The laws of composition in ornament are deduced from nature, but we must
look to works of art for their proper application.
The laws that may be deduced are numberless, but the principal ones may
be given as follows:--
GEOMETRICAL ARRANGEMENT, PROPORTION, STABILITY, REPETITION, CONTRAST,
SYMMETRY, RADIATION, TANGENTIAL JUNCTION, REPOSE, VARIETY,
SUBORDINATION, BALANCE, UNITY, SERIES, GROWTH, SUPERPOSITION, FITNESS.
Some of these are preliminary laws; _e.g._ we cannot have ornament
without some _geometrical arrangement_, even spots in a line must be set
out at regular distances, or with a recurring element of irregularity;
and as every plant and part of it are set out on a geometrical basis, we
cannot have good floral ornament without such an arrangement. The same
may be said of the setting out of the more complex schemes of ornament,
and besides this framework, a whole class of ornament depends on
geometrical arrangement. There must be _harmonic proportion_ between the
parts of the ornament, as well as between the enrichment and the ground,
to make ornament pleasing; this last element of proportion is generally
called _even distribution_, and is found in all good work; at the same
time it admits of a variety of treatment: in some Indian, Chinese, and
Saracenic ornament it is painfully monotonous, while in good Roman and
Renaissance work, though the law is observed, there is such variety and
contrast, that it never becomes tiresome. Ornament to be satisfactory
must have _Stability_, and not look as if it would fall down. After
these preliminaries, _Repetition_ may be looked on as the first law; as
anything repeated forms elementary ornament. _Contrast_ comes next, as
the mere alternation of upright and horizontal lines form a contrasted
ornament | ---- | ---- | ---- | _Symmetry_ perhaps comes next, and is the
repetition of any form on its axis; even the rudest blot so doubled
makes ornament. _Radiation_ alone is the basis of much ornament, and
directly we get as far as the scroll, we must have _tangential
junction_, for broken-backed curves are hardly ornament. Next comes
_Repose_: any decoration that seems to crawl is not pleasing but
distressing. As we advance we want _Variety_ and _Subordination_. An
unsymmetrical ornament generally requires _Balance_; _Unity_ is
necessary in any complex system. _Series_ adds a new element by the
repetition at stated intervals of a succession of different objects, or
of similar ones of increasing or decreasing size. _Growth_ gives us one
of the most vigorous and delightful elements in nature, and
_Superposition_ may be looked on as the last addition to ornament yet
made by man; while _Fitness_ may be said to include all before-mentioned
and more.
The descriptions just given will serve for the definition of some of
the laws, but others require further explanation.
_Proportion_, by which “harmonic proportion” is meant, applies also to
the architectural features of a design, and is indispensable in
designing borders, composed of lines or mouldings, and in panels. The
width of such border, or series of mouldings, should be a proportionate
part of the narrowest width of the space or panel. There are certain
distances between lines that are more pleasing than others, and as a
rule, one space should preponderate. In mouldings the same thing is
true, but in addition to the spaces, there are the projections and
contours to be studied. The study of Greek profiles (Figs. C and D, p.
15) is most valuable, though Greek mouldings are unsuitable for external
work in this climate. The methods of proportioning cornices given in
Vitruvius are useful (the application of proportion to surfaces will be
found at Chap. IV.).
_Stability._--Instability is mostly found in creeping or twining plants,
put vertically, and not attached to a central stem, or to the framework
of the panel; also to bulky forms put on slight ones, that from their
size seem unable to support the weight. We know from experience that
trunks of trees support the enormous mass of branches and foliage above
them by their solidity, and bear the strain of winds by their strength
and the spread and tenacity of their roots. In the rare case in which
such an arrangement is wanted in ornament, we must resort to some
device, such as difference of texture between the supports and the mass
above, to indicate superior supporting power.
_Repetition_ is the first method by which things were turned into
ornament, but if it be carried too far it produces monotony; this may be
seen in a long succession of similar windows in factories, and the
endless rows of iron railings to parks. A little more thought would put
in proper places a larger or more ornate window; and in the case of
railings would afford a larger and more important post or a group of
them: this infusion of Variety would correct the monotonous appearance,
and greatly add to the pleasure of the beholders. The ornaments on
mouldings, patterns in checkers, net-work, or diapers may be repeated up
to a certain point without being tiresome, but symbolic and
distinguishing forms must, as a rule, be used sparingly. One human
figure is mostly enough in an ornamental panel, because the figure
absorbs the attention, though cupids or very young children may be
repeated; the former are imaginary creatures, and the latter sportive
ones, but even these should be so arranged as to compose with the
foliage, which should be an open screen they are seen playing through.
The difficulty of preventing even cupids from absorbing all interest,
was probably the cause of the ancients so often making them half-floral.
_Contrast_ in form or colour imparts vigour to the composition; the
commonest illustration of contrast in form is the circle and the
straight line, but more subtle contrasts are found in Nature’s works,
very flat curves being contrasted with sharp ones; and in colour,
besides the contrasts of the leaves and flowers, there are often spots
of contrasting colour on flowers to heighten their brilliancy, though
this is mostly effected by the pistils and stamens. The “egg and
tongue,” one of the most effective ornaments invented, has the smooth
curved eggs contrasted with the thin lines of the shells, and the curved
eggs with the straight edge of the tongue. (Fig. 67.) Renaissance and
Roman ornament (see Fig. 129) give the amplest illustrations of
contrast; varieties of foliage contrasting with vases, labels, shields,
armour, masks, animals, and human figures. (See Figs. 121, 123, 124,
126, 127, 130, 132, and Frontispiece.)
_Symmetry_ has been defined before as the mere doubling of a form on its
axis; it is one of the most important means of producing ornament, as
well as one of the laws most commonly found in nature. Nothing in
nature, however, is absolutely symmetrical, though there is a suggestion
of symmetry about the bulk of its works.
_Radiation_ is the spreading out of lines from a point, like a fan, and
these lines may be straight or curved, and the axis of the radiating
lines may be vertical, horizontal, or oblique. It is found in the human
hand, in the wing feathers of birds, in the scallop and similar bivalve
shells, in the umbels of flowers, and in much other plant growth. The
Greek honeysuckle is the most beautiful instance of its adaptation as
ornament. (See Figs. 49, 50, 51, 52, and 115.) If the centre of the
radiating lines is kept below the springing line, it adds greatly to the
interest and beauty of the ornament. A succession of festoons or of
drapery hanging from two points are examples of one species of curved
radiation.
_Tangential Junction._--Euclid’s definition of a tangent is as
follows:--“A straight line is said to touch a circle, when it meets the
circle, and being produced does not cut it,” and is obtained by drawing
a line perpendicular to any radius from the point at which it touches
the circumference. In ornament, tangential junction means that where two
curves of opposite curvature meet they are to meet at the tangential
points of each (Fig. 25), and in the case of a curve being continued by
a straight line, the point of junction is the tangential point. A curve,
however, should never be continued by a straight line, but by a flatter
curve. The beauty imparted by following this rule is seen in the Ionic
capitals of the Temple of Apollo at Bassæ, where the two volutes are
joined by a curve instead of by the usual straight line (see Fig. 179 in
Appendix).
_Repose._--The absence of a look of motion in ornament; this appearance
of motion may be seen in some flamboyant tracery and Saracenic patterns,
in some modern paper-hangings, and in patterns in woven and printed
stuffs. The word repose is sometimes used to denote an absence of
spottiness. In the best pilaster panels, horizontal lines are introduced
partly for contrast, and partly to give repose by checking the
appearance of motion in the curved plant forms. (Fig. 127.)
_Variety_ is a difference of form or arrangement in the ornament from
that which immediately precedes or follows it. In nature we see that
every leaf varies from every other by subtle differences, though the
foliage is roughly alike, and it is for this reason that Nature’s works
never pall upon us. General similarity with slight variety is the most
proper for the highest and most dignified ornament. In other cases
absolute variety is permissible. Variety is the salt of ornament that
takes off the insipidity of repetition.
_Subordination._--The state of being inferior to another, a regular
descending series. In any complex system of ornament, one part should be
chosen as the most important, and all the rest should lead up to it; but
certain distinct parts, such as masses or flowers, may re-echo in a
fainter way the main motive. In drawing, subordination is obtained by
the principal mass being larger than the rest, and by its details being
larger and more pronounced; in painting, by the above and by the
principal part being more vivid in colour; in modelling, by greater size
and relief. The Romans and Cinque Cento artists were great masters of
this art. In some panels, though the highest relief is not great, there
is an infinity of gradation, the lowest relief gradually sinking into
the ground. In a Renaissance bas-relief of a full face the greatest
projection is about the sixteenth of an inch, and yet the face is
perfectly modelled. Modern English carved ornament is too frequently
deficient in this quality.
_Balance._--The making unsymmetrical masses of equal weight. In the
creations of nature we see balance employed in trees, shrubs, and plants
(Fig. 160); in leaves, made as it were on a symmetrical basis, balance
is equally employed. In simple oval leaves, for example, one side is
more convex than the other, and the balance is got by the curve in the
rib.
_Unity_ is the completeness of any system of ornament not marred by
incongruous elements or forms.
_Series_ is the repetition of a limited succession of different forms:
in the egg and tongue, of two; in the bead and reel, of three; in
branches of plants when the leaves regularly diminish in size, of many.
(Fig. 67.) Long series may be seen in Saracenic ornament, where the same
text is repeated sometimes with ornament between the texts.
_Growth._--This is at once the rarest and most delightful of the hints
taken from nature by great ornamentalists. In climbing plants, whose
stalks are polygonal, and that twist to reach an object, or for the
flowers to get the sun, the edges of the stalk are seen to form a
spiral. Sometimes this vigour of growth is seen in the turn of a leaf or
the clasp of a tendril round a twig. The capitals and the tripod stand
of the choragic monument of Lysikrates are good examples. (Figs. 53 and
54.)
_Superposition._--This is most frequently seen in Saracenic ornament,
but it is also found in Renaissance ornament. The simplest form is in
the case of meanders of different curvature when one is put over the
other, the upper one being more vigorous in form and colour. The next
case is where larger ornaments of a more striking colour are put over a
smaller and less obtrusive pattern, as in the Persian windows of the
Suleimanyeh at Constantinople; but the commonest case is that of
inscriptions over floral ornament, examples of which are without number
in Saracenic work. This, like nearly all other inventions in ornament,
is taken from nature. We see twining or creeping plants overgrowing
trees or bushes, and parasitical plants overgrowing others, from which
they get their sustenance, and have therefore roots, stems, and flowers,
but no leaves. Saracenic diapers frequently have many planes superposed,
and as each pattern is differently coloured and gilt, any change of
position in the beholder brings out a new pattern. This may be seen in
the Alhambra Court at the Crystal Palace. (Fig. 101.)
_Fitness_, in its most obvious sense, is arranging the ornament so that
it may not interfere with the proper use of the thing ornamented. The
enrichment of a sword-hilt must not hurt the hand, nor render the proper
wielding of the sword difficult or impossible; and the same canon
applies to the handles of flagons, jugs, or drinking vessels, &c.; in a
secondary sense it is a due consideration of the qualities of the
material to be ornamented, and of the appropriateness of the ornament to
the purpose for which the article is intended; and thirdly, it supposes
a well-ordered design, whose completeness would be marred by anything
being added or removed.
The want of what is called “alternation” in design is analogous to a
surface that is so elaborately decorated with a uniform repeating
pattern that it is wearisome to look at.
The value of plain spaces in design is enormous. Charles Lamb, in one of
his delightful letters to Coleridge, says in finishing--“I will leave
you, in mercy, one small white spot _empty_ below, to repose your eyes
upon, fatigued as they must be with the wilderness of words they have
by this time painfully travelled through.” To the designer this analogy
will be obvious and useful.
Plain spaces as alternations in design, are the oases in the desert, and
may be compared to a refreshing silence after a continuous chatter or
deafening noise.
It is easier to do too much than to know exactly where to stop. Excess
of ornament defeats its own end, there is no foil to set it off, and it
must be guarded against. The Saracens, by the relative weight of their
ornament, have to some extent obviated this objection. To know the value
of plainness is to enhance the ornament used. To have this vividly
brought home to you, the best Greek architecture should be compared with
late Roman. In the Greek you see a very small quantity of exquisite
ornament surrounded by plainness, which makes it doubly precious; in
late Roman, every surface is covered without a spot to rest the eye on,
so that the whole becomes dull, confused, and monotonous.