinaldie in Fife.

After _grad._ at St. Andrews, he studied law at Paris, became ambassador

to the Emperor, and held other court offices. He appears to have been

well-known to his literary contemporaries in England. He wrote poems in

Latin, Greek, and English, and was one of the first Scotsmen to write in

the last. His chief poem is _Diophantus and Charidora; Inconstancy

Upbraided_ is perhaps the best of his short poems. He is credited with a

little poem, _Old Long Syne_, which probably suggested Burns's famous

_Auld Lang Syne_.

AYTOUN, WILLIAM EDMONSTONE (1813-1865).--Poet and humorist, _s._ of Roger

A., a Writer to the Signet, was _b._ in Edinburgh and _ed._ there, and

was brought up to the law, which, however, as he said, he "followed but

could never overtake." He became a contributor to _Blackwood's Magazine_

in 1836, and continued his connection with it until his death. In it

appeared most of his humorous prose pieces, such as _The Glenmutchkin

Railway_, _How I Became a Yeoman_, and _How I Stood for the Dreepdaily

Burghs_, all full of vigorous fun. In the same pages began to appear his

chief poetical work, the _Lays of the Scottish Cavaliers_, and a novel,

partly autobiographical, _Norman Sinclair_. Other works were _The Bon

Gaultier Ballads_, jointly with Theodore Martin, and _Firmilian, a

Spasmodic Tragedy_, under the _nom-de-plume_ of T. Percy Jones, intended

to satirise a group of poets and critics, including Gilfillan, Dobell,

Bailey, and Alexander Smith. In 1845 A. obtained the Chair of Rhetoric

and Belles Lettres in Edinburgh University, which he filled with great

success, raising the attendance from 30 to 150, and in 1852 he was

appointed sheriff of Orkney and Shetland. He was married to a _dau._ of

Professor Wilson (Christopher North).

BACON, FRANCIS, LORD VERULAM, AND VISCOUNT ST. ALBAN'S

(1561-1626).--Philosopher and statesman, was the youngest _s._ of Sir

Nicholas B., Lord Keeper, by his second wife, a _dau._ of Sir Anthony

Cooke, whose sister married William Cecil, Lord Burghley, the great

minister of Queen Elizabeth. He was _b._ at York House in the Strand on

Jan. 22, 1561, and in his 13th year was sent with his elder brother

Anthony to Trinity Coll., Cambridge. Here he first met the Queen, who was

impressed by his precocious intellect, and was accustomed to call him

"the young Lord Keeper." Here also he became dissatisfied with the

Aristotelian philosophy as being unfruitful and leading only to

resultless disputation. In 1576 he entered Gray's Inn, and in the same

year joined the embassy of Sir Amyas Paulet to France, where he remained

until 1579. The death of his _f._ in that year, before he had completed

an intended provision for him, gave an adverse turn to his fortunes, and

rendered it necessary that he should decide upon a profession. He

accordingly returned to Gray's Inn, and, after an unsuccessful attempt to

induce Burghley to give him a post at court, and thus enable him to

devote himself to a life of learning, he gave himself seriously to the

study of law, and was called to the Bar in 1582. He did not, however,

desert philosophy, and _pub._ a Latin tract, _Temporis Partus Maximus_

(the Greatest Birth of Time), the first rough draft of his own system.

Two years later, in 1584, he entered the House of Commons as member for

Melcombe, sitting subsequently for Taunton (1586), Liverpool (1589),

Middlesex (1593), and Southampton (1597). In the Parliament of 1586 he

took a prominent part in urging the execution of Mary Queen of Scots.

About this time he seems again to have approached his powerful uncle, the

result of which may possibly be traced in his rapid progress at the Bar,

and in his receiving, in 1589, the reversion to the Clerkship of the

Star Chamber, a valuable appointment, into the enjoyment of which,

however, he did not enter until 1608. About 1591 he formed a friendship

with the Earl of Essex, from whom he received many tokens of kindness ill

requited. In 1593 the offices of Attorney-general, and subsequently of

Solicitor-general became vacant, and Essex used his influence on B.'s

behalf, but unsuccessfully, the former being given to Coke, the famous

lawyer. These disappointments may have been owing to a speech made by B.

on a question of subsidies. To console him for them Essex presented him

with a property at Twickenham, which he subsequently sold for £1800,

equivalent to a much larger sum now. In 1596 he was made a Queen's

Counsel, but missed the appointment of Master of the Rolls, and in the

next year (1597), he _pub._ the first edition of his _Essays_, ten in

number, combined with _Sacred Meditations_ and the _Colours of Good and

Evil_. By 1601 Essex had lost the Queen's favour, and had raised his

rebellion, and B. was one of those appointed to investigate the charges

against him, and examine witnesses, in connection with which he showed an

ungrateful and indecent eagerness in pressing the case against his former

friend and benefactor, who was executed on Feb. 25, 1601. This act B.

endeavoured to justify in _A Declaration of the Practices and Treasons,

etc., of ... the Earl of Essex, etc._ His circumstances had for some time

been bad, and he had been arrested for debt: he had, however, received a

gift of a fine of £1200 on one of Essex's accomplices. The accession of

James VI. in 1603 gave a favourable turn to his fortunes: he was

knighted, and endeavoured to set himself right with the new powers by

writing his _Apologie_ (defence) of his proceedings in the case of Essex,

who had favoured the succession of James. In the first Parliament of the

new king he sat for St. Alban's, and was appointed a Commissioner for

Union with Scotland. In 1605 he _pub._ _The Advancement of Learning_,

dedicated, with fulsome flattery, to the king. The following year he

married Alice Barnham, the _dau._ of a London merchant, and in 1607 he

was made Solicitor-General, and wrote _Cogita et Visa_, a first sketch of

the _Novum Organum_, followed in 1609 by _The Wisdom of the Ancients_.

Meanwhile (in 1608), he had entered upon the Clerkship of the Star

Chamber, and was in the enjoyment of a large income; but old debts and

present extravagance kept him embarrassed, and he endeavoured to obtain

further promotion and wealth by supporting the king in his arbitrary

policy. In 1613 he became Attorney-General, and in this capacity

prosecuted Somerset in 1616. The year 1618 saw him Lord Keeper, and the

next Lord Chancellor and Baron Verulam, a title which, in 1621, he

exchanged for that of Viscount St. Albans. Meanwhile he had written the

_New Atlantis_, a political romance, and in 1620 he presented to the king

the _Novum Organum_, on which he had been engaged for 30 years, and which

ultimately formed the main part of the _Instauratio Magna_. In his great

office B. showed a failure of character in striking contrast with the

majesty of his intellect. He was corrupt alike politically and

judicially, and now the hour of retribution arrived. In 1621 a

Parliamentary Committee on the administration of the law charged him with

corruption under 23 counts; and so clear was the evidence that he made no

attempt at defence. To the lords, who sent a committee to inquire

whether the confession was really his, he replied, "My lords, it is my

act, my hand, and my heart; I beseech your lordships to be merciful to a

broken reed." He was sentenced to a fine of £40,000, remitted by the

king, to be committed to the Tower during the king's pleasure (which was

that he should be released in a few days), and to be incapable of holding

office or sitting in parliament. He narrowly escaped being deprived of

his titles. Thenceforth he devoted himself to study and writing. In 1622

appeared his _History of Henry VII._, and the 3rd part of the

_Instauratio_; in 1623, _History of Life and Death_, the _De Augmentis

Scientarum_, a Latin translation of the _Advancement_, and in 1625 the

3rd edition of the _Essays_, now 58 in number. He also _pub._

_Apophthegms_, and a translation of some of the _Psalms_. His life was

now approaching its close. In March, 1626, he came to London, and shortly

after, when driving on a snowy day, the idea struck him of making an

experiment as to the antiseptic properties of snow, in consequence of

which he caught a chill, which ended in his death on 9th April 1626. He

left debts to the amount of £22,000. At the time of his death he was

engaged upon _Sylva Sylvarum_. The intellect of B. was one of the most

powerful and searching ever possessed by man, and his developments of the

inductive philosophy revolutionised the future thought of the human race.

The most popular of his works is the _Essays_, which convey profound and

condensed thought in a style that is at once clear and rich. His moral

character was singularly mixed and complex, and bears no comparison with

his intellect. It exhibits a singular coldness and lack of enthusiasm,

and indeed a bluntness of moral perception and an absence of

attractiveness rarely combined with such extraordinary mental endowments.

All that was possible to be done in defence of his character and public

conduct has been done by his accomplished biographer and editor, Mr.

Spedding (_q.v._). Singular, though of course futile, attempts, supported

sometimes with much ingenuity, have been made to claim for B. the

authorship of Shakespeare's plays, and have indeed been extended so as to

include those of Marlowe, and even the _Essays_ of Montaigne.

SUMMARY.--_B._ London 1561, _ed._ Trinity Coll., Cambridge, dissatisfied

with Aristotelean philosophy, entered Gray's Inn 1576, in France 1576-79,

called to Bar 1582, enters Parliament 1584, became friend of Essex 1591,

who presents him with estate 1593, _pub._ 1st ed. of _Essays_ 1597,

prosecutes Essex 1601, _pub._ _Advancement of Learning_ 1605,

Solicitor-Gen. 1607, _pub._ _Wisdom of the Ancients_ 1609, Attorney-Gen.

1613, prosecuted Somerset 1616, Lord Keeper 1618, Lord Chancellor with

title of Verulam 1619, Visc. St. Albans 1621, _pub._ _Novum Organum_

1620, charged with corruption, and retires from public life 1621, _pub._

_Henry VII._ and 3rd part of _Instauratio_ 1622, _d._ 1626.

The standard edition of B.'s works is that of Spedding, Ellis, and Heath

(14 vols. 1857-74), including _Life and Letters_ by Spedding. See also

Macaulay's _Essays_; Dean Church in _Men of Letters Series_; Dr. Abbott's

_Life_ (1885), etc. For philosophy Fowler's _Novum Organum_ (1878).

BACON, ROGER (1214?-1294).--Philosopher, studied at Oxford and Paris. His

scientific acquirements, regarded in that age as savouring of

witchcraft, and doubtless also his protests against the ignorance and

immorality of the clergy, excited the jealousy and hatred of the

Franciscans, and he was in consequence imprisoned at Paris for ten years.

Clement IV., who had been a sympathiser, desired on his accession to see

his works, and in response B. sent him _Opus Majus_, a treatise on the

sciences (grammar, logic, mathematics, physics, and philosophy), followed

by _Opus Secundum_ and _Opus Tertium_. Clement, however, was near death

when they arrived. B. was comparatively free from persecution for the

next ten years. But in 1278 he was again imprisoned for upwards of ten

years. At the intercession of some English noblemen he was at last

released, and spent his remaining years at Oxford. He possessed one of

the most commanding intellects of his own, or perhaps of any, age, and,

notwithstanding all the disadvantages and discouragements to which he was

subjected, made many discoveries, and came near to many more. There is

still preserved at Oxford a rectified calendar in which he approximates

closely to the truth. He received the sobriquet of the "Doctor

Mirabilis."

BAGE, ROBERT (1728-1801).--Novelist, _b._ in Derbyshire, was the _s._ of

a paper-maker. It was not until he was 53 that he took to literature; but

in the 15 years following he produced 6 novels, of which Sir Walter Scott

says that "strong mind, playful fancy, and extensive knowledge are

everywhere apparent." B., though brought up as a Quaker, imbibed the

principles of the French Revolution. He was an amiable and benevolent

man, and highly esteemed. _Hermsprong; or, Man as He is Not_ (1796) is

considered the best of his novels, of which it was the last. The names of

the others are _Mount Kenneth_ (1781), _Barham Downs_ (1784), _The Fair

Syrian_ (1787), _James Wallace_ (1788), and _Man as He is_ (1792).

BAGEHOT, WALTER (1826-1877).--Economist, _s._ of a banker, _b._ at

Langport, Somerset, _ed._ at University Coll., London, and called to the

Bar, but did not practise, and joined his _f._ in business. He wrote for

various periodicals, and from 1860 was editor of _The Economist_. He was

the author of _The English Constitution_ (1867), a standard work which

was translated into several languages; _Physics and Politics_ (1872), and

_Lombard Street_ (1873), a valuable financial work. A collection of

essays, biographical and economic, was _pub._ after his death.

BAILEY, PHILIP JAMES (1816-1902).--Poet, _s._ of a journalist, _b._ at

Nottingham, and _ed._ there and at Glasgow, of which he was made an LL.D.

in 1891. His life was a singularly uneventful one. He lived at

Nottingham, Jersey, Ilfracombe, London, and again at Nottingham, where he

_d._ He travelled a good deal on the Continent. He was by profession a

barrister, but never practised, and devoted his whole energies to poetry.

His first poem, _Festus_ (1839), is, for the daring of its theme and the

imaginative power and moral altitude which it displays, one of the most

notable of the century; as the work of one little past boyhood it is a

prodigy of intellectual precocity. Along with its great qualities it has

many faults in execution, and its final place in literature remains to

be determined. It was _pub._ anonymously, and had great success, but has

fallen into unmerited, but perhaps temporary, neglect. Among its greatest

admirers was Tennyson. The subsequent poems of B., _The Angel World_

(1850), _The Mystic_ (1855), _The Age_ (1858), and _The Universal Hymn_

(1867), were failures, and the author adopted the unfortunate expedient

of endeavouring to buoy them up by incorporating large extracts in the

later editions of _Festus_, with the effect only of sinking the latter,

which ultimately extended to over 40,000 lines. B. was a man of

strikingly handsome appearance, and gentle and amiable character.

BAILLIE, JOANNA (1762-1851).--Dramatist and poetess, _dau._ of the

minister of Bothwell, afterwards Professor of Divinity at Glasgow. Her

mother was a sister of the great anatomists, William and John Hunter, and

her brother was the celebrated physician, Matthew B., of London. She

received a thorough education at Glasgow, and at an early age went to

London, where the remainder of her long, happy, and honoured, though

uneventful, life was passed. In 1798, when she was 36, the first vol. of

her _Plays on the Passions_ appeared, and was received with much favour,

other two vols. followed in 1802 and 1812, and she also produced

_Miscellaneous Plays_ in 1804, and 3 vols. of _Dramatic Poetry_ in 1836.

In all her works there are many passages of true and impressive poetry,

but the idea underlying her _Plays on the Passions_, that, namely, of

exhibiting the principal character as acting under the exclusive

influence of one passion, is artificial and untrue to nature.

BAILLIE, LADY GRIZEL (1665-1746).--Poetess, _dau._ of Sir Patrick Home or

Hume, afterwards Earl of Marchmont, was married to George Baillie of

Jerviswoode. In her childhood she showed remarkable courage and address

in the services she rendered to her father and his friend, Robert Baillie

of Jerviswoode, the eminent Scottish patriot, when under persecution. She

left many pieces both prose and verse in MS., some of which were _pub._

The best known is the beautiful song, _Were na my heart licht I wad die_.

BAILLIE, ROBERT (1599-1662).--Historical writer, _s._ of B. of Jerviston,

_ed._ at Glasgow, he entered the Church of Scotland and became minister

of Kilwinning in Ayrshire. His abilities soon made him a leading man. He

was a member of the historic Assembly of 1638, when Presbyterianism was

re-established in Scotland, and also of the Westminster Assembly, 1643.

In 1651 he was made Professor of Divinity in Glasgow, and 10 years later

Principal. His _Letters and Journals_, edited for the Bannatyne Club by

D. Laing (_q.v._), are of the greatest value for the interesting light

they throw on a period of great importance in Scottish history. He was

one of the wisest and most temperate churchmen of his time.

BAIN, ALEXANDER (1818-1903).--Philosopher, _b._ at Aberdeen, and

graduated at Marischal Coll. there, became in 1860 Professor of Logic in

his university, and wrote a number of works on philosophy and psychology,

including _The Senses and the Intellect_ (1855), _The Emotions and the

Will_, _Mental and Moral Science_ (1868), _Logic_ (1870), and _Education

as a Science_ (1879). In 1881 he was elected Lord Rector of Aberdeen

University.

BAKER, SIR RICHARD (1568-1645).--Historian and religious writer, studied

law, was knighted in 1603, and was High Sheriff of Oxfordshire 1620. B.

was the author of _The Chronicle of the Kings of England_ (1643), which

was for long held as a great authority among the country gentlemen. It

has, however, many errors. B. fell on evil days, was thrown into the

Fleet for debt incurred by others, for which he had made himself

responsible, and _d._ there. It was during his durance that the

_Chronicle_ and some religious treatises were composed. The _Chronicle_

was continued by Edward Phillips, Milton's nephew, who became a strong

Royalist.

BAKER, SIR SAMUEL WHITE (1821-1893).--Traveller, _b._ in London, and

after being a planter in Ceylon, and superintending the construction of a

railway between the Danube and the Black Sea, went with his wife, a

Hungarian lady, in search of the sources of the Nile, and discovered the

great lake, Albert Nyanza. B. was knighted in 1866, and was for 4 years

Governor-General of the Equatorial Nile Basin. His books, which are all

on travel and sport, are well written and include _Albert Nyanza_ (1866),

_Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia_ (1867).

BALE, JOHN (1495-1563).--Historian and controversialist, _b._ at Cove,

Suffolk, and _ed._ as a Carmelite friar, but becoming a Protestant,

engaged in violent controversy with the Roman Catholics. After undergoing

persecution and flying to Flanders, he was brought back by Edward VI. and

made Bishop of Ossory. On the death of Edward he was again persecuted,

and had to escape from Ireland to Holland, but returned on the accession

of Elizabeth, who made him a Prebendary of Canterbury. His chief work is

a Latin _Account of the Lives of Eminent Writers of Great Britain_.

Besides this he wrote some dramas on scriptural subjects, and an account

of the trial and death of Sir John Oldcastle. He wrote in all 22 plays,

of which only 5 have come down, the names of certain of which give some

idea of their nature, _e.g._, _The Three Leaves of Nature_, _Moses and

Christ_, and _The Temptacyon of Our Lord_.

BALLANTINE, JAMES (1808-1877).--Artist and author, _b._ in Edinburgh,

began life as a house painter. He studied art, and became one of the

first to revive the art of glass-painting, on which subject he wrote a

treatise. He was the author of _The Gaberlunzie's Wallet_ (1843), _Miller

of Deanhaugh_ (1845), _Poems_ (1856), _100 Songs with Music_ (1865), and

a _Life of David Roberts, R.A._ (1866).

BALLANTYNE, ROBERT MICHAEL (1825-1894).--Writer of tales for boys, _b._

in Edinburgh, was a connection of the well-known printers. As a youth he

spent some years in the service of the Hudson's Bay Co., and was then a

member of Constable's printing firm. In 1856 he took to literature as a

profession, and _pub._ about 80 tales, which, abounding in interesting

adventure and information, and characterised by a thoroughly healthy

tone, had great popularity. Among them are _The Young Fur Traders_

(1856), _The Coral Island_, _Fighting the Flames_, _Martin Rattler_, _The

World of Ice_, _The Dog Crusoe_, _Erling the Bold_, and _Black Ivory_. B.

was also an accomplished water-colour artist, and in all respects lived

up to the ideals he sought to instil into his readers. He _d._ at Rome.

BANCROFT, GEORGE (1800-1891).--American historian, _b._ at Worcester,

Massachusetts, and after _grad._ at Harvard, studied in Germany, where he

became acquainted and corresponded with Goethe, Hegel, and other leaders

of German thought. Returning to America he began his _History of the

United States_ (1834-74). The work covers the period from the discovery

of the Continent to the conclusion of the Revolutionary War in 1782. His

other great work is _The History of the Formation of the Constitution of

the United States_ (1882). B. filled various political offices, and was

in 1846 Minister Plenipotentiary to England, and in 1867 Minister to

Prussia. His writing is clear and vigorous, and his facts generally

accurate, but he is a good deal of a partisan.

BANIM, JOHN (1798-1842).--Novelist, began life as a miniature painter,

but was led by the success of his first book, _Tales of the O'Hara

Family_, to devote himself to literature. The object which he set before

himself was to become to Ireland what Scott has been to Scotland, and the

influence of his model is distinctly traceable in his writings. His

strength lies in the delineation of the characters of the Irish lower

classes, and the impulses, often misguided and criminal, by which they

are influenced, and in this he has shown remarkable power. The first

series of the _O'Hara Tales_ appeared in 1825, the second in 1826. Other

works are _The Croppy_ (1828), _The Denounced_ (1830), _The Smuggler_

(1831), _The Mayor of Windgap_, and his last, _Father Connell_. Most of

these deal with the darker and more painful phases of life, but the

feeling shown in the last-named is brighter and tenderer. B. latterly

suffered from illness and consequent poverty, which were alleviated by a

pension from Government. He also wrote some poems, including _The Celt's

Paradise_, and one or two plays. In the _O'Hara Tales_, he was assisted

by his brother, MICHAEL BANIM (1796-1874), and there is difficulty in

allocating their respective contributions. After the death of John,

Michael wrote _Clough Fionn_ (1852), and _The Town of the Cascades_

(1864).

BANNATYNE, RICHARD (_d._ 1605).--Secretary to John Knox, compiled

_Memorials of Transactions in Scotland from 1569 to 1573_.

BARBAULD, ANNA LETITIA (1743-1825).--Poetess, etc., _dau._ of Dr. John

Aikin (_q.v._), was _b._ at Kibworth-Hencourt, Leicestershire. Her _f._

kept an academy for boys, whose education she shared, and thus became

acquainted with the classics. In 1773 she _pub._ a collection of

miscellaneous poems, which was well received, and in the following year

she married the Rev. R. Barbauld, a French Protestant and dissenting

minister, who also conducted a school near Palgrave in Suffolk. Into this

enterprise Mrs. B. threw herself with great energy, and, mainly owing to

her talents and reputation, it proved a success and was afterwards

carried on at Hampstead and Newington Green. Meantime, she continued her

literary occupations, and brought out various devotional works, including

her _Hymns in Prose for Children_. These were followed by _Evenings at

Home_, _Selections from the English Essayists_, _The Letters of Samuel

Richardson_, with a life prefixed, and a selection from the British

novelists with introductory essay.

BARBOUR, JOHN (1316?-1395).--Poet. Of B.'s youth nothing is certainly

known, but it is believed that he was _b._ near Aberdeen, and studied at

Oxford and Paris. He entered the Church, and rose to ecclesiastical

preferment and Royal favour. He is known to have been Archdeacon of

Aberdeen in 1357, when, and again in 1364, he went with some young

scholars to Oxford, and he also held various civil offices in connection

with the exchequer and the King's household. His principal poem, _The

Bruce_, was in progress in 1376. It consists of 14,000 octosyllabic

lines, and celebrates the praises of Robert the Bruce and James Douglas,

the flowers of Scottish chivalry. This poem is almost the sole authority

on the history it deals with, but is much more than a rhyming chronicle;

it contains many fine descriptive passages, and sings the praises of

freedom. Its style is somewhat bald and severe. Other poems ascribed to

B. are _The Legend of Troy_, and _Legends of the Saints_, probably

translations. B. devoted a perpetual annuity of 20 shillings, bestowed

upon him by the King, to provide for a mass to be sung for himself and

his parents, and this was duly done in the church of St. Machar until the

Reformation.

_The Bruce_, edited by C. Innes for Spalding Club (1856), and for Early

Engl. Text Soc. by W.W. Skeat, 1870-77; and for Scott. Text Soc. (1894);

_The Wallace_ and _The Bruce_ re-studied, J.T.T. Brown, 1900; G. Neilson

in Chambers' Cyc. Eng. Lit. (1903).

BARCLAY, ALEXANDER (1475?-1552).--Poet, probably of Scottish birth, was a

priest in England. He is remembered for his satirical poem, _The Ship of

Fools_ (1509), partly a translation, which is of interest as throwing

light on the manners and customs of the times to which it refers. He also

translated Sallust's _Bellum Jugurthinum_, and the _Mirrour of Good

Manners_, from the Italian of Mancini, and wrote five _Eclogues_. His

style is stiff and his verse uninspired.

BARCLAY, JOHN (1582-1621).--Satirist, _s._ of a Scotsman, who was

Professor of Law at Pont-à-Mousson, Lorraine, came with his _f._ to

England about 1603. He wrote several works in English and Latin, among

which are _Euphormionis Satyricon_, against the Jesuits, and _Argenis_, a

political romance, resembling in certain respects the _Arcadia_ of

Sidney, and the _Utopia_ of More.

BARCLAY, ROBERT (1648-1690).--Apologist of the Quakers, _s._ of Col.

David B. of Ury, _ed._ at the Scots Coll. in Paris, of which his uncle

was Rector, made such progress in study as to gain the admiration of his

teachers, specially of his uncle, who offered to make him his heir if he

would remain in France, and join the Roman Catholic Church. This he

refused to do, and, returning to Scotland, he in 1667 adopted the

principles of the Quakers as his _f._ had already done. Soon afterwards

he began to write in defence of his sect, by _pub._ in 1670 _Truth

cleared of Calumnies_, and _a Catechism and Confession of Faith_ (1673).

His great work, however, is his _Apology for the Quakers_, _pub._ in

Latin in 1676, and translated into English in 1678. It is a weighty and

learned work, written in a dignified style, and was eagerly read. It,

however, failed to arrest the persecution to which the Quakers were

exposed, and B. himself, on returning from the Continent, where he had

gone with Foxe and Penn, was imprisoned, but soon regained his liberty,

and was in the enjoyment of Court favour. He was one of the twelve

Quakers who acquired East New Jersey, of which he was appointed nominal

Governor. His latter years were spent at his estate of Ury, where he _d._

The essential view which B. maintained was, that Christians are

illuminated by an inner light superseding even the Scriptures as the

guide of life. His works have often been reprinted.

BARHAM, RICHARD HARRIS (1788-1845).--Novelist and humorous poet, _s._ of

a country gentleman, was _b._ at Canterbury, _ed._ at St. Paul's School

and Oxford, entered the church, held various incumbencies, and was

Divinity Lecturer, and minor canon of St. Paul's. It is not, however, as

a churchman that he is remembered, but as the author of the _Ingoldsby

Legends_, a series of comic and serio-comic pieces in verse, sparkling

with wit, and full of striking and often grotesque turns of expression,

which appeared first in _Bentley's Miscellany_. He also wrote, in

_Blackwood's Magazine_, a novel, _My Cousin Nicholas_.

BARLOW, JOEL (1754-1812).--Poet, _b._ at Reading, Connecticut, served for

a time as an army chaplain, and thereafter betook himself to law, and

finally to commerce and diplomacy, in the former of which he made a

fortune. He was much less successful as a poet than as a man of affairs.

His writings include _Vision of Columbus_ (1787), afterwards expanded

into the _Columbiad_ (1807), _The Conspiracy of Kings_ (1792), and _The

Hasty Pudding_ (1796), a mock-heroic poem, his best work. These are

generally pompous and dull. In 1811 he was _app._ ambassador to France,

and met his death in Poland while journeying to meet Napoleon.

BARNARD, LADY ANNE (LINDSAY) (1750-1825).--Poet, _e. dau._ of the 5th

Earl of Balcarres, married Andrew Barnard, afterwards Colonial Secretary

at Cape Town. On the _d._ of her husband in 1807 she settled in London.

Her exquisite ballad of _Auld Robin Gray_ was written in 1771, and _pub._

anonymously. She confessed the authorship to Sir Walter Scott in 1823.

BARNES, BARNABE (1569?-1609).--Poet, _s._ of Dr. Richard B. Bishop, of

Durham, was _b._ in Yorkshire, and studied at Oxford. He wrote

_Parthenophil_, a collection of sonnets, madrigals, elegies, and odes, _A

Divine Centurie of Spirituall Sonnets_, and _The Devil's Charter_, a

tragedy. When at his best he showed a true poetic vein.

BARNES, WILLIAM (1801-1886).--Poet and philologist, _s._ of a farmer,

_b._ at Rushay, Dorset. After being a solicitor's clerk and a

schoolmaster, he entered the Church, in which he served various cures.

He first contributed to a newspaper, _Poems in Dorset Dialect_,

separately _pub._ in 1844. _Hwomely Rhymes_ followed in 1858, and a

collected edition of his poems appeared in 1879. His philological works

include _Philological Grammar_ (1854), _Se Gefylsta, an Anglo-Saxon

Delectus_ (1849). _Tiw, or a View of Roots_ (1862), and a _Glossary of

Dorset Dialect_ (1863). B.'s poems are characterised by a singular

sweetness and tenderness of feeling, deep insight into humble country

life and character, and an exquisite feeling for local scenery.

BARNFIELD, RICHARD (1574-1627).--Poet, _e.s._ of Richard B., gentleman,

was _b._ at Norbury, Shropshire, and _ed._ at Oxford. In 1594 he _pub._

_The Affectionate Shepherd_, a collection of variations in graceful verse

of the 2nd Eclogue of Virgil. His next work was _Cynthia, with certain

Sonnets and the Legend of Cassandra_ in 1595; and in 1598 there appeared

a third vol., _The Encomion of Lady Pecunia, etc._, in which are two

songs ("If music and sweet poetrie agree," and "As it fell upon a day")

also included in _The Passionate Pilgrim_, an unauthorised collection,

and which were long attributed to Shakespeare. From this time, 1599, B.

produced nothing else, and seems to have retired to the life of a country

gentleman at Stone in Staffordshire, in the church of which he was buried

in 1627. He was for long neglected; but his poetry is clear, sweet, and

musical. His gift indeed is sufficiently attested by work of his having

passed for that of Shakespeare.

BARROW, ISAAC (1630-1677).--Divine, scholar, and mathematician, _s._ of a

linen-draper in London, was _ed._ at Charterhouse, Felsted, Peterhouse,

and Trinity Coll., Cambridge, where his uncle and namesake, afterwards

Bishop of St. Asaph, was a Fellow. As a boy he was turbulent and

pugnacious, but soon took to hard study, distinguishing himself in

classics and mathematics. Intending originally to enter the Church, he

was led to think of the medical profession, and engaged in scientific

studies, but soon reverted to his first views. In 1655 he became

candidate for the Greek Professorship at Cambridge, but was unsuccessful,

and travelled for four years on the Continent as far as Turkey. On his

return he took orders, and, in 1660, obtained the Greek Chair at

Cambridge, and in 1662 the Gresham Professorship of Geometry, which he

resigned on being appointed first Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in

the same university. During his tenure of this chair he _pub._ two

mathematical works of great learning and elegance, the first on Geometry

and the second on Optics. In 1669 he resigned in favour of his pupil,

Isaac Newton, who was long considered his only superior among English

mathematicians. About this time also he composed his _Expositions of the

Creed_, _The Lord's Prayer_, _Decalogue_, and _Sacraments_. He was made a

D.D. by royal mandate in 1670, and two years later Master of Trinity

Coll., where he founded the library. Besides the works above mentioned,

he wrote other important treatises on mathematics, but in literature his

place is chiefly supported by his sermons, which are masterpieces of

argumentative eloquence, while his treatise on the _Pope's Supremacy_ is

regarded as one of the most perfect specimens of controversy in

existence. B.'s character as a man was in all respects worthy of his

great talents, though he had a strong vein of eccentricity. He _d._

unmarried in London at the early age of 47. B.'s theological works were

edited by Napier, with memoir by Whewell (9 vols., 1839).

BARTON, BERNARD (1784-1849).--Poet, _b._ of Quaker parentage, passed

nearly all his life at Woodbridge, for the most part as a clerk in a

bank. He became the friend of Southey, Lamb, and other men of letters.

His chief works are _The Convict's Appeal_ (1818), a protest against the

severity of the criminal code of the time, and _Household Verses_ (1845),

which came under the notice of Sir R. Peel, through whom he obtained a

pension of £100. With the exception of some hymns his works are now

nearly forgotten, but he was a most amiable and estimable man--simple and

sympathetic. His _dau._ Lucy, who married Edward Fitzgerald, the

translator of _Omar Khayyam_, _pub._ a selection of his poems and

letters, to which her husband prefixed a biographical introduction.

BAYNES, THOMAS SPENCER (1823-1887).--Philosopher, _s._ of a Baptist

minister, _b._ at Wellington, Somerset, intended to study for Baptist

ministry, and was at a theological seminary at Bath with that view, but

being strongly attracted to philosophical studies, left it and went to

Edin., when he became the favourite pupil of Sir W. Hamilton (_q.v._), of

whose philosophical system he continued an adherent. After working as ed.

of a newspaper in Edinburgh, and after an interval of rest rendered

necessary by a breakdown in health, he resumed journalistic work in 1858

as assistant ed. of the _Daily News_. In 1864 he was appointed Prof. of

Logic and English Literature at St. Andrews, in which capacity his mind

was drawn to the study of Shakespeare, and he contributed to the

_Edinburgh Review_ and _Fraser's Magazine_ valuable papers (chiefly

relating to his vocabulary and the extent of his learning) afterwards

collected as _Shakespeare Studies_. In 1873 he was appointed to

superintend the ninth ed. of the _Encyclopædia Britannica_, in which,

after 1880, he was assisted by W. Robertson Smith (_q.v._).

BAXTER, RICHARD (1615-1691).--Divine scholar and controversialist, was

_b._ of poor, but genteel, parents at Rowton in Shropshire, and although

he became so eminent for learning, was not _ed._ at any university.

Circumstances led to his turning his attention to a career at court under

the patronage of the Master of the Revels, but a short experience of this

sufficed; and giving himself to the Christian ministry, he was ordained

in 1638, and, after being master of a school at Dudley, exercised his

ministry successively at Bridgnorth and Kidderminster. His learning and

capacity for business made him the leader of the Presbyterian party. He

was one of the greatest preachers of his own day, and consistently

endeavoured to exert a moderating influence, with the result that he

became the object of attack by extremists of opposing views. Though

siding with the Parliament in the Civil War, he opposed the execution of

the King and the assumption of supreme power by Cromwell. During the war

he served with the army as a chaplain. On the return of Charles II., B.

was made one of his chaplains, and was offered the see of Hereford, which

he declined, and his subsequent request to be allowed to return to

Kidderminster was refused. He subsequently suffered persecution at the

hands of Judge Jeffreys. After the Revolution he had a few years of peace

and quiet. His literary activity was marvellous in spite of ill-health

and outward disturbance. He is said to have written 168 works, the best

known of which are _The Saints' Everlasting Rest_ (1650), and _Call to

the Unconverted_ (1657), manuals of practical religion; and, among his

controversial writings, _Methodus Theologiæ_ (1681), and _Catholic

Theology_ (1675), in which his theological standpoint--a compromise

between Arminianism and Calvinism--is set forth. Dr. Isaac Barrow says

that "his practical writings were never mended, and his controversial

seldom confuted," and Dean Stanley calls him "the chief English

Protestant schoolman." B. left an autobiography, _Reliquiæ Baxterianæ_,

which was a favourite book with both Johnson and Coleridge. Other works

by him are _The Life of Faith_ (1670), _Reasons of the Christian

Religion_ (1672), and _Christian Directory_ (1675). _Practical Works_ in

23 vols. (1830) edited with memoirs by W. Orme, also _Lives_ by A.B.

Grosart (1879), Dean Boyle (1883), and J.H. Davies (1886).

BAYLY, ADA ELLEN (_d._ 1903).--Novelist, wrote several stories under the

name of "Edna Lyall," which were very popular. They include

_Autobiography of a Slander_, _Donovan_, _Hope the Hermit_, _In the

Golden Days_, _To Right the Wrong_, _We Two_, and _Won by Waiting_.

BAYLY, THOMAS HAYNES (1797-1839).--Miscellaneous writer, _s._ of a

wealthy lawyer in Bath. Originally intended for the law, he changed his

mind and thought of entering the Church, but abandoned this idea also,

and gave himself to writing for the stage and the periodical press. He is

chiefly known for his songs, of which he wrote hundreds, which, set to

the music of Bishop and other eminent composers, found universal

acceptance. Some were set to his own music. He also wrote several novels

and a number of farces, etc. Although making a large income from his

writings, in addition to that of his wife, he fell into embarrassed

circumstances. Among the best known of his songs are _I'd be a

Butterfly_, _Oh, no, we never mention Her_, and _She wore a Wreath of

Roses_. He may be regarded as, excepting Moore, the most popular song

writer of his time.

BEACONSFIELD, BENJAMIN DISRAELI, 1ST EARL of (1804-1881).--Statesman and

novelist, was the _s._ of Isaac D. (_q.v._). Belonging to a Jewish family

settled first in Spain, whence in the 15th century they migrated to

Italy, he was _b._ in London in 1804 and privately _ed._ His _f._

destined him for the law, and he was articled to a solicitor. The law

was, however, uncongenial, and he had already begun to write. After some

journalistic work, he brought himself into general notice by the

publication, in 1827, of his first novel, _Vivian Grey_, which created a

sensation by its brilliance, audacity, and slightly veiled portraits of

living celebrities. After producing a _Vindication of the British

Constitution_, and some political pamphlets, he followed up his first

success by a series of novels, _The Young Duke_ (1831), _Contarini

Fleming_ (1832), _Alroy_ (1833), _Venetia and Henrietta Temple_ (1837).

During the same period he had also written _The Revolutionary Epic_ and

three burlesques, _Ixion_, _The Infernal Marriage_, and _Popanilla_.

These works had gained for him a brilliant, if not universally admitted,

place in literature. But his ambition was by no means confined to

literary achievement; he aimed also at fame as a man of action. After

various unsuccessful attempts to enter Parliament, in which he stood,

first as a Radical, and then as a Tory, he was in 1837 returned for

Maidstone, having for his colleague Mr. Wyndham Lewis, whose widow he

afterwards married. For some years after entering on his political

career, D. ceased to write, and devoted his energies to parliamentary

work. His first speech was a total failure, being received with shouts of

laughter, but with characteristic courage and perseverance he pursued his

course, gradually rose to a commanding position in parliament and in the

country, became leader of his party, was thrice Chancellor of the

Exchequer, 1852, 1858-59, and 1866-68, in which last year he became Prime

Minister, which office he again held from 1874 till 1880. To return to

his literary career, in 1844 he had _pub._ _Coningsby_, followed by

_Sybil_ (1845), and _Tancred_ (1847), and in 1848 he wrote a life of Lord

G. Bentinck, his predecessor in the leadership of the Protectionist

party. His last novels were _Lothair_ (1870), and _Endymion_ (1880). He

was raised to the peerage as Earl of Beaconsfield in 1876, and was a

Knight of the Garter. In his later years he was the intimate friend as

well as the trusted minister of Queen Victoria. The career of D. is one

of the most remarkable in English history. With no family or political

influence, and with some personal characteristics, and the then current

prejudices in regard to his race to contend with, he rose by sheer force

of will and intellect to the highest honours attainable in this country.

His most marked qualities were an almost infinite patience and

perseverance, indomitable courage, a certain spaciousness of mind, and

depth of penetration, and an absolute confidence in his own abilities,

aided by great powers of debate rising occasionally to eloquence. Though

the object, first of a kind of contemptuous dislike, then of an intense

opposition, he rose to be universally regarded as, at all events, a great

political force, and by a large part of the nation as a great statesman.

As a writer he is generally interesting, and his books teem with striking

thoughts, shrewd maxims, and brilliant phrases which stick in the memory.

On the other hand he is often artificial, extravagant, and turgid, and

his ultimate literary position is difficult to forecast.

_Lives_ by Froude (1890), Hitchman (1885), see also _Dictionary of Nat.

Biog. etc._