We all know how the native Americans found here by the whites at their
first arrival, came to be called _Indians_. Columbus did not realize the
greatness of his discovery. He was seeking a route to Asia and supposed
that he had found it. Believing that he had really reached the Indies, for
which he was looking, it was natural that the people here should be called
Indians.
The American Indians are often classed as a single type. They are
described as being of a coppery or reddish-brown color. They have
abundant, long, straight, black hair, and each hair is found to be almost
circular when cut across. They have high cheek-bones, unusually prominent,
and wide faces. This description will perhaps fit most Indians pretty
well, but it would be a great mistake to think that there are no
differences between tribes: there are many. There are tribes of tall
Indians and tribes of short ones; some that are almost white, and others
that are nearly black. There are found among them all shades of brown,
some of which are reddish, others yellowish. There are tribes where the
eyes appear as oblique or slanting as in the Chinese, and others where
they are as straight as among ourselves. Some tribes have heads that are
long and narrow; the heads of others are relatively short and wide. A
little before the World’s Columbian Exposition thousands of Indians of
many different tribes were carefully measured. Dr. Boas, on studying the
figures, decided that there were at least four different types in the
United States.
There are now living many different tribes of Indians. Formerly the number
of tribes was still greater. Each tribe has its own language, and several
hundred different Indian languages were spoken. These languages sometimes
so much resemble each other that they seem to have been derived from one
single parent language. Thus, when what is now New York State was first
settled, it was largely occupied by five tribes—the Mohawks, Oneidas,
Onondagas, Cayugas, Senecas—called “the Five Nations.” While they were
distinct and each had its own language, these were so much alike that all
are believed to have grown from one. When languages are so similar that
they may be believed to have come from one parent language, they are said
to belong to the same _language family_ or _stock_.
The Indians of New England, the lower Hudson region, Pennsylvania, New
Jersey, and Virginia, formed many different tribes, but they all spoke
languages of one family. These tribes are called Algonkins. Indians
speaking languages belonging to one stock are generally related in blood.
Besides the area already named, Algonkin tribes occupied New Brunswick,
Nova Scotia, a part of Canada, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and
other districts farther west. The Blackfeet, who were Algonkins, lived
close to the Rocky Mountains. So you see that one linguistic family may
occupy a great area. On the other hand, sometimes a single tribe, small in
numbers and occupying only a little space, may have a language entirely
peculiar. Such a tribe would stand quite alone and would be considered as
unrelated to any other. Its language would have to be considered as a
distinct family or stock.
A few years ago Major Powell published a map of America north of Mexico,
to show the distribution of the Indian language families at the time of
the white settlement of this country. In it he represented the areas of
fifty-eight different families or stocks. Some of these families, like the
Algonquian and Athapascan, occupied great districts and contained many
languages; others, like the Zuñian, took up only a few square miles of
space and contained a single tribe. At the front of this book is a little
map partly copied from that of Major Powell. The large areas are nearly as
he gave them; many smaller areas of his map are omitted, as we shall not
speak of them. The Indians of the Pueblos speak languages of at least four
stocks, which Major Powell indicates. We have covered the whole Pueblo
district with one color patch. We have grouped the many Californian tribes
into one: so, too, with the tribes of the Northwest Coast. There are many
widely differing languages spoken in each of these two regions. This map
will show you where the Indians of whom we shall speak lived.
Many persons seem to think that the Indian was a perpetual rover,—always
hunting, fishing, and making war,—with no settled villages. This is a
great mistake: most tribes knew and practiced some agriculture. Most of
them had settled villages, wherein they spent much of their time. Sad
indeed would it have been for the early settlers of New England, if their
Indian neighbors had not had supplies of food stored away—the result of
their industry in the fields.
The condition of the woman among Indians is usually described as a sad
one. It is true that she was a worker—but so was the man. Each had his or
her own work to do, and neither would have thought of doing that of the
other; with us, men rarely care to do women’s work. The man built the
house, fortified the village, hunted, fished, fought, and conducted the
religious ceremonials upon which the success and happiness of all
depended. The woman worked in the field, gathered wood, tended the fire,
cooked, dressed skins, and cared for the children. When they traveled, the
woman carried the burdens, of course: the man had to be ready for the
attack of enemies or for the killing of game in case any should be seen.
Among us hunting, fishing, and dancing are sport. They were not so with
the Indians. When a man had to provide food for a family by his hunting
and fishing, it ceased to be amusement and was hard work. When Indian men
danced, it was usually as part of a religious ceremony which was to
benefit the whole tribe; it was often wearisome and difficult—not fun.
Woman was much of the time doing what we consider work; man was often
doing what _we_ consider play; there was not, however, really much to
choose between them.
The woman was in most tribes the head of the house. She exerted great
influence in public matters of the tribe. She frequently decided the
question of peace and war. To her the children belonged. If she were
dissatisfied with her husband, she would drive him from the house and bid
him return to his mother. If a man were lazy or failed to bring in plenty
of game and fish, he was quite sure to be cast off.
While he lived his own life, the Indian was always hospitable. The
stranger who applied for shelter or food was never refused; nor was he
expected to pay. Only after long contact with the white man, who always
wanted pay for everything, did this hospitality disappear. In fact, among
some tribes it has not yet entirely gone. One time, as we neared the
pueblo of Santo Domingo, New Mexico, the old governor of the pueblo rode
out to meet us and learn who we were and what we wanted. On explaining
that we were strangers, who only wished to see the town, we were taken
directly to his house, on the town square. His old wife hastened to put
before us cakes and coffee. After we had eaten we were given full
permission to look around.
We shall consider many things together. Some chapters will be general
discussions of Indian life; others will discuss special tribes; others
will treat of single incidents in customs or belief. Some of the things
mentioned in connection with one particular tribe would be equally true of
many others. Thus, the modes of hunting buffalo and conducting war,
practiced by one Plains tribe, were much the same among Plains tribes
generally. Some of the things in these lessons will seem foolish; others
are terrible. But remember that foreigners who study _us_ find that _we_
have many customs which they think strange and even terrible. The life of
the Indians was not, on the whole, either foolish or bad; in many ways it
was wise and beautiful and good. But it will soon be gone. In this book we
shall try to give a picture of it.
FRANZ BOAS.—Anthropologist. German, living in America. Has made
investigations among Eskimo and Indians. Is now connected with the
American Museum of Natural History, New York.
JOHN WESLEY POWELL.—Teacher, soldier, explorer, scientist.
Conducted the first exploration of the Colorado River Cañon;
Director of the U. S. Geological Survey and of the Bureau of
American Ethnology. Has written many papers: among them _Indian
Linguistic Families of America North of Mexico_.