ALCOHOL AND ITS EFFECTS ON THE SYSTEM.
All substances taken into the stomach as food are of three kinds,
carbohydrates, proteids, and fats. This means, starch, sugars, meats,
and fats, besides water and some salts.
Food substances carry their own complement of water, serve nutritive
purposes when taken into the system, and are easily dissolved by the
various fluids in the body.
Food may be taken into the system for three purposes: 1. Simply for
the maintenance of health; 2. For fattening purposes; 3. For the sake
of muscular energy.
The body, the human body, consists, speaking in general terms, of
carbohydrates, fats, and proteids, and water and saline matters.
We have seen that the work done by the master tissues causes a loss,
or produces a certain amount of waste material, consisting of Carbon,
Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen, and some mineral matter--salts. This
loss or waste has to be replaced in quantity and quality sufficient
in order to maintain a healthy condition of the body.
And, since we know the precise, or almost the precise, quantity of
material excreted, which consists of Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen, and
Hydrogen, etc., we can also estimate, with considerable precision,
the quantity needed to replace it.
More than 41 per cent of the entire weight of the body is made up of
muscular tissue. The nervous tissue constitutes not quite two per cent.
The chemical composition of muscular and nervous tissue--of the solid
part only--is
Carbon. Hydrogen. Nitrogen. Oxygen. Sul.
51.5 6.9 15.2 20.9 0.3
to to to to to
54.5 7.3 17.0 23.5 2.0
The watery portion of the muscle is not mentioned. Please notice the
large quantity of Carbon and the small quantity of Hydrogen in the
composition of the solid part of the muscle.
We are aware that the muscles are always producing Carbonic Acid--that
is, C and O2--and when a muscle contracts, there is a sudden and
extensive increase of the normal production.
The blood that comes from a contracting muscle is richer in Carbonic
acid--that is, it contains one atom more of Carbon and two atoms of
Oxygen more.
The blood that has passed through the lungs changes from venous to
arterial blood. The venous discharges about 5 vols. of Carbonic acid
(C O2); the arterial carries away about 5 vols. of Oxygen (O) to
the tissues.
The carbohydrates taken into the system:
Oz.
Starch and sugars, about 20
Meats, proteids, ,, 15
Fats, ,, 3 1/2
Water, ,, 52
About 32 ounces of saliva converts the starch into sugar. That is,
the saliva changes starch (C18 H30 O15) into sugar (C6 H11 O5). Meats
are acted upon by the gastric juice, it requiring about ten to
twenty pints to dissolve three-quarters to one pound of meat-stuff;
and the substances in the stomach are changed into chyme. The fats
are emulsified by the gall from the liver--about 30 to 40 ounces
for 3 to 4 ounces of fat. And the pancreatic juice completes the
work and still farther dissolves all three kinds of substances, so
that, with the aid of the succus entericus, the whole mass is changed
into a substance called chyle. All the carbohydrates and proteids in
solution, together with the fluids taken into the system, are taken up
by the veins of the abdominal organs and conveyed by the portal vein
to the liver. Passing through the liver, the blood is collected by
the hepatic vein and emptied into the inferior vena cava. The fatty
substances are taken up by the lacteals to the receptaculum chyli,
passed up the thoracic duct, and poured into the left subclavian vein,
which empties its contents into the superior vena cava.
Both streams of blood--venous blood--from the superior and inferior
vena cava, pass into the right auricle, thence to the right ventricle,
through the pulmonary artery into the lungs, there exchange the
Carbonic acid for Oxygen, and return by means of the pulmonary veins
into the left auricle, thence to the left ventricle, through the
aorta into the general system--and to the master tissues.
In the tissues the Oxygen is taken up. That is, the Oxygen passes from
the blood to the tissues and the tissues throw off the Carbonic acid,
which the veins again carry to the right side of the heart.
Alcohol is composed of Carbon two (2), Hydrogen six (6), and Oxygen
one (1) (C2 H6 O1). Alcohol, like all poisonous substances, carries
a small amount of Oxygen. In composition it resembles very much, and
probably is, a union of C2 H4 + H2 O, C2 H4 = ethane, olefiant gas,
or heavy carburetted hydrogen. It is, in fact, a constituent of the
gas we burn, procured from the destructive distillation of coal--in
other words, coal gas. To make it plainer, ethane contains two of
Carbon, four of Hydrogen + one molecule of water.
When alcohol is taken into the system, it is almost immediately
absorbed by the veins of the stomach, is carried at once by the
portal vein to the liver, and returns from the liver by way of the
hepatic vein to the inferior vena cava, to the right auricle, and to
the lungs through the right ventricle.
But the lungs cannot supply Oxygen enough to satisfy the Carbon of
the alcohol. There is only one atom of Oxygen in the composition of
alcohol, and three more atoms of Oxygen are needed to form Carbonic
acid (C O2). Under ordinary, normal conditions, Oxygen enough is
inspired to satisfy the wants of the tissues for combustion purposes,
but in the case of alcohol an extra demand for Oxygen is made, and
the lungs are not prepared to supply the demand.
Since oxidation takes place in the tissues and not in the blood, the
blood, being overcharged with heavy carburetted Hydrogen (C2 H4),
unloads it into the tissue. The extra amount of Carbon arriving at
the tissue, robs it of its Oxygen. The Oxygen arriving from the lungs
being insufficient, the tissue loses Oxygen. The presence of Oxygen
is necessary for the maintenance of irritability. From the fact that
no free Oxygen is present in the muscular tissue the tension is nil
or even less than nothing.
When the Carbon of the alcohol robs the tissues of its Oxygen, the
Hydrogen is set free. What becomes of it? The muscular and nervous
tissues contain from 51 to 54 per cent of Carbon in their composition,
and 6 to 7 per cent of Hydrogen. The free Hydrogen combines with
the Carbon of the tissues and forms carburetted Hydrogen, with which
the blood gets overloaded, and carries it to the other tissues. The
nervous system, the brain, not receiving the Oxygen necessary, in
consequence of the blood being overcharged with both Carbonic acid
and carburetted Hydrogen, the nervous substance is first impaired,
next exhausted, and lastly its normal activity extinguished.
The muscles meantime through having been robbed of both Oxygen and
Carbon--receiving no free Oxygen or very little--and through the
presence in the circulating fluid of Carbonic acid and carburetted
Hydrogen, lose the power to act. The cerebrum, cerebellum, medulla
oblongata, with all the other subordinate nervous centers, being
impaired by the poison and the absence of Oxygen, the nerves of
volition lose control, the cerebrum has its will power impaired or
entirely subdued, and the cerebellum loses the power of muscular
coördination.
Thus, then, the master tissues become crippled. At first alcohol
may have a stimulating effect on the nervous system; next, if the
indulgence be continued, the nervous forces become exalted; finally,
however, depression sets in, and proves at last a complete extinguisher
of the intellectual faculties.
The muscles first lose the power of coördination, the irritability
and tension gradually cease, at length they refuse to act.
The brain and muscles being helpless, the body lies in a state of
stupor, motionless. The individual is temporarily deprived of his
mental faculties, incapacitated, and completely oblivious to all his
surroundings. The involuntary organs, however, may act. The stomach
may eject its contents, having lost consciousness and will power. The
urine and feces may pass off involuntarily.
All organs have to suffer, but two more than all the rest--the liver
and kidneys.
The function of the liver, as we have already seen, is the secretion
of the bile. That organ has still another important duty to perform,
and that is in converting the starchy substances, or its already
converted sugars, in to glycogen = C6 H10 O5. The metabolic activity
of the hepatic cells lies in the formation of glycogene. Glycogene is
a source of heat in the body. It is constantly present in the muscle,
as a functional material no doubt. The chief purposes this substance
serves are probably for respiration and production of animal heat.
We must bear in mind that fats are composed of C, H, and O, and that
both fats and carbohydrates serve nutritive purposes. Whether any
difference exists between the two we do not know at present, beyond
the fact that in the final combination of the two, while carbohydrates
require sufficient Oxygen only to combine with their Carbon, there
being already sufficient Oxygen in the carbohydrate itself to form
water with the Hydrogen, fats require in addition Oxygen to burn off
some of their Hydrogen.
Alcohol is not convertible into glycogene. The six atoms of Carbon
are complemented by five molecules of water: C6 + 5 O H2 = C6 H{10}
O5. As already stated, alcohol (C6 H2 O) contains only one molecule
of water (H2 O + C2 H4 ethane). To convert the four of Hydrogen into
water, two of Oxygen are needed--and to form Carbonic acid three of
Oxygen are wanting.
In this connection we may ask, Is alcohol a food? No! Alcohol is in
no sense a food!
As a stimulant it is very useful, in a certain class of exhausting
diseases, but taken in large quantities alcohol acts as a slow poison.
The action of the alcohol, which must pass through the liver, is
certainly not beneficial. On the contrary, the function of the organ
is interfered with and the tissues of which the liver is composed
slowly but surely undergo a degenerative process.
The alcoholic beverages differ. As for example, whisky, wine, and
beer--of the three beer is probably the least injurious. By reason of
the hops it contains it helps to allay nervous irritability. When taken
continuously in large quantities, it leads to congestion of the liver
and the accumulation of fat. Beer contains only four to five per cent
of alcohol, or thereabout. The effect of beer on some individuals is
somewhat similar, in the increase of size, to the remarkable growth
of some aquatic plants, as the gourd, in which the vegetable tissue
cells are very large and increase very rapidly.
The use of the stronger spirits leads to a degeneration of another
kind--contraction of the liver, cirrhosis.
The kidneys are the next to suffer severely by the alcoholic
fluids. The whole blood is purified by the kidneys. The transit is very
rapid; the elimination of impurities must necessarily be rapid. The
body under the normal condition eliminates Nitrogen chiefly; this is
the urea and uric acid found in the diurnal excretion of urine of
fifty-two ounces in the twenty-four hours. But if instead of a man
drinking the ordinary allowance of fifty-two ounces of water, a man
takes in several hundred ounces, as in the case of some beer-drinkers,
it is evident that the kidneys have a great deal more work to perform
than usual, in addition to the constant irritability the kidneys,
like the liver and other organs, are subject to.
The sobering up of a man after a drunk, consists in receiving Oxygen
sufficient in quantity into the tissues, to supply the amount he
has lost. It takes several hours before sufficient Oxygen has been
introduced into the tissues to establish the normal equilibrium.
The theories on alcohol are various. I quote some of the more important
ones, briefly stated:
Liebig thought that alcohol disappeared by complete and rapid
combustion.
Lallemand and Perrin entertained the theory that alcohol was eliminated
by the excretory organs. (That means, perhaps, that alcohol simply
promenaded through the system.)
Parks was of opinion that alcohol is directly absorbed by the
blood-vessels without undergoing any change or decomposition.
Another theory was that alcohol is converted into acetic acid (C2 H{4}
O2); and that acetic acid is split up into carbonic acid (C O2) and
water--which is impossible, as there is not Oxygen enough for both
C O2 and H2 O.
It appears, then, that alcohol does not disappear by rapid combustion,
except when taken in very small quantities and during a state of
exhaustion, and then not by combustion. That alcohol is excreted there
is no doubt, but when taken in large quantities it is not excreted
without leaving its permanent mark behind it. Nor is it absorbed by
the blood-vessels without undergoing any change or decomposition,
otherwise it would be excreted by the kidneys and skin.
That the function of the brain is entirely suspended, for a time
at least, needs no argument, because all will power is arrested,
the nerves of special sense cease to act, all nerve-centers suspend
operation, and the nerve-fibers no longer act as conductors of either
motion or sensation. And the muscular tissues are no longer capable
of irritation, stimulation, or coördination; contraction, flexion,
and extension have been temporarily annihilated; the force, the power,
and the action have succumbed to the harmful influence of alcohol. And
the cause of it all is--too much carburetted Hydrogen and the absence
of Oxygen. This has unbalanced the elements that normally enter into
the composition of the tissue both of muscle and nerve.
The master tissues, the nervous and muscular, that get drunk, they
are the first to feel the stimulation, become excited, depressed,
and exhausted.
And finally let us sum up some of the effects of alcohol on the system:
1. It is a source neither of heat nor of energy, nor can it be stored
up for future use, nor can it be assimilated in the tissues.
2. Alcohol retards the motion of the blood.
3. It induces specific action after the manner of cumulative poisons.
4. By the veins and absorbents alcohol mixes with the blood, and
immediately acts as a stimulant on all the tissues with which it is
brought in contact.
5. It causes the retention of substances which ought to be eliminated.
6. It is shown by abundant testimony that the blood becomes surcharged
with unchanged and unused material, and contains more Carbon than
normally, at times as much as 20 to 30 per cent.
7. Alcoholic blood coagulates slowly and extravasates easily.
8. The susceptibility to disease is greater, the resisting force is
diminished, and the healing process seriously interfered with.
9. Oxygen is diverted from its proper functions, the exhalation
of carbonic acid at the lungs is diminished, both absolutely and
relatively, but the pulmonary aqueous vapor is not lessened.
10. The functions of the brain are at once stimulated, and all other
organs are excited, and a train of phenomena is induced partly of a
chemical nature and partly of a physical or vital.
11. Alcohol produces a temporary increase of the heart's action,
and a congestion of the whole of the pulmonary capillaries.
12. It irritates the parts, stimulating the glandular secretions,
leads to congestion of the blood-vessels, in time forms spurious
melanotic deposits and a gradual thickening of the gastric substance.
13. Fat gradually is increased in the blood, and a milky character
is imparted to the serum of the blood, and the red corpuscles in time
assume a wrinkled and contracted appearance.
14. The water of the urine is diminished; the chlorides are greatly
lessened, as well as the acids and bases.
Most people are concerned about themselves only to the extent of
securing the immediate satisfaction of their senses. The superficial
surroundings they utilize to cater to the enjoyment of such indulgences
of acquired taste, habit, passion, feelings or emotions, as prove most
gratifying to them, never thinking that their constitution is nothing
more than a vitalized chemical machine, temporarily passing through
its terrestrial cycle of physiological activity, beginning as a mass
of protoplasm, and terminating, when it has gone through all the phases
of animal existence, in the distribution of its chemical elements.
The deranging effect of alcohol on the nervous and muscular tissues
may be compared to the working of an ordinary battery. We know that
the action and the force depend on the elements that enter into the
composition of the battery, fluids and solids, zinc and copper,
and sulphuric acid--representing zinc, copper, sulphur, Oxygen,
and Hydrogen. The action of the zinc and copper depends upon the
fluids. Other fluids, though composed of three elements, would produce
either not the same effect, or no effect at all. It stands to reason
that, since we know the kind of fluid that will set the elements in
action, we certainly should be very unwise to use another fluid that
will either derange or destroy the battery's working capacity. The
forces or force are in this instance produced by the combination of
certain elements, and in order to continue the activity or action of
these elements one upon the other, a constant supply must be kept
up. The mechanism of muscular action, or nervous action, depends
upon the supply of certain elements; they are continually replacing
elements that are used up in the work they have to perform--that is,
the function of brain or muscle. The moment elements are introduced
that do not or cannot make up the loss of the working expenditure, that
tend rather to disorganize or decompose the tissues, the functions and
the natural forces are interfered with, weakened, or may be brought
to a standstill.
The effect of alcohol is much the same on all animals. I mean,
that the master tissues of the lower animals will succumb to the
influence of alcohol as readily as those of a human being. We know
with certainty what gets drunk--where is the spiritual part of
man? where is the soul? When the brain is intoxicated, its functions
are more or less suspended, its controlling or governing action is
lost over the muscular tissue, in addition to the muscles themselves
being disabled. Both tissues, having been robbed of their elementary
equilibrium, consequently cease working. The moment the equilibrium
is reëstablished, the tissues assume their functions the same as
before. If a given number of specific parts enter into the construction
of any mechanism in order to produce a certain amount of force and
effect, the number of specific parts must always be present if the same
force and effect is to be realized. Brain and muscle are made up of a
specific number of elements; these must be always present if we would
have them produce the normal force and effect. When too much Carbon
and Hydrogen and too little Oxygen are introduced into the system,
as in the case of alcohol, the derangement of these elements is felt
in the poisonous effect, because enough Oxygen cannot be supplied to
keep up with the demand.