HOME GEOGRAPHY
FOR
PRIMARY GRADES
BY
C. C. LONG, Ph.D.
AUTHOR OF NEW LANGUAGE LESSONS, LESSONS IN ENGLISH, ETC.,
TO THE TEACHER.
Geography may be divided into the geography of the home and the
geography of the world at large. A knowledge of the home must be
obtained by direct observation; of the rest of the world, through the
imagination assisted by information. Ideas acquired by direct
observation form a basis for imagining those things which are distant
and unknown.
The first work, then, in geographical instruction, is to study that
small part of the earth's surface lying just at our doors. All around
are illustrations of lake and river, upland and lowland, slope and
valley. These forms must be actually observed by the pupil, mental
pictures obtained, in order that he may be enabled to build up in his
mind other mental pictures of similar unseen forms. The hill that he
climbs each day may, by an appeal to his imagination, represent to him
the lofty Andes or the Alps. From the meadow, or the bit of level land
near the door, may be developed a notion of plain and prairie. The
little stream that flows past the schoolhouse door, or even one formed
by the sudden shower, may speak to him of the Mississippi, the Amazon,
or the Rhine. Similarly, the idea of sea or ocean may be deduced from
that of pond or lake. Thus, after the pupil has acquired elementary
ideas by actual perception, the imagination can use them in
constructing, on a larger scale, mental pictures of similar objects
outside the bounds of his own experience and observation.
To effect this, the teacher should visit with her class places where the
simpler geographical features in miniature may be observed. If the
school is in the city, pupils may be taken to the parks for this
purpose. If out-of-door study be impossible, they may be induced to
recall objects which they have seen on their way to school or on short
excursions in the neighborhood. In the case of children who have little
opportunity for observing nature, a drawing, a photograph, or a model
will be helpful in giving them a proper idea of the matter. It must not
be forgotten, however, that actual observation by the pupil is necessary
to seeing clearly and intelligently.
Vegetable and animal life are essential features of the geography of the
world, and considerable time should be given to the study of those
within the observation of the pupils. Information concerning plants may
be gained by outdoor study; also by planting seeds in boxes and having
pupils carefully watch their germination and growth.
Pupils should be encouraged to make collections of the minerals and
rocks of their region. These should be classified and arranged for use,
not for show.
The lessons about rain, snow, dew, etc., should be given at appropriate
times. A wet day will suggest a lesson on rain, a snowy day a lesson
about snow. No attempt should be made at "science" teaching, so-called.
All that should be sought is to get the pupil thoughtfully to observe,
and thus to awaken his interest in the world about him.
Lessons should be conversational in form, which is always a most
pleasing style for children, as it is the most natural. The work of the
teacher is to awaken and stimulate interest, not to impart information.
The attention of the child should be directed to what lies around him.
He must observe, and think, and express his thoughts. Nor should his
observations be confined to the school and school hours. He should be
encouraged to obtain his information by his own searching, without
guidance, and report the results.
The development of clear mental pictures is stimulated by expression.
"Expression is the test of the pupil's knowledge." Hence, the child
should be required to reproduce what he has learned. He may do this by
modeling, drawing, and oral and written description. These are placed in
the order which should be followed in the training of children.
The inclination of nearly every child left to his own mode of
development is to make, in some plastic material, what he has seen.
Trying to fashion the hills and valleys with which he is familiar
excites his interest, and leads to closer observation. This may be
followed by the reproduction in molder's sand, or in clay, of the forms
seen in pictures or learned from description. Definitions of the various
forms, hill, mountain, valley, island, etc., should be developed as they
are molded. The memorizing of definitions should seldom be required, and
should never be made a test of the pupil's knowledge.
Reproduction by the hand should be followed by drawing, whenever this
can be done. Drawing teaches the child how to see well. It often enables
him to reveal what could not well be expressed in words. He also becomes
ready and rapid in the use of the pencil when he has ideas to put on
paper. Only reasonable accuracy should be required. Practice in making
fine pictures should not be the end sought, but the development of
geographical ideas.
Finally, pupils should be led to give clear and connected statements of
what has been learned. For a language lesson, a written description may
be prepared, illustrated by a drawing.
CONTENTS.
I.--POSITION
II.--HOW THE SUN SHOWS DIRECTION
III.--HOW THE STARS SHOW DIRECTION
IV.--HOW THE COMPASS SHOWS DIRECTION
V.--QUESTIONS ON DIRECTION
VI.--WHAT THE WINDS BRING (POEM)
VII.--HOW TO TELL DISTANCE
VIII.--PICTURES AND PLANS
IX.--WRITTEN EXERCISE
X.--GOD MADE THEM ALL (POEM)
XI.--PLAINS
XII.--HILLS, MOUNTAINS, VALLEYS
XIII.--RAIN, WIND, AND SNOW
XIV.--HOW WATER IS CHANGED TO VAPOR
XV.--HOW VAPOR IS CHANGED TO WATER
XVI.--DEW, CLOUDS, AND RAIN
XVII.--THE FAIRY ARTIST (POEM)
XVIII.--HOW RIVERS ARE MADE
XIX.--MORE ABOUT RIVERS
XX.--THE BROOK (POEM)
XXI.--WORK OF FLOWING RIVERS
XXII.--WATERDROP'S STORY
XXIII.--THE RIVER (POEM)
XXIV.--A MAP
XXV.--FORMS OF LAND AND WATER
XXVI.--MORE ABOUT FORMS OF LAND AND WATER
XXVII.--A TRIP TO THE HIGHLANDS
XXVIII.--SPRING (POEM)
XXIX.--USEFUL VEGETABLES
XXX.--USEFUL GRAINS
XXXI.--FRUITS
XXXII.--USEFUL PLANTS
XXXIII.--FOREST TREES
XXXIV.--FLOWERS
XXXV.--WHAT IS NECESSARY TO MAKE PLANTS GROW
XXXVI.--SUMMER RAIN (POEM)
XXXVII.--THE PARTS OF ANIMALS
XXXVIII.--THE COVERING OF ANIMALS
XXXIX.--USES OF ANIMALS
XL.--THE SIGNS OF THE SEASONS (POEM)
XLI.--THINGS FOUND IN THE EARTH
XLII.--MORE ABOUT THINGS FOUND IN THE EARTH
XLIII.--HOW PEOPLE LIVE, AND WHAT THEY ARE DOING
XLIV.--MORE ABOUT WHAT PEOPLE ARE DOING
XLV.--A REVIEW LESSON
Home Geography.
LESSON I.
POSITION.
Lay your hands upon your desk, side by side.
Which side shall we call the right side? The left side?
Put your hands on the middle of your desk on the side farthest from you.
That part is the back of your desk.
Think which is the front of your desk. Put your hands on the front of
your desk.
Who sits on your right hand? On your left? At the desk in front of you?
At the desk behind you?
Turn round. Who is on your right now? On your left? Before you? Behind
you?
Turn again. Who is now on your right? On your left? Before you? Behind
you?
NOTE.--Lead children to see that the terms _right, left, front_, and
_back_ are of little use in telling the position of places, and that
some fixed standard of direction is necessary.
LESSON II.
HOW THE SUN SHOWS DIRECTION.
If I should ask, "Which is the way to your home?" who could tell me what
I mean?
You all know which way you must go to find your home, but if you should
wish to go to a place where you have never been, you would ask, perhaps,
"Which way is it?"
[Illustration: "THE WAY TO A PLACE IS CALLED DIRECTION."]
The way to a place is called _direction_. In order to find a place, we
must know in what direction from us it lies, and we have names for
directions, such as _north_, _south_, _east_, and _west_. We may know
these directions by seeing where the sun is.
Did you ever see the sun rise? Point to the place where you saw the sun
rise. The direction in which the sun seems to rise is called the _east_.
Did you ever see the sun set? Point to where you saw the sun set. The
direction in which the sun seems to set is called the _west_. The west
is just the opposite direction from east.
When do we see the sun rise? Where do we see the sun rise? What is the
name of this direction? When do we see the sun set? Where do we see it
set? What is the name of this direction? On which side of the schoolroom
does the sun rise? On which side does it set? Which is the east side of
your desk? Which the west side?
When coming to school this morning, in what direction did you see the
sun? If we walk so that the morning sun shines in our faces, in what
direction are we going? What direction is behind us?
Now that you know the east, you will be able to find other directions in
this way: Stretch out your arms so that your right hand points toward
the east, and your left hand toward the west. You are now facing the
_north_. The direction behind you is the _south_.
[Illustration: "YOU ARE NOW FACING THE NORTH."]
_Write the following on your slates:_
The sun seems to rise toward the east, and set toward the west. The west
is just the opposite direction from the east.
When my right hand is pointing to the east, and my left hand to the
west, my face is toward the north and my back is toward the south.
ORAL EXERCISES.
Which is the north side of the schoolroom? Which is the south side? Who
sits to the north of you? To the south?
In what direction do the pupils face? On which side of your schoolroom
is the teacher's table? Which sides have no windows? Which sides have no
doors?
If a room has a fireplace in the middle of the east side, which side of
the room faces the fire? Suppose the wind is blowing from the north, in
what direction will the smoke go?
In what direction from the schoolhouse is the playground?
What is the first street or road north of the school? The first street
or road east? South? West?
In what direction is your home from the school? The school from your
home? The nearest church from the school? The post office from your
home?
LESSON III.
HOW THE STARS SHOW DIRECTION.
You have learned how to tell north, south, east, and west by the sun;
but how can we tell these directions at night?
Ask some one to point out to you a group of seven bright stars in the
north part of the sky. Some people think that this group of stars looks
like a wagon and three horses; others say that it looks like a plow.
[Illustration: THE GREAT BEAR.]
The proper name of the group containing these seven stars is the Great
Bear. The group was given this name because men at first thought it
looked like a bear with a long tail.
These seven stars are called the Dipper. It is a part of a larger group
called the Great Bear. Find the two bright twinkling stars farthest from
its handle. A line drawn through them will point to another star, not
quite so bright, called the North Star. That star is always in the
north; so by it, on a clear night, you can tell the other directions at
once.
_Write on your slates_:
Sailors out on the sea at night often find direction by looking at the
North Star.
LESSON IV.
HOW THE COMPASS SHOWS DIRECTION.
But there are times when it is cloudy, and neither the sun nor the stars
can be seen. How can we tell direction then?
Have you ever seen a compass? It is a box in which is a little needle
swinging on the top of a pin. When this needle is at rest, one end of it
_points to the north_.
[Illustration: A COMPASS.]
As the needle shows where the north is; it is easy to find the south,
the east, or the west.
With the compass as a guide, the sailor, in the darkest night, can tell
in what direction he is going.
North, south, east, and west are called the _chief points_ of the
compass.
Other directions are northeast, halfway between north and east;
northwest, halfway between north and west; southeast, halfway between
south and east; and southwest, halfway between south and west.
[Illustration: POINTS OF THE COMPASS.]
_Write on your slates:_
The chief points of the compass are north, south, east, and west.
Other directions are northeast, southeast, southwest, and northwest.
Sailors find their way over the ocean by the help of the compass.
LESSON V.
QUESTIONS ON DIRECTION.
Your teacher will give you time to discover answers to these questions.
She could tell you, but it is better to find them out for yourself.
If I go out of doors, how can I find the north? How can I find it on a
starlight night? How can I find it on pleasant days? How on rainy days?
How does a sailor find the north?
If you were lost and knew your home was north, how would you find it? Do
you know how hunters and Indians who live a great deal in the woods find
out where the north is? When you are in the woods, notice the amount of
moss on the north side of trees as compared to that on the south side.
As winter approaches; many of our birds will want to go to a warmer
country; in what direction will they fly? Point to where ice and snow
have their home. What direction is that?
In what direction does your shadow fall at sunrise? At sunset? At noon?
When, during the day, is your shadow shortest?
[Illustration: "IN WHAT DIRECTION DOES YOUR SHADOW FALL?"]
In what direction does your shadow extend from yourself when it is
shortest?
What time of day is noon? How can we tell when it is noon? When is the
sun highest in the sky?
[Illustration: "WHAT MAY WE DISCOVER BY WATCHING THE SMOKE?"]
What may we discover by watching the direction of the smoke from the
chimneys? What does a vane on a steeple tell us? What is a north wind? A
south wind? An east wind? A west wind?
What kind of weather may be expected from a north wind? From a south
wind? From an east wind? From a west wind?
LESSON VI.
WHAT THE WINDS BRING.
Comes the north wind, snowflakes bringing:
Robes the fields in purest white,
Paints grand houses, trees, and mountains
On our window-panes at night.
Hills and vales the east wind visits,
Brings them chilly, driving rain;
Shivering cattle homeward hurry,
Onward through the darkening lane.
Heat the south wind kindly gives us;
Reddens apples, gilds the pear,
Gives the grape a richer purple,
Scatters plenty everywhere.
Flowers sweet the west wind offers,
Peeping forth from vines and trees;
Brings the butterflies so brilliant,
And the busy, humming bees.
Each wind brings his own best treasure
To our land from year to year;
Blessings many without measure
E'er attend the winds' career.
Lillian Cox.
"Whichever way the wind doth blow.
Some heart is glad to have it so;
And blow it east or blow it west,
The wind that blows, that wind is best."
_Write_ all that you can tell about the wind.
What was the direction of the wind during the last snow-storm? Why is
the north wind cold? Why is the south wind warm?
LESSON VII.
HOW TO TELL DISTANCE.
To tell where a place is, we must know its direction. But this is not
all; we must also know how far it is from us; that is; its _distance_.
To find this out we measure.
You have often heard of an _inch_, a _foot_, and a _yard_. This line is
one inch long |--------|. Your ruler is twelve inches long, that is a
foot. Three lengths of your ruler make a yard. A yard stick is three
feet long.
[Illustration: MEASURING SHORT DISTANCES.]
With these measures you can tell how long your slate or your desk is, or
how long and wide the schoolroom is.
The inch, foot, and yard are used for measuring short distances. But
when we wish to tell the distance between objects far apart, we use
another measure called a _mile_. A mile is much longer than a yard.
Think of some object that is a mile from our schoolhouse. How long would
it take you to walk that distance?
[Illustration: MEASURING LONG DISTANCES.]
ORAL EXERCISES.
How many inches long is your slate? How long is your desk? How many feet
long is your room? How wide is it? What is the distance around the room?
How many feet wide is each window? Each door? How many yards wide is the
nearest street or road?
About what is the height of the schoolroom? Of the schoolhouse? Of the
tallest tree near by? Of the nearest church spire?
About how long is the longest street in the town where you live? Do you
know how many blocks or squares make a mile? Name the nearest river or
creek. Give its direction from the school. In what direction does the
water run? Give the direction and distance of the nearest church. What
must you know to go to any place?
NOTE.--Have pupils estimate distances by the eye, then verify by actual
measurement. Continue the exercises until the work becomes quite
accurate. Correct ideas of distance are necessary in order to understand
how large the world is, and how far apart places are on its surface.
LESSON VIII.
PICTURES AND PLANS.
You all know what a picture is. But do you know what a plan is?
A little boy wanted to show his cousin, who lived some miles away; the
shape and size of his house, and how the rooms were arranged. How could
he do this?
On a large sheet of white paper, he placed lines of blocks in the form
of his house. Then, with a lead pencil, he drew a line on the paper
along the sides of the blocks. He next took up the blocks, and there, on
the paper, was a plan of his house.
[Illustration: "THE PICTURE SHOWS THE OBJECTS."]
Here is a picture of a schoolroom. We see desks, the teacher's table, a
chair, a clock, globe, and two maps, in the picture. The picture shows
these objects as they would appear if we stood at the door behind the
teacher's table and looked in.
This is a plan of the schoolroom, a picture of which is shown above.
You see, the plan and picture are quite different.
[Illustration: "THE PLAN SHOWS WHERE THE OBJECTS ARE."]
The picture shows the objects as we see them before us. The plan shows
where the objects are, and their direction from one another.
Now let us see if we can make a plan of the same schoolroom on the
blackboard.
The first thing is to measure the sides of the room. We will suppose the
two long sides are each forty feet long, and the two short sides each
thirty feet long. Now we will draw four straight lines on the board for
the four sides. Of course, the lines must be much shorter than the sides
themselves, else our plan will be too large.
Make one inch in the plan stand for one foot in the room. So the lines
for the long sides will each be forty inches long, and the lines for the
short sides thirty inches long.
The next thing is to make spaces in the sides for the door and the
windows, and oblongs for the desks. But we must remember that an inch in
our plan stands for a foot in the object itself, and therefore we must
allow as many inches for the width of doors and windows, and for the
length and width of the desks, as there are feet in the objects
themselves. Thus, if the door is three feet wide, we must make it three
inches wide in our plan.
And lastly, we will draw a circle for the globe, and an oblong and
square for the teacher's table and chair, that shall show just where and
just how long these objects are.
We have now a _plan_ of the schoolroom. Let us put N. to show the north
side of the room, S. to show the south side, E. to show the east side,
and W. to show the west side. We can now tell the direction of one thing
from another in our plan.
LESSON IX.
WRITTEN EXERCISE.
[Illustration: PICTURE OF SCHOOL GROUNDS.]
_Write_ the answers to the following questions, in full sentences:
What is the name of your school? On what street or road is it? Which
side of the street? Between what streets? In which direction does the
building face?
[Illustration: PLAN OF SCHOOL GROUNDS.]
How many rooms has the building? In what part of the building is your
room? How large is it? How many doors and windows? How many seats?
In what direction is the school from your home? How far is it? How long
does it take you to walk to school?
EXERCISES IN DRAWING PLANS.
Draw a plan of the schoolroom on your slates. It cannot be drawn on your
slates as large as it was drawn on the board. So let one inch stand for
ten feet, instead of for one foot; that is, use a _scale_ of one inch
for every ten feet. Your plan will not be as large as mine, but it will
show the position of everything as correctly.
Draw a plan of the top of the teacher's table, showing two books and an
inkstand upon it. First, measure the sides. Then decide to what scale
you will draw your plan.
Now draw a plan of the schoolhouse and grounds. You must measure not
only the house, but the width and length of the yard. The plan must show
the size, shape, and place of everything upon the grounds. (While
drawing a plan of this kind, it is better to let the pupils face the
north. The top of the plan should be the north side of the grounds.)
Draw a plan of your own room at home, showing the table, bed, chairs,
and other objects in it.
ORAL EXERCISE.
If the shape of a room is shown on the blackboard, what have we drawn?
Is a plan the same as a picture? What is the use of a plan? Mention some
things of which plans can be drawn.
NOTE.--It is wrong to teach that the _top_ of a map or plan is _always_
north; as often as not, the bottom is north, in plans especially.
LESSON X.
GOD MADE THEM ALL.
[Illustration: "THE PURPLE-HEADED MOUNTAIN, THE RIVER RUNNING BY."]
All things bright and beautiful,
All creatures great and small,
All things wise and wonderful,
The good God made them all.
Each little flower that opens,
Each little bird that sings,
He made their glowing colors,
He made their tiny wings.
The purple-headed mountain,
The river running by,
The morning and the sunset,
The twinkling stars on high;
The tall trees in the greenwood,
The pleasant summer sun,
The ripe fruits in the garden--
He made them every one.
He gave us eyes to see them,
And lips that we might tell
How great is God Almighty,
Who hath made all things well.
LESSON XI.
PLAINS.
The floor of our schoolroom is level. The playground is almost, if not
quite, level. As you look away from the school, is the land nearly
level? Did you ever see a broad extent of nearly level land?
Let us imagine that we are out on a piece of nearly level land, many,
many times larger than our playground. Such a broad, nearly level
stretch of land is called a _plain_.
[Illustration: "SUCH A BROAD LEVEL STRETCH OF LAND IS CALLED A PLAIN."]
If this plain were covered with rich green grass and beautiful flowers,
we should call it a _prairie_. In the summer it is a vast sea of waving
grass. On the prairie we might find herds of wild horses and cattle,
which feed upon the rich grass. If it were late in the summer, when the
grass is dry and crisp, it might catch fire, and we might then see a
grand sight--a prairie on fire.
We now come to another plain, miles and miles long, miles and miles
wide. No rain falls here, and therefore we see no grass, nor flowers,
nor cattle, nor horses, nothing but dry, burning sand, rocks, or gravel.
We are in a _desert_. But we are so thirsty and tired!
No water to drink, no shade from the burning sun! Suddenly, in the midst
of the desert, we come to a beautiful grassy spot. There is a cluster of
date-palm trees, and, better still, a well or a spring of fresh water.
This pleasant spot in the desert is called an _oasis_. Here we may
quench our thirst, and rest beneath the shade of the trees.
[Illustration: "THIS PLEASANT SPOT IN THE DESERT IS CALLED AN OASIS."]
An _oasis_ is a fertile spot in a desert. What does _fertile_ mean? When
do we say land is fertile? When barren? When desert?
Find a picture of a palm tree, and try to draw it.
If we were really in a desert, we might see a company of merchants
carrying goods to sell in the countries they visit. Such a company is
called a _caravan_. The goods are packed in bundles, which are carried
on camels' backs. The camel can live for a long time without drinking,
and can carry a heavy load of merchandise a long distance. It is
sometimes called the ship of the desert.
Why do travelers use camels to cross the desert? Why do they not use
horses? If you can not find answers to these questions in your books at
home, ask your teacher about them.
You have seen a small whirlwind in the street. The leaves flew round and
round, the dust whirled along in clouds. Trees are sometimes torn from
the ground, and houses overturned, by a strong wind.
Now think of a wind-storm in the desert. A loud, rustling noise is
heard. Great clouds of fine sand are lifted into the air--clouds which
darken the sun! Travelers must at once jump from their camels, cover
themselves with their cloaks, and lie flat on the ground.
The poor beasts will close their eyes and nostrils, and kneel with their
backs to the wind until the storm has passed over.
Thankful will the travelers be if none of them are buried in the sand.
LESSON XII.
HILLS, MOUNTAINS, VALLEYS.
The land is not always level like a plain. In some places it is high and
uneven. We all know what a _hill_ is. It is land a little higher than
the surrounding country.
Is there a hill near where you live? Let us walk to the _top_, and stand
on its _summit_. We will start from the _foot_ or _base_ of the hill.
Now we have climbed its steep, rough _sides_ or _slopes_. Was the ascent
difficult? Is the view from the top fine?
[Illustration: "WHAT CAN YOU SEE FROM THE TOP OF THE HILL?"]
What can you see from the top of the hill--meadow, river, lake, town?
What grow on the hill? What live on the hill?
Which part of a hill is called the base, or foot? The slope, or sides?
The top, or summit?
Give two names for the lowest part of a hill. Two for the highest part.
Two for the part between the highest and lowest parts.
Parts of the land very much higher than the surrounding country are
called _mountains_. Mountains are much higher than hills. Have you ever
seen a steeple one hundred feet high? A mountain is as high as twenty
such steeples, one on the top of the other. How high the mountains must
be!
Some mountains reach away above the clouds. Their white tops seem to
touch the sky. A man on the summit of one saw the clouds beneath his
feet, while the sun shone where he stood. When it lightened he saw the
flash far below him.
Is it warm or cold at the tops of mountains? With what are many high
mountains covered, even in summer?
The land between mountains or hills is called a _valley_. Is there a
valley near here? What do you call the ground on either side?
Would you like best to live on the mountains or in the valley? Why?
Are mountains of any use?
Yes, hills and mountains are of very great use. They make the earth more
beautiful. Tops of high mountains are so cold that they turn the clouds
into drops of water which fall as rain or snow. Then mountains give rise
to rivers which make the valleys beautiful with grass and flowers.
Mountains do much good to some countries by keeping off cold winds. They
also give us coal and iron and other minerals which we find so useful.
[Illustration: "THINK OF A REAL VALLEY BETWEEN MOUNTAINS."]
Here is a picture. What do you call the very high land on the right and
on the left? The long, narrow piece of land between the two mountains?
When you look at this picture you must think of a real valley between
mountains.
Bring pictures of hills and mountains to school; if you can find them.
If you had a molding-board and a few quarts of sand; you might represent
hills and mountains with valleys between. Think of a real hill while you
mold.
Draw on your slate a hill you have seen with a little of the surrounding
country.
_Write:_
A long, narrow piece of land between hills and mountains is called a
valley.
A hill is land a little higher than the country about it.
A mountain is land that rises to a very great height above the country
about it.
LESSON XIII.
RAIN, WIND, AND SNOW.
Do you see the dropping rain,
Pitter-patter on the pane?
How it runs along the street!
And it wets our little feet;
But it makes the green grass grow,
And the tiny streamlets flow.
Listen to the wintry blast
Moaning, shrieking, howling past,
Striking with tremendous force
Rocks and forests in its course;
But it blows the windmills strong,
And it sends big ships along.
Watch the pretty snowflakes fall,
Some are large and some are small;
Look, they cover all the ground,
Miles of dazzling white around;
But this covering, I am told,
Keeps the earth from frost and cold.
Ah! and I must work alway,
Life's not meant to spend in play;
Every moment's fleeting fast,
And our day will soon be past;
If our work is truly done,
It will last though ages run.
Of what use is rain? Of what use is snow? Of what use is wind?
LESSON XIV.
HOW WATER IS CHANGED TO VAPOR.
What happens when a kettle of water is put on a hot stove?
The water gets hot and boils away.
Where does it go? Is it destroyed?
The water is changed, but it is not destroyed. Coal burns, but we do not
get rid of it altogether. It is changed into gas and smoke and ashes.
What is the water changed into?
It is changed to vapor. If we let the kettle remain on the fire long
enough, the water it contains will all pass away as vapor.
Where does the vapor go? The water, though turned into vapor, must be
somewhere.
It is floating about in the air of the room, though we cannot see it.
The air holds the vapor, just as a sponge holds water.
Heat expands or swells air. Warm air, therefore, can contain more vapor
than cold air. On a warm day there may be many times as much moisture in
the air as on a cold day.
Moisten your slate with a damp sponge. Observe the disappearance of the
moisture.
Dip your hand in water, and wave it in the air. The water on your hand
disappears. Where has it gone?
When wet clothes are hung on the line, they soon become dry. What
becomes of the water in the clothes?
If we set a plate of water out in the sunshine, what happens? Is the
water lost?
The streets and roads were wet and muddy, now they are dry. What has
become of the water? Has it all sunk into the ground?
Sometimes we see leaves and grass sparkle with water-drops, early in the
morning, When the sun shines out and warms the air; what happens?
Why does vapor rise into the air?
Why does smoke go up? Because it is lighter than air. As vapor is
lighter than air; what do you think ought to happen to it?
LESSON XV.
HOW VAPOR IS CHANGED TO WATER,
Heat, as you have learned, changes water into vapor. You must also know
that cold turns vapor back into water again.
[Illustration: "THINK OF THE KETTLE WITH THE BOILING WATER."]
Now let us think of the kettle with the boiling water. You will notice a
little space; quite close to the spout, where nothing can be seen. Is
there no vapor there?
Yes, there is vapor there, but it cannot be seen; it is invisible. A
little way from the spout we see something white, like smoke. This is
only the vapor that has been chilled by the cool air and changed back
again into water. The water is in the form of very fine particles, and
may be called water-dust.
Hold a cold plate over boiling water. Observe how the water-dust gathers
into drops that roll down the plate.
You have seen the inside of windows in cold weather covered with
moisture. Where does it come from? Why did it form there? Why does it
sometimes run down on the cold pane?
The vapor in our breath turns into water on frosty mornings. Explain
this.
Carry a pitcher of ice-water into a room, and notice what takes place. A
thin mist at once gathers on the outside of the pitcher. What takes
place among the little drops of mist? What becomes of these larger
drops?
Where does the water which collects on the outside of the pitcher come
from? Does it come through the pitcher from the inside? Would the same
thing have taken place if some other cold object had been used instead
of a cold pitcher?
_Write_ out what you have learned about vapor.
LESSON XVI.
DEW, CLOUDS, AND RAIN.
The sun is all the time heating the water on the land and in the sea,
and changing it into vapor, which rises in the air. We cannot see the
vapor; but it is in the air around us.
If the vapor in the air is suddenly cooled, a strange thing happens.
Some of it quickly changes back into water. You have often seen, in the
early morning, little drops of water hanging like pearls upon the blades
of grass.
Now, where do these drops come from? They come from the air. The vapor
in the air floats against the cold grass and leaves, and is cooled and
changed into tiny drops of water. We call this _dew_.
Of what use is dew?
If the night is quite cold, the dew will freeze. It is then called
frost. You have seen the frosty window pane with the beautiful pictures
upon it.
Make a picture of the window as you remember it, covered with the pretty
things made by the frost.
[Illustration: "WHEN VAPOR RISES HIGH IN THE COOL AIR."]
When vapor rises high in the cool air it is turned into very small drops
of water or minute crystals of ice, and we can see it floating about in
the air. It is then called a _cloud_. Almost any clear day you may see
clouds form and then seem to melt away.
You have seen on a blue sky, light, fleecy feather-clouds. They are very
high up, and it is very cold where they are. You have also noticed the
clouds at sunset with their beautiful colors. As the sun sank lower and
lower, how did they change, in shape and color?
When clouds are low down, near the earth, we call them _fogs_ or _mist_.
If clouds are cooled, the little particles of water gather into large
drops and fall as _rain_. If the drops should freeze in falling, we
would call them _hail_.
What shape are the raindrops? Of what use is the rain?
[Illustration: "HAVE YOU EVER SEEN SNOWFLAKES THROUGH A MICROSCOPE?"]
Sometimes, when it is very cold, the moisture in the air freezes before
it forms into drops, and falls in the beautiful flakes we call _snow_.
Have you ever seen snowflakes through a microscope?
Snow keeps the roots of plants warm. Many plants would die in winter if
it were not for the snow. What other uses has snow?
Observe the clouds; fog, rain, snow, dew, frost, and tell what you have
noticed.
_Write_ what you have _seen_ or _noticed_ about vapor, clouds, rain,
etc.
LESSON XVII.
THE FAIRY ARTIST.
Oh, there is a little artist
Who paints in the cold night hours
Pictures for little children
Of wondrous trees and flowers!
Pictures of snow-white mountains
Touching the snow-white sky;
Pictures of distant oceans
Where pretty ships sail by.
Pictures of rushing rivers
By fairy bridges spanned;
Bits of beautiful landscape
Copied from elfin land.
The moon is the lamp he paints by;
His canvas the window pane;
His brush is a frozen snowflake;
Jack Frost the artist's name.
LESSON XVIII.
HOW RIVERS ARE MADE.
Have you ever seen a brook or creek? A river? Is there a brook or river
near here? Who can tell where it begins? where the water conies from
that fills it? where it goes? Let us try to understand this.
As vapor rises into high, cool air, or is carried with the air in winds
up the sides of mountains, it turns into water again, and comes falling
down as rain.
Now think where the rain that falls on mountains must go. Some of the
water runs off on the surface, down the mountain slope. Some sinks into
the ground, and runs along in little streams below the surface. It will
appear again, bubbling out of the mountain side as a _spring_. The
spring is the beginning of a river.
Did you ever see a spring? Where was it? Was it shaded by trees? Where
did the water come from? Did you drink from it? Was the water pure and
cold? Where did the water go after leaving the spring?
[Illustration: "DID YOU EVER SEE A SPRING?"]
From the spring flows a tiny, thread-like stream, so small that we can
easily step across it. This little stream is called a _rill_.
Other rills meet this, and form a larger stream, which is called a
_brook_ or _creek_.
[Illustration: RIVER FROM ITS SOURCE TO ITS MOUTH.]
As the brook flows on, it is joined by other streams, until, little by
little, it becomes a wide and deep _river_ on which large boats may
float. At last, it finds its way into the ocean.
Where a river begins is its _source_. The place where it flows into
another body of water is called its _mouth_. The land over which it
flows is its _bed_.
A river has two banks. As we go toward its mouth, the right bank is on
our right hand, and the left bank is on our left.
Do you live near a river? Where does the water come from? In what
direction does it flow? Why does it flow in such direction? Does it wind
about much? Does it flow into the ocean, or into another river?
Is the water fresh or salt? What grow on its banks? Near which bank do
you live?
Make a picture of a spring, and a brook flowing from it. Draw the tall
grass and plants that grow near it.
Write the names of all the rivers you have seen.
_Write the following:_
Water flowing out of the ground is called a spring.
From springs flow small streams called rills, brooks, or creeks.
A large stream of water flowing through the land is called a river.
A small stream of water flowing into a larger one is called a tributary.
The source of a river is where it begins. The place where it empties
into another body of water is its mouth.
Every river has two banks--a right-hand bank and a left-hand bank.
LESSON XIX.
MORE ABOUT RIVERS.
Let us have another chat about the river. We may fancy that we are
following it in its course to the sea. We shall then learn for ourselves
many things we do not know about rivers.
We will begin our journey at its source. Here it is a little rill,
formed by water that trickles from a spring, or by the melting of snow.
As it flows on, it is joined by many other little streams, until it
grows to be much larger.
There is a large word used for a stream that feeds another stream. Do
you know what it is? The word, is _tributary_. Tributaries are often
called _branches_.
Before we leave this part of the river, I wish you to learn another hard
word.
You have seen the water run off the roof of a _shed_. The ridge; or
highest part of the roof, divides the rain that falls on it, so that
part of the rain flows down the one side, and part of it flows down the
other side.
[Illustration: "HILLS SEND OFF STREAMS ON BOTH SIDES."]
Now, hills, like the roof of a house, send off streams on both sides.
When it rains, or the snow melts, some of the water goes down on one
side, some on the other. And that is why the hills which divide or part
the waters of streams are called a _water-parting_ or _water-shed_.
Let us now go further down the stream.
Here we see it rushing rapidly down a steep slope. Its waters foam and
dash between the great rocks that lie in the stream. Such places in the
river are called _rapids_. Can you tell why they are so called?
[Illustration: "SUCH PLACES ARE CALLED RAPIDS."]
The stream flows on. It has now reached a high ledge of rock. Over this
it leaps, making a great foam and noise.
When the water of a river falls over high rocks, it is called a
waterfall or _cataract_.
You may have seen the Falls of Niagara, the greatest waterfall in the
world.
[Illustration: "YOU MAY HAVE SEEN THE FALLS OF NIAGARA."]
The course of our river is now through a lower country. The valley in
which it flows spreads out, and the stream grows wider and wider. The
water moves slower and slower.
Why is the river swift in some places, and in others slow?
At length it flows through an almost level country. It is here widest
and deepest. Its course is more winding.
Do you know why it is crooked and winding?
Because on the steep hillside the water runs very rapidly, and is not
easily turned aside. Where the ground is nearly level, it runs slowly,
and is easily turned from its course.
LESSON XX.
THE BROOK.
From a fountain
In a mountain,
Drops of water ran
Trickling through the grasses;
So our brook began.
Slow it started;
Soon it darted,
Cool and clear and free,
Rippling over pebbles,
Hurrying to the sea.
Children straying
Came a-playing
On its pretty banks;
Glad, our little brooklet
Sparkled up its thanks.
Blossoms floating,
Mimic boating,
Fishes darting past,
Swift, and strong, and happy,
Widening very fast.
Bubbling, singing,
Rushing, ringing,
Flecked with shade and sun.
Soon our pretty brooklet
To the sea has run.
LESSON XXI.
WORK OF FLOWING RIVERS.
Would you like to know more about brooks and rivers--about the work they
do?
Notice what happens when it rains. Little tiny streams are formed, which
chase each other down the slopes. See how they cut away the loose soil
and carry it off. Notice how muddy this loose soil makes the water. What
becomes of this loose soil, or mud?
Fill a jar with water. Put in a handful of mud from the nearest stream.
Shake the jar, and the water is muddy. Let it stand awhile. What do you
notice? The water is clear, and the soil has settled to the bottom.
Follow the streams to the valley where they unite to form a river. When
does the load of mud it carries settle? Here, where the water scarcely
moves, we find some of the soil spread out over the ground near the
river banks.
You have seen a river overflow its banks. When the water went down, it
left a layer of rich mud, which made the soil very fertile.
[Illustration: "THESE FERTILE MEADOWS WERE FORMED OUT OF THE LOAM."]
Have you never seen the low ground on the banks of rivers covered with
rich grass and clover?
Well, these fertile meadows were formed out of the loam that has been
washed down the streams from the far-off hills and mountains.
Look at the jar again. Which settled first, the coarse material or fine
loam? What kind of a deposit will be made in the upper course of a
river? What kind toward the mouth?
High up in the valley, when the river is low, we see _pebbles_ in its
bed; lower down, the pebbles are worn into _gravel;_ and as we get still
farther down, we find the gravel ground into _sand_.
Examine the stones found along the shore of a brook or river. Some are
quite smooth and round. They were not always so, but had sharp edges. Do
you know what made them round?
When there are heavy rains, the rushing water sweeps large stones down
the mountain side and into the valley. As they are carried down the
stream, the stones, by rubbing against each other, are smoothed and
rounded and ground into pebbles. The pebbles themselves are ground at
last into gravel and fine sand.
This is what the streams are doing everywhere--plowing deep furrows in
the sides of the mountains, grinding the pebbles and sand into fine
soil, and carrying it into the valleys below.
LESSON XXII.
WATERDROP'S STORY.
Patter, patter, fall the raindrops on the brown leaves in the woods. Mr.
Squirrel's bright eyes sparkle as he peeps out of his queer little home,
a hole in the tree; his store of nuts has been carefully hidden away.
Splash comes a drop on a leaf just opposite him. Such a friendly little
drop it is, for soon it tells this little woodland dweller of all its
travels.
Let us listen, for we may hear too:
"My home," began the Waterdrop, "is in the wide blue sea, where I live
with many, many other drops.
"One day as we rode up and down on the big waves, the sun shone down on
us, and we grew warmer. Each little drop felt, 'Oh, if I could only get
away from the other drops, how much cooler I should be!' Then each tiny
drop separated from the others, and grew so small you could not see it.
"We, of course, grew lighter, lighter than the air. Up, up we rose into
the bright blue sky. When we got pretty high, where the air was cool, we
came closer together again and formed a great fleecy white _cloud_, that
cast its shadow over everything. Then a friendly wind carried us along,
and soon we left the sea behind. Far below; we could see green fields
and waving woods."
"You must have been very happy" said the little squirrel.
"Yes; it was a merry life we led, as we floated hither and thither,
playing with the sun-beams," replied the Waterdrop.
"But we came at last to a purple mountain, and a chill wind began to
blow. How we shivered with the cold! Then we huddled close together to
get warm. We were now heavy again--so heavy that we could not stay up in
the air.
"Then,
'I'm going down to cheer a flower,'
Cried a little drop of rain;
'I hear it sigh. It droops its head
As if in weary pain.'
'And I will go!' 'And I!' 'And I!'
Cried all the raindrops near.
So down we went in merry haste
The whole wide field to cheer.
"The drooping flowers lifted their bright faces to thank the little
drops for the cool drink. Even the great tall trees nodded their heads
in welcome."
"The grass on the hillside and in the valley must have been grateful,
too, for your coming," said the squirrel. "It always looks so fresh and
green after a shower. But, tell me, what became of _you_?"
"I fell where the ground was brown and bare, stopped for a moment, then
went down, down into the ground, where all was dark. I met other drops
trying to get out, and we went on together, turning first this way, then
that way, till we burst into the sunshine again."
"We rested for a moment in a tiny pool of clear water; then I ran with
the rest down the mountain side, slipping over smooth pebbles, and
tumbling over sharp rocks, until I found myself in a deep, swift stream,
where plants and trees grew on either bank."
[Illustration: "SUDDENLY WE FELL OVER THE ROCKS."]
"As I was hurried along, I heard a great roaring noise made by the river
falling over a high ledge of rocks, as a cataract or waterfall. Suddenly
we fell over the rocks so steep and high that we went leaping and
dashing in all directions. We rose in the air in a fine gray mist, then
sank back again into the foam-covered stream.
[Illustration: "THEN WE CAME TO A BIG MILL-WHEEL."]
"Soon we were in a broad, quiet river, flowing past the grassy hills and
green pastures. Then we came to a big mill-wheel, upon which we jumped,
and by our weight made it turn over and over, and thus move the
machinery in the mill. Here we were tossed in the air, whirled around,
and at last flung back into the river, where we sailed slowly and
quietly as before.
"By and by, we saw large boats floating on the water. We passed towns
and cities with busy streets and many people; and as our river widened,
and we heard the big sea waves dashing against the shore, we knew our
brothers and sisters were singing a welcome home.
[Illustration: "WE PASSED TOWNS AND CITIES."]
"And now farewell, little squirrel. My story is done, and I must hasten
to my home in the sea. Perhaps we shall meet again some day. I may float
down to you, a white-winged snowflake, or patter down as I came this
time, a tiny raindrop."
_Write the following:_
The water rises from the sea in vapor.
The vapor is turned into clouds, which fall in rain or snow.
The rain forms rivers, which flow back again into the sea.
Thus the water is always going round and round in its long and curious
journey--up to the clouds in vapor, down in rain, back in streams to the
place it started from.
LESSON XXIII.
THE RIVER.
"Oh, tell me, pretty river,
Whence do thy waters flow?
And whither art thou roaming,
So smoothly and so slow?"
"My birthplace was the mountain,
My nurse the April showers;
My cradle was a fountain,
O'er-curtained by wild flowers.
"One morn I ran away,
A madcap, noisy rill;
And many a prank that day
I played adown the hill!
"And then 'mid meadowy banks,
I flirted with the flowers,
That stooped with glowing lips
To woo me to their bowers.
"But these bright scenes are o'er,
And darkly flows my wave;
I hear the ocean's roar--
And there must be my grave!"
Where have you seen a river like the one spoken of in the poem? Are
rivers born? What is meant by "My nurse the April showers"? "I flirted
with the flowers"? Explain the last stanza.
LESSON XXIV.
A MAP
A drawing made to show a room, or a house; or the school-yard, or even a
village, is called a plan.
Drawings which represent land and water are called maps. You may learn
from maps where the countries, and mountains, and rivers, and cities are
that you have seen. It also shows how far places are from one another.
Here is a map showing mountains and rivers. The many short lines facing
each other represent mountains. To show the very high part of the
mountains, the lines are drawn close to each other, making that part of
the map look dark. The line winding about, like the stream itself,
represents a river. The line, as you see, is made thicker and thicker
toward its mouth. From this you may know that the river itself becomes
broader and broader as it flows toward the sea.
But you must not think that the crooked line on the map is a river, or
the lines which face each other are mountains. If you do, you will learn
very little of geography. When you look at these lines, you must _think_
of the real things which they stand for--the lofty mountains, with their
covering of forests, and with long, narrow valleys between them; the
winding, gently flowing river, bearing boats upon its waters.
LESSON XXV.
FORMS OF LAND AND WATER.
You all know what a pond is. Is there a pond near where you live? Did
you ever fish in it? Did you ever walk round it?
When a stream, on its way to the ocean, flows into a basin or hollow in
the land, the water spreads out and fills it. A hollow in the land
filled with water is called a _lake_, or, if it be quite small, a
_pond_.