"Aie Bubbaie was rasselt im Stroh?
D'G‰nsle gehn baarfuesz, sie han keen Schueh;
Der Schuester het's Leder, keen Leiste derzue."
(Hush-a-bye baby, what rustles the straw?
Poor goslings go barefoot, they have not a shoe;
The souter has leather, no last that will do.)
Making allowance for the pronunciation of the words, which sounds odd to
the North-German ear, these are the identical lullabies with which the
mothers in the villages near Hanover sing their babies to sleep. Some
of the old ballads, legends, fairy-tales, and proverbs, popular in
Alsace, are current throughout almost the whole of Germany. Then we have
the old-fashioned invitation to the wedding feast, stiff and formal, as
it is observed especially in Lower Alsace, and likewise in the villages
of Hanover and other districts of North Germany. In Alsace the weddings
take place on a Tuesday, because, they say, we read in the Bible: "And
the third day there was a marriage in Cana of Galilee." In sacred poetry
Alsace can pride herself upon having produced some of the most
distinguished German writers. The oldest known of these is Ottfried von
Weissenburg, who lived about the middle of the ninth century. Gottfried
von Strassburg, in the beginning of the thirteenth century, was renowned
as a writer of hymns as well as of _Minnelieder_. The first sacred songs
of a popular character recorded in Alsace date from about the middle of
the fourteenth century. But it is especially since the time of the
Reformation that this branch of sacred poetry has been much cultivated
here as in other parts of Germany. The authors of sacred poetry were
generally either theologians or musicians. The latter often composed the
words as well as the airs. Music and poetry were not cultivated so
separately as is the case in our day. Of the musicians, deserves to be
mentioned Wolfgang Dachstein, who, in the beginning of the sixteenth
century, was organist in Strassburg, first at the Cathedral, and
afterwards, when he become a Protestant, at the Thomas Church. His hymn
_An Wasserfl¸ssen Babylon_ is still to be found in most chorale books of
the German Protestants.
The secular songs of the villagers are not all in the peculiar dialect
of the province. Some are in High German, and there are several in which
High German is mixed with the dialect. Occasionally we meet with a word
which has become obsolete in other German districts; for instance,
_Pfiffholder_ for "Schmetterling," Low German "Buttervogel," English
"butterfly;" _Irten_ (Old German _Urt_, _Uirthe_) for "Zeche," English
"score." Of the lyric poets of the present century, Hebel is, perhaps,
the most popular in Alsace. His "Allemannische Gedichte" used to be
sung especially in the southern district, which, until recently, formed
the French department of Haut-Rhin. The people of this district have a
less soft pronunciation than those of Bas-Rhin.
As regards the popular songs of Lorraine, those which have been
collected and published are, almost all of them, from the French
districts of the province.
The SociÈtÈ d'ArchÈologie Lorraine has published a collection, entitled
'PoÈsies populaires de la Lorraine, Nancy, 1854;' and R. Grosjean,
organist of the Cathedral of Saint-DiÈ-des-Vosges, has edited a number
of old Christmas Carols, arranged for the organ or harmonium, and
published under the title of 'Air des NoÎls Lorrains, Saint-DiÈ, 1862.'
In the German villages we meet with songs in a peculiar dialect, not
unfrequently interspersed with French words. The following example is
from the neighbourhood of Saarlouis:--
"Of de Bam senge de Viglen bei Daa ond Naat,
D'M‰nntcher peife hibsch on rufe: ti-ti-pi-pi,
On d'Weibcher saan: pi-pi-zi-zi.
Se senge luschtig on peife _du haut en bas_.
Berjer, Buwe on Baure d'iwrall her,
Die _plassire_ sich recht _‡ leur aise_.
Se senge _ensemble_ hibsch on fein.
D'grˆscht _Pl‰sirn_ hot mer van de Welt
Dat mer saan kann am grine Bam;
Dat esch wohr, dat esch keen Dram."
(On the tree sing the birds by day and night,
They pipe and call, ti-ti-pi-pi;
Their mates reply, pi-pi-zi-zi.
They cheerfully chirp _du haut en bas_,
High life and low life, from all around,
_Placent_ themselves quite _‡ leur aise_.
They sing _ensemble_ sweet and fine.
No greater _plaisir_ earth can give
Than the sight of a greenwood tree;
That's truth, no idle dream.)
Thus much about the words of the popular songs. As regards the airs,
those which have been traditionally preserved by the villagers of
Alsace exhibit the characteristics of the German national music. That
the construction of the airs has not altered much in the course of a
century is evident from the specimens of songs and dance-tunes which
Laborde gives in his 'Essai sur la Musique,' published in the year 1780.
Still earlier, about two hundred years ago, the French composers adopted
from Alsace a German tune of a peculiar construction, the _Allemande_.
This happened at the time of the invention of the _Suite_, a composition
which consists of a series of short pieces written in the style of
popular tunes of various countries. The Allemande, which generally
formed the introductory movement to the series, is more dignified than
the sprightly Courante, Gavotte, and BourrÈe, originally obtained from
different provinces of France.
Particularly interesting is the music of the peasant of Kochersberg. The
mountain called Kochersberg is situated in the vicinity of the town of
Zabern in Upper Alsace. The district immediately surrounding the
mountain is also called Kochersberg. The villagers of this district are
considered by the French as rather rude in manner, but as honest,
straightforward, and trustworthy. They have several old favourite
dances, as for instance, _Der Scharrer_ ("The Scraper"), _Der Z‰uner_
("The Fence Dance"), _Der Morisken_ (evidently the "Morrice" or Moorish
Dance, formerly also popular in England, and originally derived from the
Moors in Spain), _Der Hahnentanz_ ("The Cock Dance"). The last-named
dance, which is also popular in other districts of Alsace, and, with
some modifications, in the Black Forest of Germany, is generally
performed in a large barn. On a cross-beam is affixed a dish, in which
is placed a fine large cock (called _Guller_). The cock is ornamented
with ribands of various colours. Near the dish hangs a tallow-candle,
through which a string is drawn horizontally. To one end of the string
is attached a leaden ball. The dancers arrange themselves in pairs, one
behind the other. As soon as the musicians strike up, the candle is
lighted, and the first pair receive a nosegay, which they have to hold
as long as they continue dancing. When they are tired, and stop to
rest, they must give the nosegay to the next following pair, and so on.
The pair which have possession of the nosegay at the moment when the
candle burns the string, and the ball falls into the dish, win the cock.
The _Hammeltanz_ of the Kochersberg peasants is likewise known in Baden.
In this dance a fat wether is the prize of the lucky pair who happen to
be dancing when a glass suspended by a burning match-cord becomes
detached and falls to the ground. Some of the dancers are accompanied
with singing; for instance, the _Bloue Storken_, in which the song
begins with the words:--
"Hon err de bloue Storken nit g's‰hn?"
(Have you not seen the blue storks?)
The _Bloue Storken_ is one of the oldest national dances of the Alsatian
peasants. It is danced by one person only. At the commencement his
performance resembles that of the slow and grave minuet; after awhile it
becomes more animated.
However, in a musical point of view, the most interesting of these
dances is the _Kochersberger Tanz_, which is mentioned by Reicha and
other musical theorists on account of its peculiar rhythm. According to
Reicha's notation it is in 5/8 time. Perhaps it would have been as
correctly written in 3/8 and 2/8 alternately, like _Der Zwiefache_, or
_Gerad und Ungerad_ ("Even and Uneven"), of the villagers in the Upper
Palatinate of Bavaria, to which it bears altogether a strong
resemblance. The musical bands attending the villagers at dances and
other rural pastimes are, as might be expected, very simple--a clarionet
and one or two brass instruments generally constituting the whole
orchestra.
In Alsace a certain musical instrument is still to be found which, about
three centuries ago, was popular in Germany. Some of the works on music
published in the beginning of the seventeenth century contain drawings
of it. Its German name is _Scheidholt_, and its French name is _b˚che_.
It consists of an oblong square box of wood, upon which are stretched
about half-a-dozen wire-strings. Some of the strings run over a
finger-board provided with iron frets. These strings are used for
playing the melody. The others are at the side of the finger-board, and
serve for the accompaniment. The strings are twanged with a plectrum.
The _Scheidholt_ may be considered as the prototype of the horizontal
cither which, in the present century, has come much in vogue in Bavaria
and Austria, and which has recently been introduced also into England.
Formerly, the professional musicians of Alsace formed a guild, the
origin of which dates from the time of the _Minnes‰nger_, when players
on musical instruments wandered from castle to castle to entertain the
knights with their minstrelsy. In the year 1400 a Roman imperial diploma
was granted to Count Rappoltstein constituting him protector of the
guild. The musicians were called _Pfeiffer_, and Count Rappoltstein and
his successors had the title of _Pfeiffer-Kˆnig_ ("King of the Pipers").
In the seventeenth century the _Pfeiffer_ held annually a musical
festival at Bischweiler, a small town near Strassburg. Having gradually
fallen into decay, this old guild died out in the year 1789.
Considering the influence which the principal town of a country usually
exercises upon the taste of the rural population, a few remarks relating
to the cultivation of music in Strassburg may find here a place.
Strassburg possesses, indeed, valuable relics illustrative of the
history of music as well as of the other fine arts. Unfortunately,
several of these treasures were injured at the recent bombardment. The
town library, which was burnt, contained some valuable musical
manuscripts; for instance, the _Gesellschaftsbuch der Meisters‰nger_
from the year 1490 to 1768, and an historic treatise on the music and
the _Meisters‰nger_ of Strassburg written in the year 1598, by M.
Cyriacus Spangenberg. To antiquarians who deplore the loss of these
relics it may afford consolation to know that the town library of
Colmar, in Alsace, possesses a manuscript collection of more than 1,000
old Minne-songs and Meister-songs, which originally belonged to the
guild of shoemakers of Colmar. It must be remembered that in the
beginning of the fourteenth century, after the _Minnes‰nger_ of the
Middle Ages, like the old chivalry with which they were associated, had
become obsolete, there sprang up in Germany a corporation of poets and
singers constituted of citizens, and known as the Meisters‰nger.
Strassburg was one of the first among the German towns in which the
Meisters‰nger flourished. An old sculpture of a Meisters‰nger,
life-size, placed under the celebrated organ of the cathedral, testifies
to the popular esteem enjoyed by this corporation. The town library
possessed two curious oil-paintings on panel, dating from about the year
1600, which belonged to the Meisters‰nger of Strassburg, who used to
place them one at each side of the entrance to their hall of assembly. A
collection of antiquated musical instruments, which, probably,
originally belonged to the Meisters‰nger, was formerly in a public
building called Pfenningthurm, from which, in the year 1745, it was
removed to the town library, where it was reduced to ashes.
However, the most interesting musical instrument in Strassburg is the
organ of the cathedral made by Andreas Silbermann. Notwithstanding the
care exercised by the beleaguerers to prevent damage to the cathedral, a
shell found its way right through the centre of the organ, and must have
greatly injured this work of art. Andreas Silbermann was no mere
handicraftman, but an artist like Amati or Stradivari. He was born in
Saxony, settled in Strassburg in the year 1701, and built the organ of
the cathedral in 1715. His brother, Gottfried Silbermann of Saxony, was
likewise a distinguished maker, not only of organs, but also of
clavichords, and an improver of the pianoforte soon after its invention,
in the beginning of the eighteenth century. Almost all the organs built
during the eighteenth century for the churches of Strassburg are by
Andreas Silbermann and his sons. Among the latter, Johann Andreas is
noteworthy on account of his antiquarian pursuits. He wrote, besides
other works, a 'History of the Town of Strassburg,' which was published
in folio, with engravings, in the year 1775. His collection of sketches
drawn by himself of the most remarkable scenery, and of old castles and
other interesting buildings of Alsace, and likewise his collection of
the old coins of Strassburg, were preserved in the town library, and
are, it is to be feared, now lost. As even the catalogue of the library
has, it is said, been burnt, it may be worth while to notice some of
the losses. With the irreparable ones must be recorded a copy of the
first hymn book of the Protestant Church, of which no other copy is
known to be extant. It was published at Erfurt in the year 1524, and
contains twenty-five songs, eighteen of which are by Luther. Its title
is _Enchiridion, oder eyn Handbuchlein eynem yetzlichen Christen fast
nutzlich bey sich zu haben, zur stetter vbung vnd trachtung geystlicher
gesenge und Psalmen, Rechtschaffen vnd Kunstlich vertheutscht_.
("Enchiridion, or a little Hand-book, very useful for a Christian at the
present time to have by him for the constant practice and contemplation
of spiritual songs and psalms, judiciously and carefully put into
German.") The musical notation is given with the words. It is believed
that Luther gave the manuscript of his own songs, and most likely also
of the other songs, and of the musical notation, into the hands of the
publisher;--that, in fact, the "Enchiridion" emanated directly from
Luther. A _fac-simile_ of this book was published in Erfurt in the year
1848. Only three chorales are known with certainty to be of Luther's
composition.
With the musical relics of the olden time preserved in Strassburg must
be classed the so-called Astronomic Clock. This curious piece of
mechanism, which is in the cathedral, was, in the year 1570, substituted
for one which dated from the year 1354. Having been out of repair since
the year 1789, it was restored about thirty years ago. The cylinders of
the old mechanism of 1354, which act upon a carillon of ten bells, have
been retained. The old tonal system exhibited in the arrangement of the
cylinders, which produce hymn tunes, cannot but be interesting to
musical antiquarians. Also, the wonderful mechanical cock, which, at the
end of a tune, flapped its wings, stretched out its neck, and crowed
twice--a relic of the work of 1354--is still extant; but whether it
continues to perform its functions, I cannot say.
Let us now refer for a moment to the theatrical performances patronised
by the burghers. Some interesting records relating to the history of the
opera in Strassburg have been published by G. F. Lobstein, in his
'Beitr‰ge zur Geschichte der Musik im Elsass, Strassburg, 1840.' The
oldest theatrical representations in Strassburg are of the sixteenth
century. They consisted of sacred and historical pieces, and likewise of
dramas of the Greek and Latin classics. The actors were scholars, or
academicians, and the performances were called _Dramata theatralia_,
_Actiones comicae_ or _tragicae_, _Comoediae academicae_. About the year
1600 also the Meisters‰nger occasionally engaged in dramatic
performances, or, as they called it, in _Comˆdien von Gl¸ck und Ungl¸ck_
("Comedies treating of Happiness and Unhappiness") and they continued to
act such pieces in public until towards the end of the seventeenth
century. In the year 1601 we find, the first time, mention made of the
English comedians who, like the Meisters‰nger, evidently introduced
music into their dramatic performances. Respecting the companies of
English comedians who visited Germany at the time of Shakespeare, much
has been written by Shakespearean scholars; but little attention has,
however, been given by them to the musical accomplishments of these
strollers. The old records which have recently been brought to light in
Germany relating to the history of the theatres of the principal German
towns, contain some interesting notices of "English instrumentalists"
who formed part of the companies of English comedians. Indeed, most of
the so-called English comedians appear to have been musicians and
dancers (or rather tumblers) as well as actors. Probably it was more the
novelty of their performances than any superiority of skill which
rendered these odd foreigners temporarily attractive in Germany.
Howbeit, to the musical historian they are interesting.
The invention of the opera, it must be remembered, dates from the year
1580, when, at Florence, the Count of Vernio formed at his palace a
society for the revival of the ancient Greek musical declamation in the
drama. This endeavour resulted in the production of the operas 'Dafne'
and 'Orfeo ed Euridice,' composed by Peri and Caccini. The first German
opera was performed in Dresden, in the year 1627. It was the libretto of
'Dafne,' just mentioned, written by Rinuccini, which was translated into
German, and anew set to music by Heinrich von Sch¸tz, Kapellmeister of
the Elector of Saxony. In France the first composer of an opera was
Robert Cambert, in the year 1647. He called his production 'La
Pastorale, premiËre comÈdie franÁaise en musique.' This composition was,
however, performed only at Court. The first public performance of an
opera in France occurred not earlier than the year 1671.[2] However,
before the invention of the opera, strolling actors, such as the English
comedians, and the Italian companies, which were popular in Strassburg,
used to intersperse their performances with songs, accompanied by
musical instruments such as the lute, theorbo, viol, etc. The first
operatic representations, properly so called, in Strassburg, took place
in the year 1701, and the operas were German, performed by German
companies. Later, Italian companies made their appearance, and still
later, French ones. In the year 1750 the French comic opera 'Le Devin du
Village,' by J. J. Rousseau, was much admired. However, even during the
eighteenth century the German operas and dramas enjoyed greater
popularity in Strassburg than the French, notwithstanding the protection
which the French companies received from the Government officials of the
town. Indeed, the theatrical taste of the burghers has never become
thoroughly French, if we may rely on G. F. Lobstein, who says, "The
diminished interest evinced by the inhabitants of Strassburg at the
present day" [about the year 1840] "in theatrical performances dates
from the time when the French melodramas and vaudevilles made their
appearance. The hideous melodramatic exhibitions, and the frivolous
subjects, unsuitable for our town, and often incomprehensible to
us--depicting Parisian daily occurrences and habits not unfrequently
highly indecent--have, since their introduction on our stage, scared
away those families which formerly visited the theatre regularly. They
now come only occasionally, when something better is offered."
As regards the musical institutions and periodical concerts of
Strassburg, suffice it to state that the local government has always
encouraged the cultivation of music; it is, therefore, not surprising,
considering the love for music evinced by the Alsatians, that Strassburg
has been during the last three centuries one of the chief nurseries of
this art on the Continent. Until the year 1681, when Strassburg was
ceded to France, it possessed an institution called Collegium Musicum,
which enjoyed the special patronage of the local government. An AcadÈmie
de Musique, instituted in the year 1731 by the French Governor of the
town, was dissolved, after twenty years' existence, in 1751. At the
present day the musical societies are not less numerous in Strassburg
than in most large towns of Germany. An enumeration of the various kinds
of concerts would perhaps only interest some musicians.
But Pleyel's Republican Hymn of the year 1792 is too characteristic of
French taste at the time of the great events which it was intended to
celebrate to be left unnoticed. Ignaz Pleyel, the well-known musician,
was born in a village near Vienna, in the year 1757. On visiting
Strassburg, after a sojourn in Italy, in the year 1789, he was made
Kapellmeister of the cathedral. Unfortunately for him, soon his
political opinions were regarded with suspicion by the National
Assembly, especially from his being a native of Austria. He found
himself in peril of losing his liberty, if not his life. Anxious to save
himself, he conceived the happy idea of writing a brilliant musical
composition in glorification of the Revolution. He communicated his
intention to the National Assembly; it found approval, and he was
ordered to write, under the surveillance of a gendarme, a grand vocal
and orchestral piece, entitled 'La RÈvolution du 10 Ao˚t (1792) ou le
Tocsin allÈgorique.' The manuscript score of this singular composition
was, until recently, preserved in Strassburg, but has now probably
perished. A short analysis of its construction will convince the reader
that the monster orchestra which Hector Berlioz has planned for the
music of the future, and of which he says in prophetic raptures: "Its
repose would be majestic as the slumber of the ocean; its agitation
would recall the tempest of the tropics; its explosions, the outbursts
of volcanoes," was already anticipated by Pleyel nearly a hundred years
ago. Pleyel required for his orchestra not only a number of large
field-guns, but also several alarm-bells. The financial condition of
France at that period, and the abolition of divine worship, induced the
National Assembly to decree the delivering up of all the church-bells in
Alsace. About 900 bells were consequently sent to Strassburg. Pleyel
selected from them seven for the performance of his work; and all the
others were either converted into cannon, or coined into money--mostly
one-sol and two-sol pieces.
The _Introduzione_ of Pleyel's composition is intended to depict the
rising of the people. The stringed instruments begin _piano_. After a
little while a low murmuring noise mingles with the soft strains,
sounding at first as if from a great distance, and approaching gradually
nearer and nearer. Now the wind-instruments fall in, and soon the
blowing is as furious as if it were intended to represent the most
terrific storm. It is, however, meant to represent the storming of the
Tuileries. Fortunately the awful noise soon passes over, and only some
sharp skirmishes are occasionally heard. After about a hundred bars of
this descriptive fiddling and blowing, the alarm-bells begin--first one,
then another, and now all in rapid succession. Suddenly they are
silenced by a loud trumpet signal, responded to by a number of drums and
fifes. The fanfare leads to a new confusion, through which the melody of
some old French military march is faintly discernible. The excitement
gradually subsides, and after awhile the stringed instruments alone are
engaged, softly expressing the sighs of the wounded and dying. Presently
the Royalists make themselves heard with the song, "_O Richard, Ù mon
roi_" (from 'Richard Coeur de Lion') which, after some more confusion,
is followed by the air, "_O˘ peut-on Ítre mieux?_" at the end of which
discharges of cannon commence. Another general confusion, depicted by
the whole orchestra with the addition of cannon and alarm-bells.
Suddenly a flourish of trumpets, with kettle-drums, announces victory,
and forms the introduction to a jubilant chorus with full orchestral
accompaniment: "_La victoire est ‡ nous, le peuple est sauvÈ!_" This
again, after some more instrumental interluding, is followed by a chorus
with orchestral accompaniment founded on the tune "_«a ira, Áa ira_," a
patriotic song which was, during the time of the Revolution, very
popular with the French soldiers. The remaining portion of the
composition consists of a few songs for single voices alternating with
choruses. As the words are not only musically but also historically
interesting, they may find a place here.
"_Chorus._
"Nous t'offrons les dÈbris d'un trÙne,
Sur ces autels, Ù Sainte LibertÈ!
De l'Èternelle vÈritÈ.
Ce jour enfin, qui nous environne,
Rend tout ce peuple ‡ la fÈlicitÈ;
Par sa vertu, par sa fiertÈ,
Il conquiert l'ÈgalitÈ.
Parmis nos hÈros la foudre qui tonne
L'annonce au loin ‡ l'humanitÈ.
"_A Woman._ (_Solo._)
"Mon fils vient d'expirer,
Mais je n'ai plus de rois!
"_Romance._
"Il fut ‡ son pays avant que d'Ítre ‡ moi,
Et j'Ètais citoyenne avant que d'Ítre mËre.
Mon fils! par tes vertus j'honore ta poussiËre.
"_Chorus._
"Nous t'offrons les dÈbris d'un trÙne, etc., etc.
"_Solo._ (_Soprano._)
"Ah! pÈrisse l'idolatrie
Qu'on voue ‡ la royautÈ.
Terre ne sois qu'une patrie,
Qu'un seul temple ‡ l'humanitÈ,
Que l'homme venge son injure
Brise, en bravant, le faux devoir,
Et le piÈdestal du pouvoir { _Repeated by_
Et les autels de l'imposture, { _the Chorus._
Rois, pontifs! Ù ligue impure
Dans ton impuissant dÈsespoir
Contemple aux pieds de la nature
Le diadËme et l'encensoir!
Versailles et la fourbe Rome
Ont perdu leurs adulateurs.
Les vertus seront les grandeurs, { _Repeated by_
Les palais sont les toits de chaume. { _the Chorus._
"_Solo._ (_Tenore._)
"Les FranÁais qu'on forme ‡ la guerre
Appellent contre les tyrans
Les reprÈsailles de la terre,
Du haut des palais fumans.
Des bords du Gange ‡ ceux du Tibre
Dieu! rends bientÙt selon nos voeux
Tout homme un citoyen heureux, { _Repeated by_
Le genre humain un peuple libre. { _the Chorus._
"_Solo Recit._ (_Basso._)
"Nous finirons son esclavage
Ce grand jour en est le prÈsage!
"_Chorus_ (_concluding with a brilliant orchestral Coda_).
"Nous t'offrons les dÈbris d'un trÙne," etc., etc.
This curious composition was performed in the Cathedral of Strassburg,
and created great sensation. Everyone declared that only an ardent
patriot could have produced such a stirring work. Nevertheless Pleyel,
after having been set free, thought it advisable to leave Strassburg for
London as soon as possible.
Besides those already mentioned, several other distinguished musicians
could be named who were born or who lived in Strassburg. Ottomarus
Luscinius, a priest, whose proper German name was Nachtigall, published
in the year 1536, in Strassburg, his 'Musurgia, seu Praxis MusicÊ,' a
work much coveted by musical antiquarians. Sebastian Brossard, who,
about the year 1700, was Kapellmeister at the Strassburg Cathedral, is
the author of a well-known musical dictionary. Sebastian Erard, the
inventor of the repetition-action and other improvements in the
pianoforte, as well as of the double-action in the harp, was born at
Strassburg in the year 1752.
In short, Elsass-Lothringen has been the cradle of many men
distinguished in arts and sciences. The prominent feature of the
national character of the inhabitants, revealed in their popular songs
and usages, is a staidness which is not conspicuous among the pleasant
qualities of the French. This innate staidness accounts for the
reluctance recently shown by them to being separated from France, just
as it accounts for their former disinclination to become French
subjects. Moreover it will probably, now that they are reunited to their
kinsmen, gradually make them as patriotic Germans as they originally
were. That they require time to transfer their attachment redounds to
their honour.
[Illustration]
[2] The opera was introduced into England from Italy about the year
1660.
[Illustration]