All Indians were more or less warlike; a few tribes, however, were eminent
for their passion for war. Such, among eastern tribes, were the Iroquois;
among southwestern tribes, the Apaches; and in Mexico, the Aztecs.
The purpose in Indian warfare was, everywhere, to inflict as much harm
upon the enemy, and to receive as little as possible.
The causes of war were numerous—trespassing on tribal territory, stealing
ponies, quarrels between individuals.
In their warfare stealthiness and craft were most important. Sometimes a
single warrior crept silently to an unsuspecting camp that he might kill
defenseless women, or little children, or sleeping warriors, and then as
quietly he withdrew with his trophies.
[Illustration.]
Indian Spears, Shield, and Quiver of Arrows.
In such approaches, it was necessary to use every help in concealing
oneself. Of the Apaches it is said: “He can conceal his swart body amidst
the green grass, behind brown shrubs or gray rocks, with so much address
and judgment that any one but the experienced would pass him by without
detection at the distance of three or four yards. Sometimes they will
envelop themselves in a gray blanket, and by an artistic sprinkling of
earth will so resemble a granite bowlder as to be passed within near range
without suspicion. At others, they will cover their person with freshly
gathered grass, and lying prostrate, appear as a natural portion of the
field. Again, they will plant themselves among the yuccas, and so closely
imitate their appearance as to pass for one of them.”
At another time the Indian warrior would depend upon a sudden dash into
the midst of the enemy, whereby he might work destruction and be away
before his presence was fairly realized.
Clark tells of an unexpected assault made upon a camp by some white
soldiers and Indian scouts. One of these scouts, named Three Bears, rode a
horse that became unmanageable, and dashed with his rider into the very
midst of the now angry and aroused enemy. Shots flew around him, and his
life was in great peril. At that moment his friend, Feather-on-the-head,
saw his danger. He dashed in after Three Bears. As he rode, he dodged back
and forth, from side to side, in his saddle, to avoid shots. At the very
center of the village, Three Bears’ horse fell dead. Instantly,
Feather-on-the-head, sweeping past, caught up his friend behind him on his
own horse, and they were gone like a flash.
A favorite device in war was to draw the enemy into ambush. An attack
would be made with a small part of the force. This would seem to make a
brave assault, but would then fall back as if beaten. The enemy would
press on in pursuit until some bit of woods, some little hollow, or some
narrow place beneath a height was reached. Then suddenly the main body of
attack, which had been carefully concealed, would rise to view on every
side, and a massacre would ensue.
After the white man brought horses, the war expeditions were usually trips
for stealing ponies. These, of course, were never common among eastern
tribes; they were frequent among Plains Indians. Some man dreamed that he
knew a village of hostile Indians where he could steal horses. If he were
a brave and popular man, companions would promptly join him, on his
announcing that he was going on an expedition. When the party was formed,
the women prepared food, moccasins, and clothing. When ready, the party
gathered in the medicine lodge, where they gashed themselves, took a
sweat, and had prayers and charms repeated by the medicine man. Then they
started. If they were to go far, at first they might travel night and day.
As they neared their point of attack, they became more cautious, traveling
only at night, and remaining concealed during the daylight. When they
found a village or camp with horses, their care was redoubled. Waiting for
night, they then approached rapidly but silently.
Each man worked by himself. Horses were quickly loosed and quietly driven
away. When at a little distance from the village they gathered together,
mounted the stolen animals, and fled. Once started, they pressed on as
rapidly as possible.
It was the ambition of every Plains Indian to count _coup_. _Coup_ is a
French word, meaning a stroke or blow. It was considered an act of great
bravery to go so near to a live enemy as to touch him with the hand, or to
strike him with a short stick, or a little whip. As soon as an enemy had
been shot and had fallen, three or four often would rush upon him, anxious
to be the first one to touch him, and thus count _coup_.
There was really great danger in this, for a fallen enemy need not be
badly injured, and may kill one who closely approaches him. More than
this, when seriously injured and dying, a man in his last struggles is
particularly dangerous. It was the ambition of every Indian youth to make
_coup_ for the first time, for thereafter he was considered brave, and
greatly respected. Old men never tired of telling of the times they had
made _coup_, and one who had thus touched dreaded enemies many times was
looked upon as a mighty warrior.
Among certain tribes it was the custom to show the number of enemies
killed by the wearing of war feathers. These were usually feathers of the
eagle, and were cut or marked to show how many enemies had been slain.
Among the Dakotas a war feather with a round spot of red upon it indicated
one enemy slain; a notch in the edge showed that the throat of an enemy
was cut; other peculiarities in the cut, trim, or coloration told other
stories. Of course, such feathers were highly prized.
Every one has seen pictures of war bonnets made of eagle feathers. These
consisted of a crown or band, fitting the head, from which rose a circle
of upright feathers; down the back hung a long streamer, a band of cloth
sometimes reaching the ground, to which other feathers were attached so as
to make a great crest. As many as sixty or seventy feathers might be used
in such a bonnet, and, as one eagle only supplies a dozen, the bonnet
represented the killing of five or six birds. These bonnets were often
really worn in war, and were believed to protect the wearer from the
missiles of the enemy.
The trophy prized above all others by American Indians was the scalp.
Those made in later days by the Sioux consist of a small disk of skin from
the head, with the attached hair. It was cut and torn from the head of
wounded or dead enemies. It was carefully cleaned and stretched on a hoop;
this was mounted on a stick for carrying. The skin was painted red on the
inside, and the hair arranged naturally. If the dead man was a brave
wearing war feathers, these were mounted on the hoop with the scalp.
It is said that the Sioux anciently took a much larger piece from the
head, as the Pueblos always did. Among the latter, the whole haired skin,
including the ears, was torn from the head. At Cochiti might be seen,
until lately, ancient scalps with the ears, and in these there still
remained the green turquoise ornaments.
[Illustration.]
Apache and Sioux Scalps.
While enemies were generally slain outright, such was not always the case.
When prisoners, one of three other fates might await them: they might be
adopted by some member of the tribe, in place of a dead brother or son;
they might be made to run the gauntlet as a last and desperate chance of
life. This was a severe test of agility, strength, and endurance. A man,
given this chance, was obliged to run between two lines of Indians, all
more or less armed, who struck at him as he passed. Usually the poor
wretch fell, covered with wounds, long before he reached the end of the
lines; if he passed through, however, his life was spared. Lastly,
prisoners might be tortured to death, and dreadful accounts exist of such
tortures among Iroquois, Algonkin and others. One of the least terrible
was as follows: the unfortunate prisoner was bound to the stake, and the
men and women picked open the flesh all over the body with knives;
splinters of pine were then driven into the wounds and set on fire. The
prisoner died in dreadful agony.