PROPHYLAXIS: OR THE MODE OF PREVENTING DISEASE.
“Organic forms with chemic changes strive,
Live but to die, and die but to revive;
IMMORTAL MATTER braves the transient storm,
Mounts from the wreck, unchanging but in form.”
The original mandate of the Creator has provided that by various
natural processes a constant equilibrium shall be preserved and
maintained, so that from age to age, until all the purposes for which
the earth is sustained be completed, the same ends will be accomplished
by the same agency:
“That very law which moulds a tear
And bids it trickle from its source,
That law preserves the earth a sphere,
And guides the planets in their course.”
We further know that all organized matter, whether animal or vegetable,
possesses the materials of which they are composed, for a limited time
only, life itself being but a boon, lent to serve the purposes of
Infinite Wisdom--
“Which thus alternating with death fulfil
The silent mandates of the Almighty’s will;
Whose hand unseen the works of Nature dooms,
By laws unknown;--who gives and who resumes.”
Again, on reviewing the histories of bygone ages, we learn that from
the earliest times disease has visited every country with a frequency
and malignancy always proportioned to the intensity of the predisposing
causes. Under the head of Nature and Causes of Disease, I have already
advanced that disease arises from certain conditions or vicissitudes of
the atmosphere, together with the application of other powers producing
direct debility. Over the former, as the exciting, the vital cause,
we have but little control; it is the latter only, the predisposing
causes, that we can attempt to counteract with a fair prospect of
success. Seeing that such predisposing causes more generally arise from
the infraction of the unalterable laws originally laid down for the
government of mankind,--from a neglect of the most obvious laws of our
being,--and that Providence, for the most part, acts by SECONDARY
CAUSES, we should direct our efforts to the arresting of every
condition which _predisposes_ to or aggravates disease, such
condition being more or less subject to human regulations.
“Prevention,” says the adage, “is better than cure.” When the sources
of sickness have been remedied, the production of the evil has been
limited, if not totally annihilated; it is, therefore, to the adoption
and enforcement, by judicious legislative enactments, of prophylactic
measures, based on scientific views, that we would direct especial
attention; for by such measures we not only, to a great extent, prevent
disease, by rendering the body less susceptible of it, but, when
attacked by it, we lessen its fatality, by placing the vital system in
a normal condition, capable of bearing up against it:--
“Salus populi est suprema lex.”
It is a lamentable fact, that in this our own country, with all its
practical talent, and its great advance in civilization, hitherto so
little progress has been made in a matter deeply involving the moral,
as well as the physical, condition of the great mass of our population.
As one proof out of many of what may be effected by judicious measures,
we may advert to the present condition of our navy, as contrasted
with that of the last century. Formerly we heard among our seamen of
nothing but dysentery, fevers, scurvy, &c., which diseases have been
known to depopulate whole fleets. In the year 1726, when at sea, great
mortality occurred from these scourges in the fleet, consisting of
seven ships, under the command of Admiral Hosier, on the West India
station. He twice lost the crew of his own ship. In the year 1741, also
at sea, half the crew of Captain Anson’s fleet died from scurvy in less
than six weeks after leaving England; and in the year 1780, 11,732
cases of scurvy, dysentery, and fever were sent to Haslar Hospital
from the Channel fleet! whilst now, from the attention paid to the
construction of our shipping, to ventilation, cleanliness, and diet, we
scarcely meet with these diseases among the seamen, and the wards of
Haslar Hospital, which formerly were crowded with cases of scorbutic
disease, now seldom exhibit a case.
The two grand essentials for vitality are Light and Air, to which may
be added, Water. These, which are supplied to us by an all-wise and
beneficent Creator in unlimited abundance, are indispensably necessary
to a healthy state of animal life; the absence of the one, or impurity
of the other, as being detrimental to life, should take the lead of all
sanitary measures.
“Light----
----Nature’s resplendent robe!
Without whose vesting beauty all were wrapt
In unessential gloom.”
We know from experience, that the influence of light and atmospheric
temperature upon living bodies is very similar, being manifested by
the strongest stimulating effects; in fact, light is known to be
an important agent in varying the phenomena of the atmosphere, its
stimulating effects being more or less modified by light, according to
the permanence and intensity of such light. The sun being the principal
source of light and heat, their influences may be considered as
inseparable, and acting in concert; if a thermometer were to be removed
from the dark into the light, the mercury would be seen to rise, and,
on the other hand, if it were to be conveyed from the light to the
dark, it would fall.
“In tubes of glass mercurial columns rise,
Or sink obedient to the incumbent skies;
Or as they touch the figured scale, repeat
The nice gradations of circumfluent heat.”
Milton beautifully apostrophizes the great luminary, Light, thus:
“Hail, Holy Light! offering of Heaven’s first-born,
Or of the eternal co-eternal beam,
Bright effluence of bright essence increate,--
Thy fountain who shall tell? Before the sun--
Before the heavens thou wert, and at the voice
Of God, as with a mantle, didst invest
The rising world of waters dark and deep.”
Commencing with the properties of light, we find its influence on
inorganic bodies and vegetables to be unequivocal; in short, it may
be said that so very extensive is its influence, that there is not a
substance which, when exposed to its action, does not experience some
alteration. Without light, independently of the heat which is its
ordinary concomitant, there would scarcely exist a trace of vegetation,
and when we reflect on the remarkable dependence of the animal and
vegetable kingdoms on each other, the animal by the extrication of
carbonic acid gas, affording a fluid essential to vegetation; the
plant, on the other hand, by the emission of oxygen, supplying the
atmosphere with the gas which is equally necessary for the well-being
of the former, we cannot suppose light to be less essential to animal
life.
The chemical effects of light, and its influence on animal and
vegetable vitality, have much engaged the attention of philosophers:--
“O Sun--
Thou shin’st in boundless majesty abroad,
High gleaming from afar--prime cheerer, heat;
Of all material beings first and best!
Efflux divine!
Without thy quickening glance, our cumbrous mould
Were brute, unlovely mass, inert and dead;
And not as now, the sweet abode of life.
How many forms of Being wait on Thee!
Inhaling spirit; from the unfetter’d mind,
By thee sublimed, down to the daily race,
The mixing myriads of thy setting beam--
The vegetable world is also thine!
The very dead Creation, from thy touch,
Assumes a mimic life. But this
And all the much-transported Muse can sing,
Are, to thy splendour, dignity, and _use_,
Unequal far! Great delegated Source
Of Light and Life, and Grace and Joy below.”
With reference to the vegetable kingdom, we see that the most delicate
of the discous plants or flowers turn constantly towards the sun; it is
also well known that the change of position of the leaves of plants,
at different periods of the day, is entirely owing to the agency of
light; plants growing in the shade, or in darkness, are pale, and
without their natural and healthy colour--they become ‘etiolated’ or
blanched. Gardeners avail themselves of a knowledge of this fact,
and, by excluding the light, they obtain celery, lettuce, &c., in a
white state. If a potato be placed in a dark cell, with but one small
aperture for the admission of light, on germinating, the sprout will
turn and grow towards the light, and will continue pale and light until
it reaches the light, and becomes fairly exposed to its stimulus, when
its natural and healthy colour will be assumed.
Light contributes to the maturity of seeds, fruit, and flowers.
Professor Davy found by experiment that red rose-trees, carefully
excluded from light, produced roses almost of a white colour.
Vegetables are not only indebted to the light for their colour,[3] but
their taste and odour are likewise derived from, or at all events
greatly influenced by, the same source. Light is also an essential
element in the topographical arrangement of plants. The southern slopes
of our hills and mountain ranges are always clothed with a more fully
developed race of plants than the northern; this depends wholly upon
the greater degree of light and heat which the former enjoy. The more
free the exposure, the more readily will most plants blossom, and yield
a rich fruit; so well is this understood in the grape countries on
the Rhine, that the right bank of that river, which faces the sun, is
reckoned to be much more valuable than the left, and commands a higher
price for its wines.
Turning to the animal kingdom, which is more immediately our province,
we find in that portion of nature an equal dependence on light for its
proper development and vitality. Animals droop when they are deprived
of light; there are instances on record where persons having been long
confined in dark places or dungeons (even though well ventilated),
their whole complexion has become sallow, their general health
deteriorated, pustules, with aqueous humours, have opened out upon
their skin, and they have become languid, and frequently dropsical.
In the absence of light, there is a predominance of the white fluids
of the body; the action of the lymphatic system is exalted, and it
imparts to the organization of animals that remarkable blanched
appearance called ‘etiolement.’ Hence the well-founded supposition,
that the absence of the solar rays of light contributes greatly to the
development of scrofula.
“Let in the sun, and you shut out the doctor,” says an old Italian
proverb. The effects of the free admission of light, as a point of
great importance to the well-being of every individual, has been proved
by the experiments of Dr. Edwards, who has shown that if tadpoles
be nourished with proper food, and exposed to the renewed action
of water (so that their bronchial respiration may be maintained),
but are entirely deprived of light, the growth continues, but their
metamorphosis into the condition of air-breathing animals is arrested,
and they remain in the form of large tadpoles. Dr. Edwards also
observes, that persons who live in caves and cellars, or in very dark,
narrow streets, are apt to produce deformed children. Rabbits, which
were kept in a dark cellar, were affected with mollities ossium, their
limbs being useless.
It has been recently stated, that the cases of disease in the dark side
of an extensive barrack at St. Petersburgh, have been uniformly, for
many years, in the proportion of THREE to one to those on the
side exposed to a strong light.
Dupuytren relates the case of a lady whose maladies had baffled the
skill of several eminent practitioners. This lady resided in one of
the narrow streets of Paris, and in a dark room in which the sun never
shone. After a careful examination, Dupuytren was led to refer her
complaints to the absence of light, and recommended her removal to a
more cheerful situation: the change was followed by the most beneficial
results; all her complaints in a very short time vanished.
In a series of experiments made by Mr. Simon upon cats, which that
gentleman confined in dark cellars, he found after death disease of
the kidney, resembling that morbid state of the gland generally known
as morbus Brightii (Bright’s disease), and, in other cases, incipient
fatty degeneration of the liver.
Humboldt has remarked, that among several nations of South America, who
wear very little clothing, he never met with a single individual with
a natural deformity; and the celebrated Linneus, in his account of his
tour through Lapland, enumerates constant exposure to solar light as
one of the causes which render a summer’s journey through high northern
latitudes so peculiarly healthful and invigorating; whilst the reverse
is observed in less favoured regions--
---- “beyond Tornea’s Lake,
And farthest Greenland, to the Pole extreme,
Where, failing gradual, Life itself goes out;
There Winter holds his unrelenting court.
Near the wild Oby live the last of men!
There, half-enliven’d by the distant Sun,
That rears and ripens man as well as plants--
There human nature wears its lowest form!”
We will now enter upon the consideration of another of the grand
essentials of vitality. Air--
“Vivit Ætherias vitaleis suscipit auras.”
The word ‘atmosphere’ is of Greek origin, and signifies a body of
vapour in a spherical form. The rapidity of atmospheric air cannot be
explained on any principle but its fluidity; therefore atmospheric
air, the permanently elastic fluid which surrounds the earth, although
invisible, may be said to be material, and to possess all the common
properties of matter; for it occupies space, attracts and is attracted,
and consequently has weight. It likewise partakes of the nature of
a fluid, for it adapts itself to the form of the vessel in which it
is contained, and presses equally in all directions. Its power, when
vitiated, as a cause of disease, can only be determined by a scientific
examination of its properties, especially as regards its affinities
to other things. It should therefore claim the attention of every
individual, professional or non-professional, who has the comfort of
mankind at heart.
“It is scarcely possible,” says Professor Davy, “duly to appreciate,
in the vast economy of terrestrial adaptations, the importance of the
mechanism by which gases and vapours rapidly permeate each other’s
bulks and become equally diffused. The atmosphere which surrounds the
globe consists of a mixture of several aeriform fluids in certain fixed
proportions, upon the proper maintenance of which, by measure and
weight, the welfare of the whole organic creation depends.”
One of the principal uses of the atmosphere is to supply animals with
a medium for breathing. Breathing is an essential effort of the human
system. Its immediate effects are the operation of considerable changes
on the blood--
“In the blood is life, which vitality depends on air.”
An outlet is also afforded to carbonic acid gas, and the acquisition
of a quantity of oxygen and nitrogen, which, combining with the
constituent parts of the chyle, convert it into the nature and quality
of nutritious blood. The temperature of the animal is supposed also
to be a consequence of the decomposition of air in the respiratory
process. The processes of respiration and combustion perpetually tend
to the destruction of the vital air, and the substitution of another,
which is a deadly poison to animal life. By means of ventilation
and circulation,--causing currents of air,--such poisonous air is
not allowed to accumulate, but is diffused through the surrounding
space, while the vital gas rushes, by a counter-tendency, to supply
the deficiency which the local consumption may have created; and thus
is explicable one of the self-apparent reasons as to the imperious
necessity for free ventilation.
Notwithstanding our imperfect acquaintance with the manner in which
water is suspended in the atmosphere, it is well known that the human
body is greatly influenced by the aqueous vapour in such a state of
suspension, and that the sources of poisonous emanations are active in
proportion to the grade of atmospheric humidity and its temperature.
An atmosphere surcharged with humidity not only prevents the cuticular
discharge necessary to a healthy state, but sensibly diminishes the
watery exhalations from the lungs, thereby inducing various morbid
effects on the system. We observe the conversion of volatile bodies
into a gaseous form exemplified in the perfume of flowers being more
sensible during the fall of dew of an evening or in a morning, when the
dew evaporates and is dissipated by the rays of the morning sun: in the
same manner, the exhalation of deleterious matters, such as the filth
of ditches and badly-drained sewers, becomes more active. Excess of
moisture also, by diminishing the vital action, provides another cause
of disease in conjunction with the enervating effects of deleterious
gases: hence the more poisonous properties or injurious action of those
gases in stagnant atmospheres, which are always more humid than where
there is efficient circulation, _i. e._ ventilation.
“Of what important use to human kind,
To what great ends subservient is the wind!
Where’er the aerial active vapour flies,
It drives the clouds, and ventilates the skies;
Sweeps from the earth Infection’s noxious train,
And swells to wholesome rage the sluggish main.
For, should the sea unagitated stand,
Death, with huge strides, would desolate the land;
The scorching sun, with unpropitious beam,
Would give to grief an everlasting theme;
And baneful vapours, lurking in the veins,
Would fiercely burn with unabating pains.
Such were the plagues that spread o’er Egypt’s land,
When Moses, taught by God, stretch’d forth his hand;
From animated dust fell myriads rose,
And vengeance shed o’er Israel’s harden’d foes.”
Signal benefit from ventilation was observed some years ago in the
Savoy and Newgate prisons, in both of which the jail fever was, as
it had always been, frequent and very fatal. It was tried on the
recommendation of the great and good Dr. Hales, whose studies and
experiments were constantly directed to the benefit of mankind. The
good effects exceeded even the Doctor’s most sanguine expectations, for
the numbers attacked were greatly decreased, and the fever became less
fatal, after due ventilation had been established, and the supposed
contagion had been thereby arrested. On a reference to the writings
of the benevolent Howard, we shall perceive that he found the prisons
on the Continent perfectly free from pestilential fever, owing to the
apartments in which the prisoners were confined being spacious and
well-aired.
“Leaves, lungs, and gills the vital ether breathes,
On earth’s green surface, or the waves beneath.”
Dr. Thomas Bateman, writing on the low fevers of London occurring
among the poor, observes that he has often been surprised, after having
seen a patient in the low muttering delirium of fever while in his own
habitation, to find him with clear intellect and invigorated system
after passing a night in the House of Recovery, although no medicine
whatever had been given. We have ourselves observed the remarkable
and decided effects on the pulse, caused by the removal of patients
suffering from low typhus and other fevers;--their improvement has been
general and decided, merely from the removal from a lower to an upper
ward, where the ventilation has been more perfect. Of the many striking
illustrations of the benefit resulting from the free access of pure
air, the remarkable decrease of disease and death among the carnivora
in the Zoological Gardens, as reported in 1845, since the improvement
of the ventilation, may be instanced. The following statement,
taken from the history of the Dublin Lying-in Hospital, shows in an
extraordinary degree the advantages resulting from free ventilation. In
this hospital, 2944 infants out of 7650 died in the years 1782–83–84
and 1785, within the first fortnight after their birth,--that is to
say, nearly one child out of every six died of convulsions, which were
called nine days’ convulsions by the nurses. These children foamed at
the mouth, the jaws became locked, the face swelled, and looked blue,
as though they were choking. This last circumstance led the physician
in attendance to attribute the disease and great mortality to the close
and crowded state of the hospital, causing a deficiency of good air.
Air-pipes, with other openings, were contrived,--the rooms were kept
sweet and fresh by means of ventilation,--and the consequences observed
were, that in the year
1786 out of 1372 children there died 51
1787 „ 1375 „ „ 59
1788 „ 1496 „ „ 55
---- ----
4243 165
So that, since ventilation has been properly effected, out of 4243
children there died 165; whereas the average number of deaths from the
same numbers, previously to ventilation, was 1632!
“And all proclaim Omnipotence Divine.
* * * * *
We view his kind, his life-preserving care,
In all the wondrous properties of AIR.
Were once the energy of _air_ denied,
The heart would cease to pour its purple tide;
The purple tide forget its wonted play,
Nor back again pursue its curious way;
Gross vapours would the springs of life pervade,
And make the brightest human blossom fade.”
Dr. Barron, among a series of experiments, confined a number of
young rabbits in a close damp situation; many of the animals died at
intervals varying from five to seven weeks from the time of their
incarceration. On the removal of the survivors to dry localities, which
were otherwise favourable to health from being well ventilated, their
condition soon became manifestly improved. This fact has been further
confirmed by the experiments of Sir James Clark and Dr. (now Sir
Robert) Carswell and Dr. Jenner.
In a report of the sickness which occurred among the Edinburgh Police,
as drawn up by the medical attendant, the effects of an ill-ventilated
station-house are noticed. It furnishes an additional example, if such
were needed, of the importance of pure air and plenty of it. The men
boarded and lodged in this place were originally the healthiest and
youngest men in the force; yet the rate of sickness among them was
very high, as was also the mortality--being more than treble that of
the other part of the force located elsewhere. Out of thirty-seven men
occupying the house in question, only one was found to be free from
functional disorder: the prominent symptoms being great sensibility to
atmospheric changes, copious cold perspirations, a constant sense of
fatigue, with pain in the eye-balls and loss of appetite.
It would appear that in all propositions for sanitary improvements,
the all-engrossing topic is--the noxious properties of stinking
vapours. The cesspools and sewers seem to be the chief object of
solicitude, even in legislative proceedings; as though there were
no deleterious gases surrounding our globe, inappreciable to the
olfactories, and yet of far more consequence in a sanitary point of
view. Now, although vapours arising from cesspools and imperfect
drainage unquestionably constitute one of the many predisposing causes
to disease, they are not of such paramount importance as ventilation;
for their noxious influence, from whatever source they may arise,
depends more or less on their existence in open or confined places.
The indefatigable Parent Duchâtelet, in his work on ‘HYGIENE
PUBLIQUE,’ has shown that stenches, filthy exhalations, however
disgusting, are not necessarily the cause of disease, when not pent
up, as _à priori_ they might be supposed to be. He informs us
that at one of the most extensive ‘Chantierres d’Equarrissages,’
situated at Montfauçon, within a mile or two of Paris, occupying a
large open space of ground, where thousands of horses, dogs, and cats
are taken yearly to be slaughtered, and where almost all the ordure
of Paris is collected together, the most abominable stenches are to
be met with: the ground, saturated with the blood of the slaughtered
animals, sends forth a most disgusting fœtor, as do also the enormous
mounds of putrid flesh collected for the purposes of manure, and for
the generation of maggots for feeding poultry! Yet the workmen living
and employed in these places, in the filthy occupation of glue and
music-string making, &c., enjoy an immunity from disease that is truly
astonishing, while their exemption from illness during the destructive
prevalence of cholera in Paris was equally remarkable. The existence
of such disgusting nuisances, as represented by Duchatelet, can by no
means be approved of; but reference to them is made here to show, by
well-ascertained facts, that the remedying of the effluvia arising
from imperfect drainage, cesspools, _et hoc genus omne_, is
not of such VITAL importance as the free admission of the
atmosphere; for we have seen that stagnant air is caused by the want
of a free current, and that it is rendered more humid than usual by the
non-admission of light (which is heat), and further that that humidity
increases the activity of noxious gases, so that where ventilation is
defective, there will always be an accumulation, and consequently
a concentration, of the gases from cesspools, exhalations from the body
by expiration, and from the skin; all these facts, physiologically
considered, will show the vast importance of the access of light and
of pure air, on which all sanitary measures, to be effective, must
be based. Ventilation, by striking at the root of the mischief, will
remedy all its evil consequences.
Again, it must be recollected that the object of ventilation is not
solely to dissipate and get rid of odours offensive to the olfactories,
but also to supply the system with a vital stimulus--the very
_pabulum vitæ_--the oxygen necessary for the proper performance
of the functions of the different organs, which cannot be obtained in
due proportion from stagnant air--the supply in such an atmosphere from
defective circulation being inadequate to the demand or consumption.
When an animal is inclosed in a limited quantity of atmospheric air,
it dies as soon as the oxygen has been consumed; and no other air
will maintain animal life but oxygen, or a mixture which contains it
in a certain proportion. Further, ventilation, by supplying the vital
stimulus, and inducing a normal condition, also fortifies the system
against atmospheric vicissitudes--the grand excitant of disease.
Opening up and enlarging drains, or establishing them where none
had previously existed, while the localities are allowed to remain
in a crowded state, will, while such operations are being carried
on, multiply the evil. A commencement must be made by rasing to the
ground the dens of physical and moral iniquity which have been so
disgracefully permitted to exist in the occupancy of those unfortunates
who have it not in their power to remedy the miseries to which it never
was the intention of Creative Wisdom that the meanest reptile should be
subjected, much less Man, once the image of his Creator,--His noblest
work!
The subjects of Light and Air having been disposed of, we will next
discuss the properties of Water:
“That chief ingredient in Heaven’s various works,
Where flexile genius sparkles in the gem,
Grows firm in oak, and fugitive in wine.”
It is a necessary beverage for man and other animals,--is perpetually
used as a solvent for a great variety of solid bodies,--acts an
important part in conveying nourishment to the vegetable world,
and gives salubrity to the atmospherical regions,--in fine, it is
a fluid so generally distributed over our globe, and consequently
so universally known, that to enter into the minutiæ of its various
properties would be superfluous for the purposes of these pages.
“If there be any universal medicine in nature,
It is water”--says HOFFMAN.
Considering water dietetically as well as medicinally, it cannot
but be a matter of wonder, to all who know anything of the water
drunk in this great metropolis, that no measures have ever been
taken for the purification of an element so essential to a healthy
existence, although many excellent plans have from time to time
been suggested by persons practically conversant with such matters.
In the Report of a committee of the House of Commons, published so
far back as 1836, it is stated of the water from the Thames, that
it “receives the excrementitious matter from nearly a million and a
half of human beings;--the washings of their foul linen,--the filth
and refuse of many hundred manufactories,--the offal and decomposing
vegetable substances from the markets,--the foul and gory liquid from
slaughter-houses,--and the purulent abominations from hospitals and
dissecting-rooms, too disgusting to detail.” The polluted state of the
water supplied to this vast metropolis is not, however, the only crying
evil. The deficiency in quantity as well as the deleterious quality is
also a matter of just complaint, the supply of this first necessary of
life being insufficient for drinking and culinary purposes, independent
of its uses as an hygienic agent, for personal ablution; the salutary
effects of which we will next consider--
“And in the bath prepared my limbs I lave.
Reviving sweets repair the mind’s decay,
And take the painful sense of toil away.”
The use of the bath has doubtlessly existed from the beginning of
the world. Bathing appears to have been a practice instinctively
adopted by all nations and tribes throughout the universe. Amongst
the North and South American Indians--in Africa--even among the most
barbarous and uncivilized races--bathing is a usage to which they pay
_scrupulous_ attention: yet, strange to say, to this day, personal
ablution is little known or practised in this otherwise proudly
pre-eminent country, as a hygienic agent: it is viewed more as a matter
of luxury, and then but very sparingly had recourse to, even by our
wealthy and middle classes.
Socrates tells us that “bathing renders a man pure, both in soul and
body.” Clemens Alexandrinus says, it should be practised “for the sake
of HEALTH and cleanliness, and, lastly, of pleasure.”
The ancient Romans considered the bath as the most important item
in the economy of their lives: they regarded it as indispensable
for health and comfort;--an idea of the magnificence and luxurious
construction of the Roman baths may be formed from the poetical
description by Statius, of the baths of Claudius Etruscus:
“Nothing there’s vulgar: not the fairest brass
In all the glittering structure claims a place.
From _silver_ pipes the happy waters flow,
In _silver cisterns_ are received below.
See where with noble pride the doubtful stream
Stands fixed with wonder on the shining brim;
Surveys its riches, and admires its state;
Loath to be ravish’d from the glorious seat.”
The most remarkable bagnios were those of the Emperor Dioclesian and
Antonius Caracalla, with their curiously vaulted roofs, spacious
apartments, and a thousand other ornaments and conveniences. Those of
Dioclesian occupied 140,000 men many years in building them.
Bathing acts morally, as well as physically. It induces habits of
cleanliness, which are found allied only with self-respect, improved
temperance, intelligence, and morality.
“This is the purest exercise of Health!
Thus life redoubles; and is oft preserved
By the bold swimmer, in the swift illapse
Of accident disastrous.--Hence the limbs
_Knit into force! and the same Roman arm
That rose victorious o’er the conquer’d earth,
First learn’d, while tender, to subdue the wave!!_
E’en from the _body’s_ purity, the _mind_
Derives a secret, sympathetic aid!!”
Nothing is more soothing to the irritable impulses of the passions,
than the peculiar serenity which the bath imparts. The Romans in their
days of sensuality, invariably had recourse to the bath to relieve the
effects of their dissipation, and of great fatigue from travelling, &c.
Who is there, we would ask, that has not experienced, after a night’s
debauch in the indulgence of luxuries, when the head and heart have
been oppressed, and the nervous energies prostrated, the restorative
and invigorating effects of the bath,--for what allays feverish
irritability and perturbation of the nervous system so admirably as the
_cold_, _tepid_, or _hot bath_, according as the offender may have been
accustomed to use. Everywhere on the Continent, baths are to be had in
the greatest state of perfection. The French perform entire personal
ablution daily. In Italy, Holland, and Germany they patronise the bath
to a great extent, and amongst the Turks and Persians, and throughout
Asia, bathing is imperative as a part of their religion. They consider
it an absolute necessary of life, whilst we, the most refined people in
the world, are satisfied with a change of linen, and that too, very
often over a not very clean under-garment, or body flannel!
The Hungarians and Russians bathe after the manner of the ancients;
in Russia especially, where the bath makes so much a part of the
system of living, it is used by persons of every age, and under all
circumstances. A Russian considers that the bath is a remedy for all
his ailments; he flies to it on all occasions; men, women at their
lying-in, and children, in almost all sicknesses, and before and after
a journey, &c., resort to the bath as their _solatium_--which, to
use the words of the illustrious Cullen, “imparts a sense of youth,
vigour, and self-complacency.” The Romans for five hundred years
together were without physicians; it was by means of the bath they
effected all their cures of disease, and to this day many nations cure
their maladies by the use of baths,--in which there is nothing so very
marvellous, as the simplicity of such means at first sight may lead
persons to suppose, when we consider the importance of the skin in the
animal economy, that it is not merely the organ of sensation, but that
it is endowed with an extensive and complicated nervous apparatus,
through which its sympathies with the entire organism are managed, and
that it possesses extensive secretory, excretory, and absorbing powers,
the _normal condition_ of these functions being essential not only
to _health_, but _to life itself_.
Considering our pretensions to all that is refined, there is perhaps no
race of people more devoid of personal cleanliness than ourselves.[4]
This is a fact (however unpleasant the reference to it may be) that
admits of no contradiction, for the greater proportion, including
even the _higher_ and the middle classes of the population of
this country, are never subjected to entire ablution during the whole
period of their lives,--from their childhood to their death. Fancy an
octogenarian sweltering in the accumulated impurities of three-fourths
of a century!
“Buried in smoke, in filth, and poisonous damps.”
Can it be wondered at that _he_ hands down to his offspring a
corrupt, a tainted condition of fluids, which entails misery on them in
the shape of scrofula, and every variety of skin disease?
Independent, however, of any hereditary predisposition to skin and
other diseases, it is too much the custom for persons who merely splash
with water their neck, face, and hands daily,--neglecting to wash their
bodies from year to year, so that the effete matters of the system
become condensed on the skin, thereby obstructing the exhalant pores,
and causing various internal complaints, and very frequently universal
itching,--to reconcile themselves with the idea that their sufferings
have been caused by a scorbutic diathesis, which has been communicated
to them by their progenitors, without any fault of their own, or any
reference to their own filthy personal habits.
There is perhaps no greater absurdity than the common notion, that
washing the face and hands, and occasionally the feet, constitutes
personal cleanliness, or that such partial ablution can act
hygienically. It is from all parts of the body’s surface (more so from
some than from others, especially from those that are covered) that
chemical compounds and effete elements are eliminated in the shape of
the sensible and insensible perspiration--therefore, to escape the
evils attendant on filthy personal habits, we must not be content with
partial ablution, but extend it to the entire body.
To all those who may be ignorant of, or any way sceptical on, the
point of the hygienic value of personal ablution, we would recommend
the perusal of the writings of Drs. Andrew Combe, Southwood Smith,
&c.--they will then become acquainted with the important uses and
functions of their _own covering_,--they will find in the
above-mentioned authorities the subject of cuticular economy ably
investigated, and the intimate connexion of the outer and inner skins
(the one being a continuation of the other) clearly set forth, showing
that through the perspiratory system, consisting of openings in the
skin called pores, the temperature of the body is not only managed to a
certain extent, but also that a number of compounds, noxious to animal
life, are removed from the system, by which means the blood and other
fluids are kept in a state of purity. Perspiration, both as to matter
or quality and its quantity, is absolutely necessary for the well-being
of the human body: and in order to give some idea of the injurious
effects of interference with the functions of the skin by the retention
and the necessary accumulation of innumerable chemical agents, we
may refer to Lavoisier and Seguin’s researches on the subject. It
was estimated by them that _eight grains_ of perspiration are
exhaled by the skin in the course of _a minute_, a quantity which
is equivalent to _thirty-three ounces_ in the _twenty-four
hours_. On the cuticular surface it has been computed by them that
there are seven millions of pores, which being blocked up by impurities
for want of personal cleanliness, must prevent the elimination of
their contents, and these being again thrown into the system by the
circulation, cannot but be highly detrimental to health. Again,
IRRESPECTIVE OF THE IMPORTANCE OF THE SKIN TO EXTERNAL LIFE, IT
IS NO LESS SO TO THE INTERNAL ECONOMY OF THE BODY IN PRESERVING THE
GRAND EQUILIBRIUM OF THE DIFFERENT SYSTEMS (THE BODY BEING A SYSTEM OF
SYSTEMS) BY WHICH THE HUMAN FRAME IS SUPPORTED.
To a want of personal purification by washing, therefore, the frequency
of many of our most distressing and fatal diseases, such as those of
the lungs and of the kidneys, termed consumption and Bright’s disease,
may be traced, as also the affection so common in this country, and
very justly termed ‘an Englishman’s inheritance,’ ‘dyspepsia,’ by our
making the lungs, the kidneys, and bowels, which are depurating organs
as well as the skin, act the part of scavengers to the entire system,
in the elimination of the greater portion of its impurities, and thus
perform the proper office of the skin.
“We know,” says an experienced and talented writer, “no country of
Europe where there is so little disposition on the part of the people
as in ours to give themselves even the exhilarating kind of ablution
which is derived from bathing. Dirty faces, dirty clothes, dirty
houses,--in fine, dirt all over,--are the characteristics of our
people; and yet, bad as they are (from necessity generally), we know
that there are worse effects underneath the surface, for where physical
dirt is seen, there also presides _moral degradation_.”
It is true that within the last few years many praiseworthy exertions
have been used for the purpose of establishing baths and wash-houses
for the poor, which it is to be hoped will meet with further
encouragement and extension; but as fashion rules a large portion of
mankind, even in physic, we would suggest, that in order to secure a
more complete and general use of personal ablution, our leaders of
fashion and the upper classes who have so much to say on the subject
of wash and bath-houses for the poor, should set the example by
establishing baths, after the custom of the Orientals, in their own
private residences; for, in spite of the increase of wealth and luxury,
of the splendour and extent of the houses of recent erection in this
country, baths are very far from being universal. Much may also be
attained by patronising the few excellent but neglected public baths
of this great metropolis; such measures would not only have the effect
of increasing the number of those baths already established, but of
inducing, from the increased facility, that personal purification,
which ultimately would be found to be indispensable. “_Usus est
altera natura._”
In concluding these our remarks on the three grand essentials to life,
we would observe that it is astonishing with what little amount of
food a human being may live in health and strength, (we of course
allude to those who eat to live,) when supplied in due proportion
with the requisites for vitality,--namely, LIGHT, AIR, and WATER.
Further, we would ask, what can be more monstrous in this enlightened
age, so outrageous of every principle of reason--so contrary to daily
experience and common sense, as “the barring-out the free fresh air,
and the meting-out to mortals of Heaven’s light,” by that blot on
civilization, the window-tax,--a tax which originated in iniquity,[5]
at a time, too, when so much is being agitated about sanitary
measures?[6] We neglect the first principles of vitality, to go
groping into sewers and cesspools, which we repeat are but secondary
considerations, the _ultimatum_ of which will prove to be but little
better than the relief of the olfactories, to tickle the gustatory
nerves by furnishing for our palates, in the shape of Thames water, the
filthy abominations of an overgrown city.
While on the subject of Prophylaxis, we must not omit allusion to the
barbarous and pestiferous custom of intramural burial, which cannot
be too strongly deprecated, as being not only subversive of every
Christian feeling--from the daily revolting spectacle of violated
sanctuaries--but otherwise demoralizing in the extreme, and poisonous
to the public. “Pessimum est tempore Pestis habitare in locis mortuorum
monumentis propinquis.”
From the disgusting apathy evinced in this huge metropolis in the
disposal of the dead, it would appear that nothing short of one of
those terrible epidemic inflictions--inflictions with which in former
days the Almighty was wont to visit the iniquities of his people, will
bring those whose immediate province it is to a sense of the evils and
perils of such abominations, which they, in spite of common sense,
actuated by cupidity and fool-hardiness, still perpetuate.
“Ye who amid this feverish world would wear
A body free of pains, of cares the mind,
Fly the rank city; shun the turbid air;
Breathe not the Chaos of eternal smoke,
And volatile corruption from the dead,
The dying, sickening, and the living world
Exhaled, to sully Heaven’s transparent dome
With dim mortality.”
That interment, or enclosing the dead in a grave, is a most ancient
custom, there cannot be a doubt. Amongst the ancient Jews to have no
burial was reckoned among the greatest of calamities. The exposure
in any manner of their dead (even criminals) was looked upon as a
pollution of their land. The Egyptians and Asiatics practised interment
from the beginning of time. Subsequently, it became the custom to
_burn_ the bodies of the dead. By Homer’s description of the
funeral of Patroclus, it would appear that the Greeks used burning as
early as the Trojan war. They also had recourse to interment, as is
seen by their historians, who give an account of the manner in which
the body was placed in the grave: Plutarch tells us that they were
laid with their faces towards the east or towards the west; and Cicero
informs us that, in early times, as those of Cecrops, interment was
altogether made use of by the Greeks,--but we have ample testimony
in history that it always took place _without_ their cities,
particularly amongst the Jews and Greeks, from whom the Romans derived
the practice. We have several passages in the New Testament, showing
that the Jews buried their dead _without_ their city. Thus,
the sepulchre in which Joseph of Arimathea laid our Saviour’s body
was in the same place where he was crucified (John xix. 41), which
was near the city (John xix. 20). And we are taught in St. Matthew
(xxviii. 52–53), that, at our Lord’s passion, the graves were opened,
and many bodies of the saints which slept, arose and came out of the
graves after his resurrection, and _went into the Holy City_, and
appeared unto many.
Servius, in giving an account of the unhappy death of his colleague
Marcellus, which happened in Greece, says that he could not by any
means obtain leave of the Athenians to allow him a burying-place
_within_ the city. The Romans observed the same custom from the
first building of their city; it afterwards became a law, as settled by
the Decemviri, “Neither burn nor bury within the city.” They generally
buried near the highways, in fields appropriated for the purpose.
Their reason seems to have been founded on sacred as well as civil
considerations: among the former, that passengers might see the graves,
and be reminded of their own mortality--hence, as Varro tells us, the
inscription on the monuments, ‘Sta viator!’--among the latter, “that
the air might not be corrupted by the stench of putrifying bodies.” It
is related of Propertius, that he was very earnest in desiring that
he might not be buried after the ordinary custom, near a _road_,
for fear it should disturb his shade. There were, however, exceptions
amongst the Romans to the prohibition of intramural burials, as in the
case of the Vestal Virgins, who, Servius informs us, were allowed by
law a burying-place within the city. The same privilege or honour was
permitted to some extraordinary persons, as to Valerius Publicola and
to Fabricius, to continue to their heirs; yet none of their families
were afterwards interred there, but the body being carried thither,
some one placed a burning torch under it, and then immediately took it
away, as an attestation of the deceased’s privilege, and his receding
from the honour. The body was then removed for burial to another place
without the city.
The ancient Persians never buried in cities or towns. Their kings were
interred on a high hill on the east of Persepolis: generally throughout
Persia and the Levant, there were no burying-places except those
without the city.
The cemeteries of the Turks were always without the towns, that the air
might not be corrupted by the vapours arising from the graves: they,
in like manner as the Romans, also bury by the sides of highways, that
travellers may be reminded to pray to God for the deceased. The Chinese
adopt a similar kind of sepulture. Eusebius informs us that when the
Christians, by favour of Constantine, built churches in the cities,
they had their burial-places allotted them outside the cities and towns.
According to Gregory of Tours, it was not until the latter part of
the sixth century, about A.D. 590, that funeral places and
cemeteries within the towns were consecrated.
Intramural burials and churchyards, it would seem, originated in the
idea that persons passing the graves of their relatives or friends on
their way to worship, might be reminded to offer up prayers for them;
and the profit might also be another motive. The gross and horrible
indignities now so frequently offered to the dead in consequence of
over-crowding, to the great scandal of our national religion and
character as a Christian people, could never have been contemplated; on
the contrary, it was intended to offer a sacred asylum for the mortal
remains of those whose memories were dear to us.
It was a maxim, not only with the Jews, but with all nations of the
world, that holy places are polluted by the presence of dead carcases
or of dead men’s bones. Hence we find that when Josiah desired to
profane the altars dedicated to idols, he burned dead men’s bones upon
them, which he took out of the sepulchres that were on the mount (2
Kings xxiii. 16). And when God threatened by Ezekiel to punish Israel,
he told them that their altars should be desolate: “and I will lay the
dead carcases of the children of Israel before their idols, and I will
scatter your bones round about your altars.” (Ezekiel vi. 5.) As the
Jews by the divine law had ablutions, washings, and purifications for
defilements by the dead, which is called Βαπτισμὸs ἀπὸ νεκρῶν
(Ecclesiasticus xxxiv. 25),--a washing from the pollution contracted
by the touch of a dead body,--so the Gentiles also from them had the
rite of purification for defilements contracted from the dead; for the
_Flamens_ or _Funera Mater_, when dismissing the people after
a funeral, sprinkled them with water to purge them of the pollution
received by the sight of the interment; and on their entering into a
temple, they were first sprinkled with holy water, the ωυραντιεια, so
often mentioned by heathen writers, lest they should appear polluted
before the gods.
Hosperian informs us that the ancients greatly opposed the innovation
of burying in towns and churches, and on that account the councils of
their bishops made several canons and decrees against intramural and
church burials.
Whether the ancients burned or interred their dead, they never made
choice of the place of divine worship, either to bury the body or
deposit its ashes. For centuries after Christianity was established,
they never presumed to make God’s temple the carnicle of the dead: on
the contrary, when the ancient mode of burial without the city began
to be neglected, burials in churches were opposed by authority. A law
in the Theodosian Code has these words: “Let no one imagine that the
churches of the Apostles and Martyrs were designed for burial-places
for the dead.” The Emperor Charles the Great has this injunction, “Let
no one bury any dead in the church.” Subsequently, Louis the Pious
most strenuously opposed burying within the churches, requiring “that
the constitutions, used and settled by the ancient Fathers, should be
observed in the burial of the dead.”
So tenacious were the ancients of anything like desecration of their
churches, that we are told by Baronius that one Borachas being
persecuted by the Gentiles at Gaza, and having been left for dead, the
Christians took him up and carried him into the church; the Gentiles
and some of the authorities, on making inquiry for him, complained that
the Christians had broken the liberty of their city, and had trespassed
against their laws: for that they had brought a dead body into the
city, which ought in no wise to be done; they supposing that Borachas
was dead.
The being buried in or near a church, we are told, originated with the
first Christian emperor, Constantine, who, although he did not desire
to be buried within the church (a thing in his day unheard-of), was
resolved that his remains should be deposited as near as possible to
it, and they were accordingly inhumed in the porch of the great church
at Constantinople. Subsequently, the practice increased, and persons of
quality claimed a similar privilege; their inferiors again, although
they claimed not the right of being buried within the porches, deemed
it an honour to be buried as near thereto as possible; hence, another
reason assigned for large courts and yards about churches.
“The melancholy ghosts of dead renown
With penitential aspect, as they pass’d,
All point at earth and smile at human pride.”
Some time after, Pope Gregory the Great brought into the churches, and
set up in the most solemn manner, relics enshrined in cases of gold,
which were sometimes placed upon, or over, but generally under the
altar. This made persons flock towards them, and bury their dead there,
in the hope that both might receive benefit from such veneration.
Thus, that which was originally considered a profanation, ultimately,
through the corruption of subsequent ages, became not only a means
of satisfying ambitious pride, but also apparently of conferring the
blessings of eternal happiness.
The custom of interring persons of rank in churches was first
introduced into this country by Cuthbert, the tenth Archbishop of
Canterbury, who in the year A.D. 798 procured the privilege
from the Pope to have churchyards for interment: with reference to
burying in churches, the custom did not arise earlier than the year
1076. In the reign of William the Conqueror, the council held at
Winchester, under Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury, by the ninth
canon, opposed burial in churches; it soon after, however, became a
custom, and vaults were built under the altars.
“It is horrid,” said the Austrian emperor, “that a place of worship--a
temple of the Supreme Being--should be converted into a pest-house for
living creatures.”
A person who upon his death-bed makes it a condition in his will that
he should be buried in a church or chapel, acts like a madman; he
ought to set his fellow-creatures a good example, and not do all in his
power to destroy their health by exposing them to the effluvia arising
from a corpse in a state of putrefaction.
The following extract is from a sermon preached in 1552 by Bishop
Latimer, which proves that even at that comparatively early period,
when the population of London could scarcely have been one-fifth of
what it is now, the nuisance of intramural interments was found to be
dangerous to health. “The citizens of Naim,” observed the bishop, “hadd
their buryinge-place withoute the citie, which no doubt is a laudable
thinge; and I doe marvel that London, being soe great a citie, hath
not a burial-place without; for no doubt it is an unwholesome thinge
to bury within the citie, especiallie at such a time when there be
great sicknesses and manie die together. I think, verilie, that many
a man taketh his death in St. Paul’s churchyard, and this I speak of
experience, for I myself, when I have been there some mornings to heare
the sermons, have felt such an ill-savoured and unwholesome savour,
that I was the worse for it a great while after; and I think no lesse
but it is the occasion of great sicknesse and disease.”
Well would it have been for the inhabitants of this vast metropolis had
Sir Christopher Wren’s plan been carried out at the rebuilding of the
city, after the fire of 1666. All churchyards were to have been removed
without the town.
In the year 1786, the legislature of Germany passed a law, which was
punctually observed in the empire over which Joseph the Second ruled,
and which we would do well to imitate, instead of using the under-part
of our chapels as store and pest-houses. This law prohibited the
burying of dead bodies in any chapel or church whatever; neither rank
nor affluence can obtain permission to evade it, as in the enforcement
of it no respect is paid to persons.
Of the injurious and fatal effects of exhalations from overcharging
burial-places, we have a striking illustration, that scarcely admits
of a doubt[7]--at least, as far as predisposition goes. In an old
work, entitled ‘Dr. Dover’s Ancient Physician’s Legacy,’ we have
the following; Dover, it must be understood, was an extraordinary
character, uniting in his own person the profession of physic and
buccaneering. He says:--“When I took by storm the two cities of
Guyaquil, under the line, in the South Seas, it happened that, not long
before, the plague had raged amongst them. For our better security
and the keeping of our people together, we lay in the churches, and
likewise brought thither the plunder of the cities. We were very much
annoyed by the smell of the dead bodies. These could hardly be said to
be buried; for the Spaniards abroad use no coffins, but throw several
dead bodies, one upon another, with only a draw-board over them; so
that it was no wonder we caught the infection. In a few days after we
went on board, one of the surgeons came to acquaint me that several of
my men were taken after a violent manner, with that languor of spirits
that they were not able to move; in less than forty-eight hours, we had
in our ships one hundred and eighty men in this miserable condition.”
Dr. Adam Clarke, in his ‘Commentary on St. Luke,’ advises that “No
burying-places should be tolerated within CITIES or TOWNS, much less in
or about CHURCHES and CHAPELS. This custom is excessively injurious to
the inhabitants, and especially to those who frequent public worship
in such CHAPELS and CHURCHES. God, decency, and health forbid this
shocking abomination. * * * From long observation I can attest that
CHURCHES and CHAPELS situated in graveyards, and those especially
within whose walls the dead are interred, are perfectly unwholesome;
and many, by attending such places, are shortening their passage to
the house appointed for the living. What increases the iniquity of
this abominable and deadly work is, that the burying-grounds attached
to many CHURCHES and CHAPELS are made a source of PRIVATE GAIN. The
whole of this preposterous conduct is as indecorous and unhealthy as
it is profane. Every man should know that the gas which is disengaged
from putrid flesh, and particularly from a human body, is not only
unfriendly to, but destructive of, animal life. Superstition first
introduced a practice which self-interest and covetousness continue to
maintain.”
The Rev. Dr. Render, in his ‘Tour through Germany’ published in London,
in the year 1801, mentions the following case:--“In the month of
July, 17--, a very corpulent lady died at----. Before her death, she
begged, as a particular favour, to be buried in the parochial church:
she died on the Wednesday, and on the following Saturday was buried
according to her desire. The day following, the clergyman preached
her funeral sermon: the weather was uncommonly hot; and it ought to
be observed that, for several months preceding her death, a great
drought had prevailed; not a drop of rain had fallen, consequently it
was an uncommonly sultry season. The succeeding Sunday, the Protestant
clergyman had a very full congregation, upwards of 900 persons
attending, that being the day for administering the Holy Sacrament. The
weather still continuing very hot, many were obliged during the service
to walk out for a time, to avoid fainting; whilst some actually fainted
away. It is the custom, in Germany, that when people wish to receive
the sacrament, they neither eat nor drink that day, until the ceremony
is entirely over. The sermon occupied about one hour and a quarter;
after which the bread was consecrated, and, according to custom,
remained uncovered during the ceremony.
“There were about one hundred and eighty communicants. A quarter of an
hour after the ceremony, before they had quitted the church, more than
sixty of them were taken ill; several died in the most severe agonies;
others, of a more vigorous constitution, survived by the help of
medical assistance; a most violent consternation prevailed throughout
the whole congregation and town. It was concluded that the wine had
been poisoned, and so it was generally believed; the sacristan, and
several others belonging to the vestry, were immediately arrested, and
cast into prison. The clergyman, on the succeeding Sunday, preached
very excitingly, and pointed out to his congregation several others
concerned in the plot. This enthusiastic sermon was printed. The
persons accused underwent very great hardships; during the space of a
week they were confined in a dungeon, and some of them were put to the
torture; but they persisted in asserting their innocence. On the Sunday
following, the magistrate ordered that a chalice of wine, uncovered,
should be placed for the space of an hour upon the altar, which time
had scarcely elapsed when they beheld the wine filled with myriads
of insects; and by tracing them to their source it was at length
perceived, by the rays of the sun, that they issued from the grave of
the lady who had been buried the preceding fortnight. The people not
belonging to the vestry were dismissed, and four men employed to open
the grave and the coffin; in doing which two of them dropped down, and
expired upon the spot; and the other two were only saved by the utmost
exertion of medical talent. It is beyond the power of words to describe
the horrid sight of the corpse when the coffin was opened. The whole
was a mass of entire putrefaction; and it was now clearly demonstrated
that the numerous insects, both large and small, together with the
effluvia which had issued from the body, had caused the pestilential
infection, which was a week before attributed to poison. On this
discovery, those who had been accused of poisoning the wine, &c., were
liberated, and atonement made by the clergyman and magistrate for their
unfounded charge.”
It was said by St. Cyril, when offering an excuse for the mode of
burial of the Gentiles, “that their temples were only beautiful
monuments of dead men.” How differently would he have expressed himself
with regard to our Christian metropolitan churches or temples of this,
the nineteenth century, which are loathsome receptacles of corruption!
But a few years ago, in the autumn of 1843, the poisonous effects
of disturbing a graveyard were but too fatally evident. The church
and churchyard of Minchinhampton are very old,--the latter having
served for a burying-ground for the previous five hundred years; it
was consequently densely crowded with dead bodies. In rebuilding the
church, it became necessary, or was thought expedient, to lower the
surface of the graveyard to within a foot or two of the remains of
those buried. Many bodies were disturbed during this process, and
re-interred. The earth so removed of a dark colour--saturated, in fact,
with the product of human putrefaction--was, in a fatal hour, devoted
to the purposes of agriculture! About one thousand cart-loads were
thus employed--some on a new piece of burial-ground, to make the grass
grow quickly, some as manure on the neighbouring fields, some in the
rector’s garden! and some in that of the patron. The seeds of disease
were thus widely sown, and the result was such as any person of common
sense might have expected. The diffusion of a morbid poison which
soon followed, was evinced by an outbreak of fever in this previously
healthy locality. The family of the rector, and the inhabitants of the
streets adjoining the churchyard, were the first attacked, and were
also the greatest sufferers. The rector lost his wife, his daughter,
and his gardener. The patron’s gardener, who had been employed in the
unseemly act of dressing flower-beds with human manure, also died.
In short, wherever the earth had been taken, disease followed. The
children who attended the school took fever as they passed the upturned
surface of the graveyard, went home, and died; but they did not
communicate the disease to those who came near them, nor did it occur
in any person who had not been exposed to the cause of its development.
Seventeen deaths occurred, and upwards of two hundred children were
attacked with measles, scarlet fever, and peculiar eruptions.
Should not the fearful consequences of such unhallowed proceedings be
viewed as the retributive hand of Heaven, overtaking those concerned
in the desecration of the dead? The appropriation of the soil, which
should have been held as sacred;--of human remains, for the purposes
of agriculture--the cultivation of vegetables and flowers! and by one,
too, holding the sacred office of a pastor. _O tempora! O mores!_
Considering the immense importance of the subject, in a moral as
well as in a physical point of view, it is lamentable in the extreme
and truly disgraceful to a nation boasting of its character, general
superiority, and wealth, that a practice (intramural burial) should
obtain, in behalf of which no one single argument can be adduced, but
against which, religion, history, common sense, and daily experience
may be arrayed.
* * * * *
On reviewing the foregoing observations, and on seriously contemplating
the condition of the ill-ventilated rooms and workshops, the damp,
dark, and insalubrious cellars,--little better than dungeons,--the
dreary, close, stifling courts, and narrow dark alleys of this vast
metropolis, into which the light of heaven rarely penetrates;--we say,
while contemplating these abodes of our lower classes, (which would
be injurious even to swine,) the culpable apathy, prejudice, and bad
arrangements of those whose duty it is to remedy such crying evils,
cannot but be obvious. In conclusion, we would therefore earnestly
recommend to all such delinquents for their guidance, and to all those
enlisted in the cause of sanitary reform, the salutary directions
as to washing, cleansing, purification, &c., conveyed in the Mosaic
Ordinances, especially in the following passages, as showing with what
minuteness all matters appertaining to health, to the very freeing of
houses from damp, were directed; that we, the enlightened and refined
of the nineteenth century, may profit thereby.
“34 When ye be come into the land of Canaan, which I give to you for a
possession, and I put the plague of leprosy[8] in a house of the land
of your possession;
35 And he that owneth the house shall come and tell the priest, saying,
It seemeth to me _there is_ as it were a plague in the house:
36 Then the priest shall command that they empty the house, before the
priest go _into it_ to see the plague, that all that _is_ in
the house be not made unclean; and afterwards the priest shall go in to
see the house:
37 And he shall look on the plague, and, behold, IF the plague
_be_ in the walls of the house with hollow strakes, greenish or
reddish, which in sight _are_ lower than the wall;
38 Then the priest shall go out of the house to the door of the house,
and shut up the house seven days:
39 And the priest shall come again the seventh day, and shall look:
and, behold, _if_ the plague be spread in the walls of the house;
40 Then the priest shall command that they take away the stones in
which the plague _is_, and they shall cast them into an unclean
place without the city:
41 And he shall cause the house to be scraped within round about, and
they shall pour out the dust that they scrape off without the city into
an unclean place:
42 And they shall take other stones, and put _them_ in the place
of those stones; and he shall take other mortar, and shall plaister the
house.
43 And if the plague come again, and break out in the house, after that
he hath taken away the stones, and after he hath scraped the house, and
after it is plaistered;
44 Then the priest shall come and look, and, behold, _if_ the
plague be spread in the house, it _is_ a fretting leprosy in the
house: it IS unclean.
45 And he shall break down the house, the stones of it, and the
timber thereof, and all the mortar of the house; and he shall carry
_them_ forth out of the city into an unclean place.”
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Pomblin cuya precisa situacion no sobre determinar por ahora.
GENERAL INDEX.
Act, a Paving, passed, _p._ 131
Adriatic, carriages driven on the, 30
Africa, earthquakes in, 21
----, a fall of locusts in, Lord Carnarvon on, 14
Agabus, prophecy of, 17
Ague, 105
Agues and fevers in England, 31
Air, charging the, with mephitic vapours, 12
---- essential to vitality, 218
---- impregnated with mist and fœtidness, 27
Alexandria and Libya nearly destroyed, 23
Alexandrinus, 231
Alexipharmics, 107
Alfred, the rebuilding of London by, 30
Alkhatrib, 46, 48
Alonso V., army of, 66
Alonso de Burgos, 65
Alpinus, 92
Alsinet, Dr., 135
Alvarez, Dr., 139