“Art and Practice of Typography,” and they must be read slowly one word
at a time, but group the words closely, as has been done in the lower
left of the same Example 508, and the entire group of words can be read
practically at a glance. Just as an illiterate person laboriously reads
letter by letter, a young child beginning to read will see only one word
at a time. While on rudimentary primers the words should be isolated,
there is no necessity for wide spacing between words in text matter
intended for adults.
[Illustration:
EXAMPLE 508
Legibility and other qualities illustrated
]
_Length of Lines._—This leads to consideration of the effect length of
lines has on reading.
The Board of Education of the city of New York disqualifies textbooks in
which the length of line is more than 100 millimeters (about twenty-four
picas, or four inches). The maximum length of line recommended by the
British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1912 is about the
same. Professor Huey, in “The Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading”
(1907), says: “There is a general consensus in favor of the shorter as
against the longer lines, with a tendency to favor 90 millimeters as a
maximum, some placing the maximum at 100 millimeters.” Dr. Javal, the
French oculist, who thirty-five years ago made tests in typography,
believes the maximum should be considerably below 90 millimeters (about
21 picas).
It would be well, in order to arrive somewhere in determining the proper
length of line, to consider the size and kind of type that makes up the
line.
The author asks consideration of Examples 509 and 510. The length of
line is limited by authorities because the eye finds it difficult to
read a long line of comparatively small type. Isn’t it true that healthy
eyes can read a line of type twelve inches long set in fifty-four-point
Caslon Oldstyle, say, with the same ease as a line four inches long set
in eighteen-point Caslon Oldstyle?
By the same reasoning, the line of twelve-point Caslon Oldstyle set
three inches wide (Example 509) is as easily read, after the eyes are
focused on it, as the line of eighteen-point Caslon set four inches
wide.
The author suggests, then, that the proper length of type lines be
ascertained by measuring one-and-a-half alphabets of the lower-case of
the desired type, as is demonstrated in Example 510.
Let us try out the top group—Caslon Oldstyle. (This type-face seems
smaller, according to body sizes, than Scotch Roman, for the reason that
its descending strokes have not been cut off, while those of the Scotch
Roman group have been shortened; but of this more later.)
A lower-case alphabet-and-a-half of twelve-point Caslon Oldstyle (with
long descenders) measures 17½ picas in length, as will be seen in
Example 510. How it appears set in words in two lines of the same
measure is to be seen in the upper part of Example 509. According to the
working out of the plan, 17½ picas is the ideal length of line for books
using this twelve-point type. By referring back to Example 127 in the
chapter on “Books,” the theory will be found borne out in practical use
on a model book page.
Testing the length of lines by reading (Example 509), it will be found,
if the distance between the eyes and book is lengthened as the sizes
grow larger, that the line is short enough not to necessitate a hunt for
the beginning of the second line after the first is read.
The optical disadvantage of using in one piece of printing type-faces of
any great contrast in sizes may be proved by focusing the eyes so as
easily to read the eighteen-point size and then changing quickly to the
eight-point size, attempting to read the latter without again focusing
the eyes to fit the smaller type.
There is a technical as well as an optical reason for determining the
length of line by measurement of the types themselves. It will be seen
by Example 509 that the copy adjusts itself to the various lengths of
lines, or, in the vernacular of the printer, “works out line for line.”
If fourteen-point type, instead of twelve-point type, were set in lines
measuring fifteen picas in length, the compositor would have more
difficulty in adjusting the spaces between words, as these spacing
points would number two less. This difficulty is usually solved by
regrettable wide spacing between words or more regrettable spacing
between letters.
Testing types used on newspapers, selecting for the purpose the most
used newspaper linotype face (see lower part of Example 510), we find
that the length of line for six-point should be thirteen picas and for
seven-point fourteen picas. As actually used in newspapers, the length
of line is usually twelve and a half or thirteen picas.
* * * * *
_Approved Type Sizes and Space Between Lines._—The type in the upper
part of Example 509 also illustrates the sizes of type and the amount of
space between type lines that investigators have determined are minimum
for use on schoolbooks.
Dr. Cohn, whose findings in these matters have been practically indorsed
by educational boards and writers on school hygiene, stipulates that for
first-year school children the vertical measurement of the lower-case o
should be at least 2.6 millimeters, with space between lines (measuring
vertically between a lower-case _o_ in one line and a lower-case _o_ in
the line above or below) of 4.5 millimeters. Twenty-two-point Caslon
Oldstyle, with long descenders (not shown here), conforms to these
measurements.
For the second and third years, the measurement of the _o_ should be at
least 2 millimeters, with space between lines of 4 millimeters.
Eighteen-point Caslon Oldstyle, with long descenders (as shown in
Example 509), conforms to these measurements.
The fourteen-point size meets the requirements for the fourth school
year—at least 1.8 millimeters, with space between lines of 3.6
millimeters.
After the fourth school year the type should measure not less than 1.6
millimeters, with space between lines of 3 millimeters, to which
twelve-point Caslon Oldstyle, with long descenders, conforms.
The descending strokes are sufficiently long in the eighteen-point size
to maintain between the lines of type the amount of spacing stipulated
by Dr. Cohn, but in the fourteen-point size it was necessary to add a
two-point lead and in the twelve-point size a one-point lead.
In comparing one font of type with another, it is not accurate to
compare, say, eleven-point with eleven-point. Not infrequently one
type-face has been pronounced more readable than another, when the
preferred type-face was really a twelve-point face on an eleven-point
body, with the descending strokes mutilated to allow for such an
arrangement. The faces should be compared by the Cohn method given
above.
The panel inserted in Example 509 is illustrative.
The three letters (_Hdp_) at the left are twenty-four-point “lining”
Caslon; the three letters (_Hdp_) at the right are thirty-point Caslon
Oldstyle No. 471. The economical printer too often prefers the “lining”
fonts, as he does not need to buy waste (?) metal. It is the same sort
of reasoning that sees in the park spaces of the cities real-estate
waste.
The laws of compensation in good typography require, where one point or
two points or more are unwisely removed by shortening descenders, that
these points shall be restored by leading. So where is the gain by
mutilation?
ITALIC TYPES
Italic, the graceful, inclined, feminine type that is now mated with
most Roman types, was not known by Jenson or his contemporaries. It made
its appearance for the first time in 1501 on a book printed and
published at Venice, Italy, by Aldus Manutius. In that volume, an
edition of Virgil, Aldus gave credit for the cutting of the face to
“Francia of Bologna,” who has since been identified as the great painter
and contemporary of Leonardo da Vinci.
The legend has been passed along for many years that Italic was
fashioned after the handwriting of the Italian poet Petrarch, but
specimens of his handwriting do not bear the proper resemblance, and
there are now those who scoff at the story.
However, the Aldus Italic is not, as one writer declares, merely an
inclined Roman. As it has been recut by the American Type Founders
Company and mated with Cloister, the recut Roman letter of Jenson, there
is opportunity to compare Italic and Roman lower-case, which is done in
Example 515. It will be seen that, while there is a family resemblance,
there are many differences other than that of mere inclination. Italic
capitals, however, are inclined Roman letters, but it should be
remembered that Aldus and Francia did not make or use Italic capitals,
but that with the slanting lower-case letters Aldus used small Roman
capitals. Example 513 shows how this was done, and this example, by the
way, is a resetting in Cloister Italic and Roman small capitals of the
Aldus page, reproduced on page 15 of the chapter on “The Spread of
Typography.” In that chapter are included further facts about this
famous printer.
[Illustration:
EXAMPLE 509
The various sizes of type set to lengths determined by measuring as in
Example 510. Also showing the space between lines needed for easy
reading. The size of type-face and space between lines of the
eighteen-point, fourteen-point and twelve-point of the Caslon group
have been authoritatively recommended for schoolbook printing (Read
page 188)
]
[Illustration:
EXAMPLE 510
Ascertaining the proper optical length of line by measuring a
lower-case alphabet-and-a-half of each size and style of type. This
method furnishes a practical rule for determining lengths of line.
(Read pages 187 and 188.) The accompanying scales may be used for
measurements
]
[Illustration:
EXAMPLE 511
Moxon’s Italic capitals of 1676
]
Examples 511, 512 and 514 are reproductions of Moxon’s drawings (1676)
of the Italic types of a Dutch punch cutter. They show the character of
Italic used in the seventeenth century. The long _s_ of that time is
included in Example 512, and Example 514 shows the decorated Italic
capitals that we know as “Swash letters.”
[Illustration:
EXAMPLE 513
Resetting in Cloister types of an example on page 15 of this book of
the original Italic types of Aldus and Francia
]
Swash Italic capitals and the old-style long _s_ are to be had with
Caslon Oldstyle. See Example 517. The Italic mates of a few of the
present-day Romans are shown in Example 516.
[Illustration:
EXAMPLE 512
The Italic lower-case of Moxon, with long “s” (ſ)
]
[Illustration:
EXAMPLE 514
Decorated capitals, or Swash letters, as drawn by Moxon from Dutch
sources
]
[Illustration:
EXAMPLE 515
The first Italic was not made merely by inclining the Roman lower-case
letters. Cloister Oldstyle (upper line) is modeled after one of the
first Roman types, that of Jenson, cut in 1470. Cloister Italic is
modeled after the first Italic type of Aldus and Francia, 1501
]
Italic types, besides the instances previously mentioned, may be seen in
use on pages 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 32, and in Examples 45,
98, 100, 128, 138, 139, 144, 152, 158, 168, 169, 170, 171, 180, 185,
191, 215, 222, 223, 224, 232, 240, 245, 246, 250, 262, 282, 292, 294,
297, 299, 310, 311, 313, 314, 315, 316, 325, 326, 329, 331, 332, 336,
342, 343, 345, 346, 349, 363, 372, 374, 375, 384, 387, 390, 394, 396,
398, 399, 401, 402, 404, 405, 406, 412, 413, 414, 418, 420, 423, 424,
426, 428, 429, 472, 477, 481 and 483.
[Illustration:
EXAMPLE 516
A few Italic type-faces
]
TEXT TYPES
Gutenberg and other German printers who followed him fashioned their
type-faces after Black Letter, the formal writing of the German scribes,
as Jenson fashioned his type-face after White Letter, the formal writing
of the Italian scribes. The White Letter of Jenson grew into the Roman
types that today are used almost exclusively in France, England and
Italy and in our own country, while Black Letter developed into the
German types that are almost exclusively used in the German Empire. As
this is being written, the Great War is being fought. America has just
entered it, and it is a coincidence that the countries favoring White
Letter are on one side in the struggle and the countries favoring Black
Letter on the other side. The years that follow the war may see, so far
as general reading purposes are concerned, the gradual elimination of
the letter we know as Text and the largely increased use of Roman
characters in the books and newspapers of all races. The Germans are
already favoring a Roman half Text in character (Example 521).
[Illustration:
EXAMPLE 517
Complete Roman and Italic alphabets of Caslon Oldstyle with “Swash
letters” and long “s” (ſ)
]
Text type, besides being known as Black Letter, is also called Gothic
and Old English; Gothic because of its preference by Gothic or German
peoples, and Old English because of its use by Wynkyn de Worde and other
early printers of England.
Moxon, in 1676, drew an alphabet of Text letter in both capitals and
lower-case (Examples 518 and 519), and Caslon, in the eighteenth
century, cut a Text letter similar but somewhat thinner in form.
Alteration in capitals works great changes in Text type.
Text letter in a variety of designs is used in America for special
purposes—sometimes as headings of newspapers or for a line on
stationery, but because it is generally considered illegible it seldom
is given place, except in German-language newspapers, on body portions
of printed work.
The story of the evolution of Text type from Roman capitals has already
been told on pages 5 and 6 of the chapter, “When Books Were Written,”
and under the head, “Development of the Roman Type-Face,” in this
chapter. It is illustrated in Example 465.
[Illustration:
EXAMPLE 518
]
[Illustration:
EXAMPLE 519
Text capitals and Text lower-case letters as drawn by Moxon in 1676
]
[Illustration:
EXAMPLE 520
Two standard German type-faces, the Fractur and the Schwabacher
]
[Illustration:
EXAMPLE 521
The half-Gothic and half-Roman type-face now favored in Germany as the
nearest approach to the Roman allowed by national prejudice of
readers
]
Text type may be seen in use, even to a small extent, on pages 5, 7
(insert), 8, 9, 12, 13 (insert), 14 (insert), 16, 17, 18, 27 (insert),
31, and in Examples 19, 27, 32, 37, 75, 76, 107, 115, 117, 118, 137,
143, 145, 146, 147, 157, 158, 159, 200, 201, 202, 204, 206, 216, 219,
220, 221, 227, 228, 232, 233, 237, 241, 243, 244, 257, 277, 285, 287,
301, 307, 319, 333, 336, 347, 353, 354, 358, 361, 392, 404, 405, 421 and
425.
[Illustration:
EXAMPLE 522
Several representative Text types
]
BLOCK TYPES
The style of letter known as “Block,” because of its plain, square
appearance, is more in use than it should be (Example 523). It serves a
purpose for very small sizes of lettering on lithographed stationery and
on blank work, its capitals being more legible than regular Roman
capitals in diminutive form; but its use on periodical and newspaper
advertising, books and general job work is deplorable.
It is an unfinished Roman letter, as shown by Example 497. It is really
not admissible to the company of the educated and informed until serifs
have been added and a difference in thickness of strokes is visible.
Some American typefounder many years ago called this style of face
“Gothic,” and under that name this rather questionable type is widely
known, probably better known than many worthier faces. It is possible,
also regrettable, that it is the “best seller” of the type foundries’
product. Over in Scotland and England the type is called “Sans-Serif”
and “Grotesque”; in Germany it is known as “Block”; in France and Spain
as “Antique.” Examples showing use of “Block” type or “Gothic”: 263,
276, 291, 305, 318, 320, 321, 373, 404, 405, 406.
Poster artists of Germany and Austria have developed the “Block” type
into a very strong letter of wide strokes, which, when printed in color,
show forth color values attractively (Example 235, chapter on
“Announcements”). This style of letter has been brought out in type form
in Germany and in America. Alphabets of the American type (Publicity
Gothic and Advertisers’ Gothic) are shown in Example 524. As indicated
by the titles, these types serve a special purpose.
BOLD TYPES
There is a legitimate use for bold type-faces, especially in small
sizes, on books of reference, schoolbooks, catalogs, and similar printed
work, but it is safe to wager that half the bold types in use, and
almost all of the large sizes, could well be dispensed with. When used
to a great extent, the printed work on which it appears is unattractive.
Bold type is to typography what the bass drum is to music: it fits in
nicely for purposes of accentuation and emphasis; but who likes a bass
drum solo?
However, a slight strengthening of lines sometimes serves special
purposes well. Daniel Elzevir used a letter with slightly deepened
strokes for the main line in Example 477.
Old-Style Antique has long been popular with good printers for
typography requiring a darker tone than is given by Caslon Oldstyle; the
so-called Caslon Bold will never really take its place.
Most of the standard type-faces referred to in this chapter are
procurable in bold form. Cloister Bold, Caslon Bold, Bodoni Bold and
Cheltenham Bold are included with a few other faces in Example 526.
ORNAMENTAL TYPES
Typography has its periods of abstention and fasting, which usually
follow periods of revelry in decorative types in which good taste and
dignity are not infrequently sinned against. After the typefounders of
the nineteenth century had twisted, distorted, decorated, shaded and
otherwise disguised the Roman alphabet until Jenson, Aldus, the
Elzevirs, Caslon and Franklin would no longer recognize it, the users of
printing, the printers and the typefounders became sobered and realized
what they had done.
A period of fasting set in, but, recollections of the old typographic
carousal wearing off, ornamental letters again began to appear. They
were on different models, however—some of them very good—and were
acceptable for informal typography (Example 527-C).
Some ornamental types of historic origin are based on the
eighteenth-century letters of Fournier, the French typefounder, and on
those of English founders (Examples 527-A and 527-B).
[Illustration:
EXAMPLE 523
Block types, serifless and of one thickness of stroke
]
[Illustration:
EXAMPLE 524
Modern-art poster type; the upper alphabet being known as Publicity
Gothic, and the lower one as Advertisers’ Gothic
]
[Illustration:
EXAMPLE 525
McFarland (lower line), based upon the French Oldstyle (upper line),
the strokes having been made bolder
]
[Illustration:
EXAMPLE 526
A few representative bold-face types
]
TYPES FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES
There are numerous other faces, many of them admirable, which for lack
of space cannot be shown or described here. There are type-faces for
special purposes, such as the imitation copperplate-engraving faces,
made in English and French Scripts, Romans, Texts and Gothics; imitation
typewriter faces, gray-printing “halftone” faces, such as were used for
many years as a head-letter on the _Ladies’ Home Journal_.
[Illustration:
EXAMPLE 527-A
The eighteenth-century ornamental types of Fournier, the French
founder
]
[Illustration:
EXAMPLE 527-B
Early nineteenth-century ornamental types of English founders
]
A dozen pages, were they available, could well be given over to exhibits
of the privately designed types of the Riverside Press, Merrymount
Press, University Press, Village Press and other notable printing
offices.
THE INFLUENCE OF GOUDY
A liberal showing would be worth while of the various fonts designed by
Frederic W. Goudy, who has done much in influencing type design during
recent years, but it will be necessary to be content with the exhibit of
Kennerley, in Example 463, and other faces by Mr. Goudy in use in
preceding chapters. Kennerley, the best known and most characteristic of
the Goudy letters (1911), is shown in Examples 187, 313, 329, 364, 395,
432, 445 and 446. Forum, made in capitals only, is to be found in
Examples 20, 229, 334, 360, 366 and 395. Goudy Oldstyle is used in
Examples 324 and 391. Camelot, which was Mr. Goudy’s first effort at
type designing (1896), appears in Examples 44 and 124. Pabst, another
early effort of Mr. Goudy, but not so good in design as his later types,
will be found in Examples 30, 100 and 214, and also used in this book
for headlines, captions, title-page and cover labels.
[Illustration:
EXAMPLE 527-C
Type-faces of the ornamental kind
]
Frederic W. Goudy is wielding a large influence over art work and
typography in America. His style of lettering, decoration and type
designing is now to be found on much of the good printing produced in
our country. His type-faces are original; in their completed form they
are not just like any one type-face previously used, but they revive
details in letter forms that for many years had been considered obsolete
by typefounders. Mr. Goudy is a humanist; he believes that type-faces
should be more expressive of the art of the letterer than the skill of
the typefounder. He is speaking:
Type must be finely and boldly designed to be beautiful. In the
majority of cases where these points are claimed for a type, it
will be found that the claims rest on their perfect finish, exact
lining or ranging, perfection of curve, precise angles,
straightness of stem, or sharpness of serif and hair line. None of
these points give beauty or legibility, altho they may be present
in a type both beautiful and legible. Finish in the design of a
letter is a merit only when it improves, but if made at the
expense of design it constitutes a defect.
Ruskin’s universal law, that “neither architecture nor any other
noble work of man can be good unless it be imperfect,” applies no
less to our type designs. Types are made to use, and when
spontaneous in design, the natural irregularities and deficiencies
are signs of life and sources of beauty, giving credit to the
designer for careful craftsmanship according to his ability. The
demand for perfection is evidence of a misunderstanding of the
true ends of art.
[Illustration:
EXAMPLE 528-A
The first “imprint,” as found on Fust and Schœffer’s Psalter of 1457
From De Vinne
]
[Illustration:
EXAMPLE 528-B
Colophon and imprint by Peter Schœffer, 1476 From the original in the
Typographic Library and Museum, Jersey City
]
[Illustration]
IMPRINTS
The printer’s name or device should, with all regard to good taste, be
placed on every well-executed piece of work produced by him. That this
is not more often done is due to neglect of advertising opportunities
and to fear of the customer’s objection. Why should not the printer mark
his product as other craftsmen and manufacturers do? Each piece of
clothing he wears, from hat to shoes, probably carries the name or
trademark of its maker, as do automobiles, pianos, watches, silverware
and many other articles he owns. The maker’s name and trademark are a
guarantee of a certain quality of product; in fact, they are absent only
on cheap or imitative articles. If the printer is doing careless work
and giving no thought to quality, he had better hide his identity, but
if he is really producing good printing, as a duty to the craft of which
he is a member he should “let his light shine before men.”
[Illustration:
EXAMPLE 529
The first imprint-device, and three marks based on it
]
[Illustration:
EXAMPLE 530
Aldus’s anchor-and-dolphin device, and adaptations by modern printers
]
If a commercial printer has not been in the habit of placing an imprint
on his product, and he decides to do so, customers should tactfully be
made acquainted with the innovation. They probably stand ready to be
convinced of its reasonableness. It may be an excellent plan for the
printer to mail his customers an announcement to this effect: “The
standard of quality attained by the Smith Printshop is such that it is
due our customers and ourselves so to mark each piece of printing
produced by us as to identify it as a product of the Smith Printshop.
This we will do hereafter.”