THE GIFT OF THE SPIRIT
How the fine sweet spirit of black folk, despite superstition
and passion has breathed the soul of humility and forgiveness
into the formalism and cant of American religion.
Above and beyond all that we have mentioned, perhaps least tangible but
just as true, is the peculiar spiritual quality which the Negro has
injected into American life and civilization. It is hard to define or
characterize it—a certain spiritual joyousness; a sensuous, tropical love
of life, in vivid contrast to the cool and cautious New England reason; a
slow and dreamful conception of the universe, a drawling and slurring of
speech, an intense sensitiveness to spiritual values—all these things and
others like to them, tell of the imprint of Africa on Europe in America.
There is no gainsaying or explaining away this tremendous influence of
the contact of the north and south, of black and white, of Anglo Saxon
and Negro.
One way this influence has been brought to bear is through the actual
mingling of blood. But this is the smaller cause of Negro influence.
Heredity is always stronger through the influence of acts and deeds and
imitations than through actual blood descent; and the presence of the
Negro in the United States quite apart from the mingling of blood has
always strongly influenced the land. We have spoken of its influence in
politics, literature and art, but we have yet to speak of that potent
influence in another sphere of the world’s spiritual activities: religion.
America early became a refuge for religion—a place of mighty spaces and
glorious physical and mental freedom where silent men might sit and
think quietly of God and his world. Hither out of the blood and dust of
war-wrecked Europe with its jealousies, blows, persecutions and fear
of words and thought, came Puritans, Anabaptists, Catholics, Quakers,
Moravians, Methodists—all sorts of men and “isms” and sects searching for
God and Truth in the lonely bitter wilderness.
Hither too came the Negro. From the first he was the concrete test of
that search for Truth, of the strife toward a God, of that body of belief
which is the essence of true religion. His presence rent and tore and
tried the souls of men. “Away with the slave!” some cried—but where away
and why? Was not his body there for work and his soul—what of his soul?
Bring hither the slaves of all Africa and let us convert their souls,
this is God’s good reason for slavery. But convert them to what? to
freedom? to emancipation? to being white men? Impossible. Convert them,
yes. But let them still be slaves for their own good and ours. This was
quibbling and good men felt it, but at least here was a practical path,
follow it.
Thus arose the great mission movements to the blacks. The Catholic Church
began it and not only were there Negro proselytes but black priests and
an order of black monks in Spanish America early in the 16th century.
In the middle of the 17th century a Negro freedman and charcoal burner
lived to see his son, Francisco Xavier de Luna Victoria, raised to head
the Bishopric of Panama where he reigned eight years as the first native
Catholic Bishop in America.
In Spanish America and in French America the history of Negro religion is
bound up with the history of the Catholic Church. On the other hand in
the present territory of the United States with the exception of Maryland
and Louisiana organized religion was practically and almost exclusively
Protestant and Catholics indeed were often bracketed with Negroes for
persecution. They could not marry Protestants at one time in colonial
South Carolina; Catholics and Negroes could not appear in court as
witnesses in Virginia by the law of 1705; Negroes and Catholics were held
to be the cause of the “Negro plot” in New York in 1741.
The work then of the Catholic Church among Negroes began in the United
States well into the 19th century and by Negroes themselves. In
Baltimore, for instance, in 1829, colored refugees from the French West
Indies established a sisterhood and academy and gave an initial endowment
of furniture, real estate and some $50,000 in money. In 1842 in New
Orleans, four free Negro women gave their wealth to form the Sisters of
the Holy Family and this work expanded and grew especially after 1893
when a mulatto, Thomy Lafon, endowed the work with over three quarters
of a million dollars, his life savings. Later, in 1896, a colored man,
Colonel John McKee of Philadelphia, left a million dollars in real estate
to the Catholic Church for colored and white orphans.
Outside of these colored sisterhoods and colored philanthropists, the
church hesitated long before it began any systematic proselyting among
Negroes. This was because of the comparative weakness of the church in
early days and later when the Irish migration strengthened it the new
Catholics were thrown into violent economic competition with slaves and
free Negroes, and their fight to escape slave competition easily resolved
itself into a serious anti-Negro hatred which was back of much of the
rioting in Cincinnati, Philadelphia and New York. It was not then until
the 20th century that the church began active work by establishing a
special mission for Negroes and engaging in it nearly two hundred white
priests. This new impetus was caused by the benevolence of Katherine
Drexel and the Sisters of the Blessed Sacrament. Notwithstanding all this
and since the beginning of the 18th century only six Negroes have been
ordained to the Catholic priesthood.
The main question of the conversion of the Negro to Christianity in the
United States was therefore the task of the Protestant Church and it
was, if the truth must be told, a task which it did not at all relish.
The whole situation was fraught with perplexing contradictions; Could
Christians be slaves? Could slaves be Christians? Was the object of
slavery the Christianizing of the black man, and when the black man was
Christianized was the mission of slavery done and ended? Was it possible
to make modern Christians of these persons whom the new slavery began
to paint as brutes? The English Episcopal Church finally began the
work in 1701 through the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel.
It had notable officials, the Archbishop of Canterbury being its first
president; it worked in America 82 years, accomplishing something but
after all not very much, on account of the persistent objection of the
masters. The Moravians were more eager and sent missionaries to the
Negroes, converting large numbers in the West Indies and some in the
United States in the 18th century. Into the new Methodist Church which
came to America in 1766, large numbers of Negroes poured from the first,
and finally the Baptists in the 18th century had at least one fourth of
their membership composed of Negroes, so that in 1800 there were 14,000
black Methodists and some 20,000 black Baptists.[208]
It must not be assumed that this missionary work acted on raw material.
Rather it reacted and was itself influenced by a very definite and
important body of thought and belief on the part of the Negroes.
Religion in the United States was not simply brought to the Negro by
the missionaries. To treat it in that way is to miss the essence of the
Negro action and reaction upon American religion. We must think of the
transplanting of the Negro as transplanting to the United States a
certain spiritual entity, and an unbreakable set of world-old beliefs,
manners, morals, superstitions and religious observances. The religion
of Africa is the universal animism or fetishism of primitive peoples,
rising to polytheism and approaching monotheism chiefly, but not wholly,
as a result of Christian and Islamic missions. Of fetishism there is much
misapprehension. It is not mere senseless degradation. It is a philosophy
of life. Among primitive Negroes there can be, as Miss Kingsley reminds
us, no such divorce of religion from practical life as is common in
civilized lands. Religion is life, and fetish an expression of the
practical recognition of dominant forces in which the Negro lives. To him
all the world is spirit. Miss Kingsley says: “It is this power of being
able logically to account for everything that is, I believe, at the back
of the tremendous permanency of fetish in Africa, and the cause of many
of the relapses into it by Africans converted to other religions; it is
also the explanation of the fact that white men who live in the districts
where death and danger are everyday affairs, under a grim pall of
boredom, are liable to believe in fetish, though ashamed of so doing. For
the African, whose mind has been soaked in fetish during his early and
most impressionable years, the voice of fetish is almost irresistible
when affliction comes to him.”[209]
At first sight it would seem that slavery completely destroyed every
vestige of spontaneous social movement among the Negroes; the home had
deteriorated; political authority and economic initiative was in the
hands of the masters; property, as a social institution, did not exist
on the plantation; and, indeed, it is usually assumed by historians and
sociologists that every vestige of internal development disappeared,
leaving the slaves no means of expression for their common life, thought,
and striving. This is not strictly true; the vast power of the priest
in the African state still survived; his realm alone—the province of
religion and medicine—remained largely unaffected by the plantation
system in many important particulars. The Negro priest, therefore, early
became an important figure on the plantation and found his function as
the interpreter of the supernatural, the comforter of the sorrowing, and
as the one who expressed, rudely, but picturesquely, the longing and
disappointment and resentment of a stolen people. From such beginnings
arose and spread with marvellous rapidity the Negro church, the first
distinctively Negro American social institution. It was not at first
by any means a Christian Church, but a mere adaptation of those
heathen rites which we roughly designate by the term Obe Worship or
“Voodooism.” Association and missionary effort soon gave these rites a
veneer of Christianity, and gradually, after two centuries, the Church
became Christian, with a simple Calvinistic creed, but with many of
the old customs still clinging to the services. It is this historic
fact that the Negro Church today bases itself upon the sole surviving
social institution of the African fatherland, that accounts for its
extraordinary growth and vitality. We easily forget that in the United
States today there is a Church organization for every sixty Negro
families. This institution, therefore, naturally assumed many functions
which the other harshly suppressed social organs had to surrender; the
Church became the center of amusements, of what little spontaneous
economic activity remained, of education, and of all social intercourse,
of music and art.[210]
For these reasons the tendency of the Negro worshippers from the very
first was to integrate into their own organizations. As early as 1775
distinct Negro congregations with Negro ministers began to appear here
and there in the United States. They multiplied, were swept away,
effort was made to absorb them in the white church, but they kept on
growing until they established national bodies with Episcopal control or
democratic federation and these organizations today form the strongest,
most inclusive and most vital of the Negro organizations. They count in
the United States four million members and their churches seat these four
million and six million other guests. They are houses in 40,000 centers,
worth $60,000,000 and have some 200,000 leaders.
On the part of the white church this tendency among the Negroes met with
alternate encouragement and objection: encouragement because they did not
want Negroes in their churches even when they occupied the back seats or
in the gallery; objection when the church became, as it so often did, a
center of intelligent Negro life and even of plotting against slavery.
There arose out of the church the first leaders of the Negro group; and
in the first rank among these stands Richard Allen.[211]
Richard Allen was born in 1760 as a slave in Philadelphia and was
licensed to preach in 1782. He was ordained deacon by Bishop Asbury
and he led the Negroes in their secession from St. George’s Church in
Philadelphia when they tried to stop black folk from praying on the main
floor. He formed first the Free African Society and finally established
Bethel Church.
As this church grew and multiplied it became the African Methodist
Episcopal Church which now boasts three quarters of a million members.
Allen was its first bishop. With Allen was associated Absalom Jones, born
a slave in Delaware in 1746. He became the first Negro priest in the
Episcopal Church. John Gloucester became the pioneer Negro minister among
colored Presbyterians and gave that church his four sons as ministers.
George Leile became a missionary of the American Negroes to the Negroes
of Jamaica and began missionary work on that island while Lott Carey
in a similar way became a missionary to Africa. Then came Nat Turner,
the preacher revolutionist. James Varick, a free negro of New York who
was the first bishop of the black Zion Methodist revolt, and afterward
there followed the stream of Negro leaders who have built and led the
organization of colored churches. But this is only part of the story.
It will be seen that the development of the Negro church was not separate
from the white. Black preachers led white congregations, white preachers
addressed blacks. In many other ways Negroes influenced white religion
continuously and tremendously. There was the “Shout,” combining the
trance and demoniac possession as old as the world, and revivified and
made widespread by the Negro religious devotees in America. Methodist and
Baptist ways of worship, songs and religious dances absorbed much from
the Negroes and whatever there is in American religion today of stirring
and wild enthusiasm, of loud conversions and every day belief in an
anthropomorphic God owes its origin in a no small measure to the black
man.
Of course most of the influence of the Negro preachers was thrown into
their own churches and to their own people and it was from the Negro
church as an organization that Negro religious influence spread most
widely to white people. Many would say that this influence had little
that was uplifting and was a detriment rather than an advantage in that
it held back and holds back the South particularly in its religious
development. There is no doubt that influences of a primitive sort and
customs that belong to the unlettered childhood of the race rather than
to the thinking adult life of civilization crept in with the religious
influence of the slave. Much of superstition, even going so far as
witchcraft, conjury and blood sacrifice for a long time marked Negro
religion here and there in the swamps and islands. But on the other hand
it is just as true that the cold formalism of upper class England and
New England needed the wilder spiritual emotionalism of the black man to
weld out of both a rational human religion based on kindliness and social
uplift; and whether the influence of Negro religion was on the whole good
or bad, the fact remains that it was potent in the white South and still
is.
Several black leaders of white churches are worth remembering.[212]
Lemuel Hayes was born in Connecticut in 1753 of a black father and white
mother. He received his Master of Arts from Middlebury College in 1804,
was a soldier in the Revolution and pastored various churches in New
England. “He was the embodiment of piety and honesty.” Harry Hosier, the
black servant and companion of Bishop Asbury, was called by Dr. Benjamin
Rush, the greatest orator in America. He travelled north and south and
preached to white and black between 1784 and his death in 1810.
John Chavis was a full-blooded Negro, born in Granville county, N. C.,
near Oxford, in 1753. He was born free and was sent to Princeton, and
studied privately under Dr. Witherspoon, where he did well. He went to
Virginia to preach to Negroes. In 1802, in the county court, his freedom
and character were certified to and it was declared that he had passed
“through a regular course of academic studies” at what is now Washington
and Lee University. In 1805 he returned to North Carolina, where he, in
1809 was made a licentiate in the Presbyterian Church and preached. His
English was remarkably pure, his manner impressive, his explanations
clear and concise. For a long time he taught school and had the best
whites as pupils—a United States senator, the sons of a chief justice
of North Carolina, a governor of the state and many others. Some of his
pupils boarded in his family, and his school was regarded as the best in
the State. “All accounts agree that John Chavis was a gentleman” and he
was received socially among the best whites and asked to table. In 1830
he was stopped from preaching by the law. Afterward he taught school for
free Negroes in Raleigh.
Henry Evans was a full-blooded Virginia free Negro, and was the pioneer
of Methodism in Fayetteville, N. C. He found the Negroes there, about
1800, without religious instruction. He began preaching and the town
council ordered him away; he continued and whites came to hear him.
Finally the white auditors outnumbered the black, and sheds were erected
for Negroes at the side of the church. The gathering became a regular
Methodist Church, with a white and Negro membership, but Evans continued
to preach. He exhibited “rare self-control before the most wretched of
castes! Henry Evans did much good, but he would have done more good had
his spirit been untrammelled by this sense of inferiority.”[213]
His dying words uttered as he stood, aged and bent beside his pulpit, are
of singular pathos:
“I have come to say my last word to you. It is this: None but Christ.
Three times I have had my life in jeopardy for preaching the gospel to
you. Three times I have broken ice on the edge of the water and swam
across the Cape Fear to preach the gospel to you; and, if in my last
hour I could trust to that, or anything but Christ crucified, for my
salvation, all should be lost and my soul perish forever.”
Early in the nineteenth century, Ralph Freeman was a slave in Anson
county, N. C. He was a full-blooded Negro, and was ordained and became an
able Baptist preacher. He baptised and administered communion, and was
greatly respected. When the Baptists split on the question of missions he
sided with the anti-mission side. Finally the law forbade him to preach.
The story of Jack of Virginia is best told in the words of a Southern
writer:
“Probably the most interesting case in the whole South is that of an
African preacher of Nottoway county, popularly known as ‘Uncle Jack,’
whose services to white and black were so valuable that a distinguished
minister of the Southern Presbyterian Church felt called upon to memorize
his work in a biography.
“Kidnapped from his idolatrous parents in Africa, he was brought over
in one of the last cargoes of slaves admitted to Virginia and sold
to a remote and obscure planter in Nottoway county, a region at that
time in the backwoods and destitute particularly as to religious life
and instruction. He was converted under the occasional preaching of
Rev. Dr. John Blair Smith, President of Hampden-Sidney College, and of
Dr. William Hill and Dr. Archibald Alexander of Princeton, then young
theologues, and by hearing the scriptures read. Taught by his master’s
children to read, he became so full of the spirit and knowledge of the
Bible that he was recognized among the whites as a powerful expounder of
Christian doctrine, was licensed to preach by the Baptist Church, and
preached from plantation to plantation within a radius of thirty miles,
as he was invited by overseers or masters. His freedom was purchased by
a subscription of whites, and he was given a home and a tract of land
for his support. He organized a large and orderly Negro church, and
exercised such a wonderful controlling influence over the private morals
of his flock that masters, instead of punishing their slaves, often
referred them to the discipline of their pastor, which they dreaded far
more.
“He stopped a heresy among the Negro Christians of Southern Virginia,
defeating in open argument a famous fanatical Negro preacher named
Campbell, who advocated noise and ‘the spirit’ against the Bible, winning
over Campbell’s adherents in a body. For over forty years and until he
was nearly a hundred years of age, he labored successfully in public and
private among black and whites, voluntarily giving up his preaching in
obedience to the law of 1832, the result of ‘Old Nat’s war.’...
“The most refined and aristocratic people paid tribute to him, and he
was instrumental in the conversion of many whites. Says his biographer,
Rev. Dr. William S. White: ‘He was invited into their houses, sat with
their families, took part in their social worship, sometimes leading the
prayer at the family altar. Many of the most intelligent people attended
upon his ministry and listened to his sermons with great delight. Indeed,
previous to the year 1825, he was considered by the best judges to be the
best preacher in that county. His opinions were respected, his advice
followed, and yet he never betrayed the least symptoms of arrogance or
self-conceit. His dwelling was a rude log cabin, his apparel of the
plainest and coarsest materials.’ This was because he wished to be fully
identified with his class. He refused gifts of better clothing saying
‘These clothes are a great deal better than are generally worn by people
of my color, and besides if I wear them I find shall be obliged to think
about them even at meeting’.”
All this has to do with organized religion.
But back of all this and behind the half childish theology of formal
religion there has run in the heart of black folk the greatest of human
achievements, love and sympathy, even for their enemies, for those
who despised them and hurt them and did them nameless ill. They have
nursed the sick and closed the staring eyes of the dead. They have given
friendship to the friendless, they have shared the pittance of their
poverty with the outcast and nameless; they have been good and true and
pitiful to the bad and false and pitiless and in this lies the real
grandeur of their simple religion, the mightiest gift of black to white
America.
Above all looms the figure of the Black Mammy, one of the most pitiful
of the world’s Christs. Whether drab and dirty drudge or dark and
gentle lady she played her part in the uplift of the South. She was an
embodied Sorrow, an anomaly crucified on the cross of her own neglected
children for the sake of the children of masters who bought and sold
her as they bought and sold cattle. Whatever she had of slovenliness or
neatness, of degradation or of education she surrendered it to those who
lived to lynch her sons and ravish her daughters. From her great full
breast walked forth governors and judges, ladies of wealth and fashion,
merchants and scoundrels who lead the South. And the rest gave her memory
the reverence of silence. But a few snobs have lately sought to advertise
her sacrifice and degradation and enhance their own cheap success by
building on the blood of her riven heart a load of stone miscalled a
monument.
In religion as in democracy, the Negro has been a peculiar test of white
profession. The American church, both Catholic and Protestant, has been
kept from any temptation to over-righteousness and empty formalism by
the fact that just as Democracy in America was tested by the Negro, so
American religion has always been tested by slavery and color prejudice.
It has kept before America’s truer souls the spirit of meekness and self
abasement, it has compelled American religion again and again to search
its heart and cry “I have sinned;” and until the day comes when color
caste falls before reason and economic opportunity the black American
will stand as the last and terrible test of the ethics of Jesus Christ.
Beyond this the black man has brought to America a sense of meekness
and humility which America never has recognized and perhaps never will.
If there is anybody in this land who thoroughly believes that the meek
shall inherit the earth they have not often let their presence be known.
On the other hand it has become almost characteristic of America to look
upon position, self assertion, determination to go forward at all odds,
as typifying the American spirit. This is natural. It is at once the
rebound from European oppression and the encouragement which America
offers physically, economically and socially to the human spirit. But
on the other hand, it is in many of its aspects a dangerous and awful
thing. It hardens and hurts our souls, it contradicts our philanthropy
and religion; and here it is that the honesty of the black race, its
hesitancy and heart searching, its submission to authority and its deep
sympathy with the wishes of the other man comes forward as a tremendous,
even though despised corrective. It is not always going to remain; even
now we see signs of its disappearance before contempt, lawlessness and
lynching. But it is still here, it still works and one of the most
magnificent anomalies in modern human history is the labor and fighting
of a half-million black men and two million whites for the freedom of
four million slaves and these same slaves, dumbly but faithfully and not
wholly unconsciously, protecting the mothers, wives and children of the
very white men who fought to make their slavery perpetual.
This then is the Gift of Black Folk to the new world. Thus in singular
and fine sense the slave became master, the bond servant became free and
the meek not only inherited the earth but made that heritage a thing of
questing for eternal youth, of fruitful labor, of joy and music, of the
free spirit and of the ministering hand, of wide and poignant sympathy
with men in their struggle to live and love which is, after all, the end
of being.
POSTSCRIPT
Listen to the Winds, O God the Reader, that wail across the whip-cords
stretched taut on broken human hearts; listen to the Bones, the bare
bleached bones of slaves, that line the lanes of Seven Seas and beat
eternal tom-toms in the forests of the laboring deep; listen to the
Blood, the cold thick blood that spills its filth across the fields and
flowers of the Free; listen to the Souls that wing and thrill and weep
and scream and sob and sing above it all. What shall these things mean, O
God the Reader? You know. You know.
FOOTNOTES
[1] In the fifties it was customary for the merchants, etc., to have
posted at their door a list of help wanted. Many of these help wanted
signs were accompanied by another which read “No Irish need apply.”
During the Civil War there was an Anti-Draft song with a refrain to the
effect that when it came to drafting they did not practice “No Irish need
apply.”
[2] “Americans only” in a real estate advertisement today usually means
“No Jews need apply.” It sometimes means Irish (i. e., Catholic) also.
[3] Wm. J. Bromwell, _History of Immigration to United States_, p. 96.
[4] _Ibid._, p. 100.
[5] _Ibid._, p. 116.
[6] _Ibid._, p. 124.
[7] _Commercial Relations of the United States_, 1885-1886, Appendix III,
p. 1967.
[8] “The Commissioners for Ireland gave them orders upon the governors
of garrisons, to deliver to them prisoners of war; upon the keepers of
gaols, for offenders in custody; upon masters of workhouses, for the
destitute in their care ‘who were of an age to labor, or if women were
marriageable and not past breeding’; and gave directions to all in
authority to seize those who had no visible means of livelihood, and
deliver them to these agents of the Bristol sugar merchants, in execution
of which latter direction Ireland must have exhibited scenes in every
part like the slave hunts in Africa. How many girls of gentle birth have
been caught and hurried to the private prisons of these man-catchers none
can tell. Messrs. Sellick and Leader, Mr. Robert Yeomans, Mr. Joseph
Lawrence, and others, all of Bristol, were active agents. As one instance
out of many: Captain John Vernon was employed by the Commissioners for
Ireland, into England, and contracted in their behalf with Mr. David
Sellick and Mr. Leader under his hand, bearing date the 14th September,
1653, to supply them with two hundred and fifty women of the Irish
nation above twelve years, and under the age of forty-five, also three
hundred men above twelve years of age, and under fifty, to be found in
the country within twenty miles of Cork, Youghal, and Kinsale, Waterford
and Wexford, to transport them into New England.” J. P. Prendergast, _The
Cromwellian Settlement of Ireland_, London, 1865. 2d. ed., pp. 89-90.
[9] “It is calculated that in four years (1653-1657) English firms of
slave-dealers shipped 6,400 Irish men and women, boys and maidens, to the
British colonies of North America.” A. J. Thebaud, _The Irish Race in the
Past and Present_, N. Y., 1893, p. 385.
[10] Rev. T. A. Spencer, _History of the United States_, Vol. I, p. 305.
[11] Henry Pratt Fairchild, _Immigration: A world movement, and its
American significance_, N. Y., 1913, p. 47. See also _Archives of
Maryland_, Vol. 22, p. 497.
[12] Charles A. and Mary R. Beard, _History of the United States_, N. Y.,
1921, p. 11.
[13] Fairchild, p. 35.
[14] Henry Cabot Lodge, _A Short History of the English Colonies in
America_, N. Y., 1881, p. 70.
[15] Beard, p. 15.
[16] Beard, p. 16.
[17] W. E. Burghardt DuBois, _Suppression of the Slave Trade_, Harvard
Historical Studies, No. 1, p. 5.
[18] John R. Commons, _Races and Immigrants in America_, N. Y., 1907, p.
53.
[19] Adam Seybert, _Statistical Annals of the United States_, Phila.,
1818, p. 29.
[20] Young, _Special Report on Immigration_, Phila., 1871, p. 5.
[21] Bromwell, p. 145.
[22] _Ibid._, p. 16.
[23] _Ibid._, p. 18.
[24] _Ibid._, pp. 16-17.
[25] Young, p. 6.
[26] _Ibid._, p. 6.
[27] _Special Consular Reports_, Vol. 30, p. 8.
[28] _Immigration and Emigration_, Bureau of Labor Statistics,
Washington, 1915, p. 1099.
[29] _Ibid._
[30] _Reports of Department of Labor_, Washington, 1915.
[31] _Ibid._
[32] _Reports of Department of Labor_, Washington, 1918, p. 208.
[33] _Reports of Department of Labor_, Washington, 1920, p. 400.
[34] _Reports of Department of Labor_, Washington, 1921, p. 365.
[35] From a Spanish Romance called _La Sergas de Espladian_, by Garcia
de Montalvo, published in 1510; translated in Beasley’s _The Negro Trail
Blazers of California_, p. 18.
[36] Cf. Wiener, _Africa and the Discovery of America_, Vol. 1, pp.
169-70, 172, 174-5; Vol. 3, p. 322; Thurston, _Antiquities of Tennessee_,
etc., 1890, p. 105; De Charnay, _Ancient Cities of the New World_ (trans.
by Gonino and Conant, 1887), pp. 132ff.; Kabell, _America för Columbus_,
1892, p. 235.
[37] J. B. Thacher, _Christopher Columbus_, 1903, Vol. 2, pp. 379-80;
_Raccolta di documenti e studi publicati dalla R. Commissione Colombiana
pel quarto centenario dalla scoperta dell’ America_, parte I, Rome, 1892,
Vol. 1, p. 96.
[38] i. e., Negro Traders.
[39] Thacher, Vol. 2, pp. 379, 380; Wiener, Vol. 2, pp. 116-17.
[40] Wiener, Vol. 3, p. 365.
[41] _Memoir of Hernando de Essalante Fontanedo, respecting Florida_,
translated from the Spanish by Buckingham Smith, Washington, 1854.
[42] Oviedo y Valdes, _Historia general_, etc., Vol. 1, p. 286.
[43] Wiener, Vol. 3, p. 365.
[44] Wiener, Vol. 1, p. 190.
[45] Helps, _Spanish Conquest in America_, Vol. 4, p. 401.
[46] J. F. Rippy in _Journal of Negro History_, Vol. 6, p. 183.
[47] Helps, Vol. 1, p. 421.
[48] Rippy, _loc. cit._
[49] The following narrative is based on: H. O. Flipper, _Did a Negro
discover Arizona and New Mexico_ (contains a translation of parts of the
narrative of Pedro de Castaneda de Majera); Pedro de Castaneda, “Account
of the Expedition to Cibola which took place in the year 1540....”
translated in _Spanish Explorers in the Southern United States_ (J.
F. Jameson Ed.); Beasley, _Trail Blazers of California_, Chapter 2;
Rippy, in _Journal of Negro History_, Vol. 6, pp. 183ff.; _American
Anthropologist_, Vol. 4.
[50] A fifth survivor, a Spaniard, stayed with the Indians and was
afterward found by DeSoto.
[51] Another story is that Estevanico and the Monks did not get on well
together.
[52] The story that Estevanico was killed because of his greed is
evidently apocryphal.
[53] Legends of the Zuni Pueblos of New Mexico quoted in Lowery _Spanish
Settlements in the United States, 1513-1561_, pp. 281-82.
[54] Cf. Beasley, Chapter 10.
[55] Cf. Du Bois, _Suppression of the Slave Trade_; Du Bois, _The Negro_
(Home University Library).
[56] United States Census, _Negro Population 1790-1915_; Fourteenth
Census, Vol. 3.
[57] Du Bois, _Suppression of the Slave Trade_, Chapter 4.
[58] Cf. Du Bois, _The Philadelphia Negro_, Chapter 4.
[59] Cf. Woodson, _A Century of Negro Migration_; E. J. Scott: _Negro
Migration During the War_.
[60] _Journal of Negro History_, Vol. 1, p. 163.
[61] Bruce, _Economic History of Virginia_, Vol. 2, pp. 405-6.
[62] Atlanta University Publications: Cf. _The Negro Artisan_, 1902-1912,
and _Economic Cooperation among Negro Americans_, 1907.
[63] Alice Dunbar Nelson in _Journal of Negro History_, Vol. 2, p. 52.
[64] Alice Dunbar Nelson, in the _Journal of Negro History_, Vol. 1, p.
375.
[65] Olmsted, _A Journey in the Seaboard Slave States, Journey through
Texas_, and _Journey in the Back Country_.
[66] Prior to the Matzeliger machine the McKay machine was patented,
designed for making the heaviest and cheapest kind of men’s shoes. The
Matzeliger machine was designed for light work, women’s shoes, etc., and
was the most important invention necessary to the formation of the United
Shoe Machinery Company.
[67] H. E. Baker, in _Journal of Negro History_, Vol. 2, pp. 21ff.
[68] Baker: _The Colored Inventor_, p. 7.
[69] U. S. Census of 1920. Wilcox-Du Bois, _Negroes in the United States_
(U. S. Census bulletin No. 8, 1904).
[70] Olivier, _White Capital and Coloured Labor_, Chapter 8, London, 1906.
[71] Alice Dunbar Nelson, _Journal of Negro History_, Vol. 1, pp. 369,
370, 371.
[72] Cf. Livermore, _Opinion of the Founders of the Republic_, etc., part
2; _Journal of Negro History_, Vol. 1, p. 198ff.
[73] G. H. Moore, _Historical Notes_, etc., N. Y., 1862.
[74] Livermore, pp. 115-16.
[75] Cf. Livermore and Moore as above; also _Journal of Negro History_,
Vol. 1, pp. 114-20.
[76] Livermore, p. 122. See also the account of Peter Salem, _do._, pp.
118-21.
[77] T. G. Steward, in _Publications American Negro Academy_, No. 5, p.
12.
[78] W. B. Hartgrove, _Journal of Negro History_, Vol. 1, pp. 125-9.
[79] Wilson, _Black Phalanx_, p. 71.
[80] _Journal of Negro History_, Vol. 1, pp. 373-4; Gayarre’s _History of
Louisiana_, Vol. 3, p. 108.
[81] Niles’ _Register_, Feb. 26, 1814.
[82] Wilson, _Black Phalanx_, p. 88.
[83] Alice Dunbar-Nelson in _Journal of Negro History_, Vol. 2, p. 58.
[84] Niles’ Register, Vol. 7, p. 205.
[85] Niles’ Register, Vol. 7, pp. 345-6.
[86] Dunbar-Nelson in _Journal of Negro History_, Vol. 2, pp. 59-60.
[87] Williams, _Negro Race in America_, Vol. 2, pp. 244ff.
[88] Williams, _Negro Race in America_, Vol. 2, pp. 280-82.
[89] New York _Tribune_, Aug. 19, 1862.
[90] Williams, Vol. 2, p. 271.
[91] Wilson, p. 123.
[92] Wilson, p. 132.
[93] Wesley, in _Journal of Negro History_, Vol. 4, pp. 239ff.
[94] New York _Tribune_, Nov. 14, 1863; Williams, Vol. 2, p. 347.
[95] Williams, Vol. 2, p. 360.
[96] New York _Times_, June 13, 1863.
[97] Wilson, pp. 250-54.
[98] Williams, Vol. 2, p. 338.
[99] John Temple Graves in _Review of Reviews_.
[100] MS. Copies of orders.
[101] MS. Copies of orders.
[102] At least this was the opinion of Abraham Lincoln—cf. Wilson’s
_Black Phalanx_, p. 108.
[103] Thomas, _Attitude of Friends toward Slavery_, p. 267 and Appendix.
[104] Jefferson’s Writings, Vol. 8, pp. 403-4.
[105] George Livermore, _Opinions of the Founders of the Republic on
Negroes as Slaves, as Citizens, and as Soldiers_, Boston, 1862, p. 61.
[106] Jefferson’s Works, Vol. 1, pp. 23-4.
[107] Howard’s Reports, Vol. 19.
[108] Howard’s Reports, pp. 536-8.
[109] Howard’s Reports, pp. 572-3, 582.
[110] Niles’ Register, Vol. 16, May 22, 1819.
[111] Benjamin Brawley, _A Social History of the American Negro_, New
York, 1921, p. 90.
[112] Hening’s Statutes.
[113] John C. Hurd, _The Law of Freedom and Bondage_, Boston, 1858-1862.
[114] Wiener, _Africa and the Discovery of America_, Vol. 1, pp. 155-8.
[115] C. E. Chapman in _Journal of Negro History_, Vol. 3, p. 29.
[116] J. Kunst, _Negroes in Guatemala_, _Journal of Negro History_, Vol.
1, pp. 392-8.
[117] Cf. Bryan Edward’s _West Indies_, 4th Edition, Vol. 1, pp. 337-98.
[118] Gayarre, _History of Louisiana_, Vol. 1, pp. 435, 440.
[119] Du Bois’ _Slave Trade_, pp. 6, 10, 22, 206; J. Coppin, _Slave
Insurrections_, 1860; Brawley, _Social History_, pp. 39, 86, 132.
[120] Cf. T. G. Steward, _The Haitian Revolution_.
[121] DeWitt Talmadge in the _Christian Herald_, Nov. 28, 1906; Du Bois’
_Slave Trade_, Chapter 7.
[122] Cf. Dunbar-Nelson in the _Journal of Negro History_, Vol. 1.
[123] Du Bois, _John Brown_, p. 81.
[124] A. H. Grimke, _Right on the Scaffold in Occasional Papers_, No. 7,
American Negro Academy.
[125] Brawley, p. 140; T. W. Higginson, _Atlantic Monthly_, Vol. 8, p.
173.
[126] I. W. Cromwell, in _Journal of Negro History_, Vol. 5, pp. 208ff.
[127] Cf. Du Bois’ _Philadelphia Negro_, Chapter 4; Woodson’s _Negro in
our History_, pp. 140-1.
[128] Brawley, pp. 123-4; _Journal of Negro History_, Vol. 2, pp. 209-28.
[129] Brawley, p. 71.
[130] Williams’ _Negro Race_, Vol. 2, p. 126.
[131] Du Bois’ _John Brown_, pp. 82ff.
[132] Cf. Joshua R. Giddings, _Exiles of Florida_, Columbus, Ohio, 1858.
[133] Among the first subscribers to Garrison’s _Liberator_ were free
Negroes and one report is that the very first paid subscriber was a
colored Philadelphia caterer.
[134] Livermore, p. 170.
[135] Livermore, pp. 125-6.
[136] Force’s Archives, 4th series, Vol. 3, p. 1387.
[137] Works of John Adams, Vol. 2, p. 428.
[138] Livermore, pp. 183, 184.
[139] Wilson, pp. 491-92.
[140] J. T. Wilson, _The History of the Black Phalanx_, Hartford, 1897,
p. 490.
[141] Cf. Cromwell, _Negro In American History_, Chapter 2.
[142] J. W. Loguen, _As a Slave and as a Freeman_, p. 344.
[143] George W. Williams, _History of the Negro Race in America_, New
York, 1882, Vol. 1, Chapter 15.
[144] Williams, Vol. 1, pp. 250-1.
[145] Williams, Vol. 2, pp. 255-7.
[146] Williams, Vol. 1, pp. 257-9.
[147] Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation, Sept. 22, 1862.
[148] Atlanta University Publications, Atlanta, Ga., 1906, No. 8, p. 23.
[149] John Eaton, _Grant, Lincoln and the Freedmen_, New York, 1907, p.
134.
[150] Eaton, 165.
[151] Walter L. Fleming, _Documentary History of Reconstruction_,
Cleveland, Ohio, 1907, Vol. 1, p. 112.
[152] Fleming, Vol. 1, pp. 350-1.
[153] Fleming, Vol. 2, p. 382.
[154] Report of Carl Schurz to President Johnson, in Senate Exec. Doc.
No. 2, 39th Cong., 1st Sess.
[155] Brewster, _Sketches of Southern Mystery, Treason and Murder_, p.
116.
[156] McPherson, _Reconstruction_, p. 19.
[157] Atlanta University Publications, Atlanta, Ga., 1901, No. 6, p. 36.
[158] October 7, 1865.
[159] McPherson, pp. 52, 56.
[160] A. U. Publications, No. 12, p. 38; Cf. also Fleming, Vol. 1, P. 355.
[161] Schurz’ Report.
[162] House Reports, No. 30, 39th Congress, 1st Session.
[163] Schurz’ Report.
[164] _Journal of Negro History_, Vol. 5, p. 238.
[165] _Journal of Negro History_, Vol. 7, pp. 127ff.
[166] _Journal of Negro History_, Vol. 7, p. 424.
[167] Jackson, Miss., _Clarion_, April 24, 1873.
[168] Walter Allen, _Governor Chamberlain’s Administration in South
Carolina_, New York, 1888, p. 82.
[169] _Journal of Negro History_, Vol. 7, pp. 127ff.
[170] Blaine, _Twenty Years in Congress_, Vol. 2, p. 515.
[171] Blaine, _Twenty Years in Congress_, pp. 513-14.
[172] Fleming, Vol. 1, pp. 450-1.
[173] J. W. Garner, _Reconstruction in Mississippi_, New York, 1901, p.
322.
[174] Warley in _Brewster’s Sketches_, p. 150.
[175] A Liberal Republican’s description of the S. C. Legislature in
1871, Fleming, Vol. 2, pp. 53-4.
[176] Fleming, Vol. 1, pp. 382ff.
[177] Some of the Reconstruction Constitutions preceding Negro Suffrage
showed tendencies toward democratization among the whites.
[178] Chicago Weekly _Inter-Ocean_, Dec. 26, 1890.
[179] Cf. Atlanta University Pub. No. 6 and No. 16.
[180] This speech was made in the South Carolina Constitutional
Convention of 1890 which disfranchised the Negro, by the Hon. Thomas
E. Miller, ex-congressman and one of the six Negro members of the
Convention. The Convention did not have the courage to publish it in
their proceedings but it may be found in the Occasional Papers of the
American Negro Academy No. 6, pp. 11-13.
[181] Cf. W. E. B. Du Bois, _Reconstruction_ (American Historical Review,
XV, No. 4, p. 871).
W. E. B. Du Bois, _Economics of Negro Emancipation_ (Sociological Review,
Oct., 1911, p. 303).
[182] O. O. Howard, _Autobiography_, New York, 1907, Vol. 2, pp. 361-7,
371-2.
[183] Testimony of the presiding officer, Mrs. Frances D. Gage, in
“_Narrative of Sojourner Truth_,” 1884, pp. 134-5.
[184] Goodell, _Slave Code_, p. 111.
[185] Robertson, _Louisiana under the Rule of Spain_, Vol. 1, pp. 67,
103, 111; Dunbar-Nelson, in _Journal of Negro History_, Vol. 2, p. 56.
[186] Dunbar-Nelson, _loc. cit._
[187] Dunbar-Nelson, _op. cit._, p. 62; Martineau, _Society in America_,
p. 326ff.
[188] Brownie’s Book, March, 1921.
[189] Beasley, _Negro Trail Blazers_, pp. 95-7.
[190] Cf. Annual Reports National Association of Colored Women; Atlanta
University Publications, No. 14.
[191] Du Bois, _Souls of Black Folk_, Chapter No. 14.
[192] W. F. Allen and others, _Slave Songs of the United States_, New
York, 1867.
[193] G. D. Pike, _The Jubilee Singers_, New York, 1873.
[194] James Weldon Johnson, _Book of American Negro Poetry_, New York,
1922.
[195] H. E. Krehbiel, _Afro-American Folksongs_, New York, 1914; cf. also
John W. Work, _Folksong of the American Negro_, Nashville, Tenn., 1915.
[196] Natalie Curtis-Burlin, _Negro Folksongs_, 4 books, 1918-19; _Songs
and Tales from the Dark Continent_, 1920.
[197] Benjamin Brawley, _Negro in Literature and Art_.
[198] Alice Dunbar-Nelson in _Journal of Negro History_, Vol. 2, p. 55.
[199] Washington, _Story of the Negro_, Vol. 2, pp. 276-7.
[200] Cf. Benjamin Brawley, _The Negro in Literature and Art_, New York,
1921.
[201] Cf. Preface to James Weldon Johnson’s _The Book of American Negro
Poetry_, New York, 1922.
[202] T. W. Talley, _Negro Folk Rhymes_.
[203] Cf. W. E. B. Du Bois, _The Negro in Literature and Art_ (Annals
American Academy, Sept., 1913).
[204] A. A. Schomberg, _A Bibliographical Checklist of American Negro
Poetry_, New York, 1916.
[205] Preface to Claud McKay’s _Harlem Shadows_.
[206] Cf. Freeman H. M. Murray, _Emancipation and the Freed in American
Sculpture_, Washington, D. C., 1916.
[207] _Journal of Negro History_, Vol. 3, p. 99ff. Later, Jefferson
writing to an American thought Banneker had “a mind of very common
stature indeed”.
[208] Charles C. Jones, _Religious Instruction of the Negroes_, Savannah,
1842.
[209] M. H. Kingsley, _West African Studies_.
[210] Atlanta University Publications, _The Negro Church_, 1903.
[211] Richard Allen, _Life, Experience and Gospel Labors_, Philadelphia,
1880.
[212] Cf. Carter G. Woodson, _The History of the Negro Church_,
Washington, D. C., 1921; Atlanta University Publications, _The Negro
Church_; and J. E. Bassett, _Slavery in North Carolina_.
[213] Bassett, pp. 58-9.
INDEX
Adair, Lieut., 129, 130
Adams, John, 87, 90, 159, 176, 177, 317
Adolphus, King Gustavus, 11
Aldridge, Ira, 310
Alexander, Dr. Archibald, 335
Allen, 173, 298, 329, 330
Allen, Walter, 220, 276
Alliot, Paul, 266
Almagro, 42
Alvarado, 42
Ames, Capt., 92
Anderson, 302
André, 92
Antar, 288
Atkinson, Edward, 232
Attucks, Crispus, 86, 87, 88
Augusta, Dr. A. T., 125
Baker, H. E., 72, 73
Balboa, 42
Ball, 314
Bancroft, H. H., 50, 55
Banister, E. M., 313
Banks, General, 118
Banneker, Benjamin, 298, 316, 317, 318
Bassett, Lieut.-Col., 119, 332, 334
Batson, Flora, 291
Beard, Charles A. & Mary R., 9, 12, 16
Beasley, 43, 49, 272
Beauregard, 137
Beecher, Henry Ward, 278, 293
Benjamin, Judah, 179
Beverly, Robert, 67
Bienville, Governor, 83
Bigstaff, Peter, 129
Bissell, 314
Blaine, James G., 222, 223, 224
Bland, James, 290
Bolas, Juan de, 151
Bolivar, 154, 155
Bonaparte, Napoleon, 153, 154
Booth, Major, 117, 271
Boré, Etienne de, 68
Bowers, John, 299
Braithwaite, W. S., 303, 304, 307
Brawley, Benjamin, 146, 153, 158, 162, 163, 285, 290, 303
Brent, Linda, 301
Brewster, 203
Bromwell, 17
Brooks, 302
Brown, John, 146, 270, 271, 272
Brown, Richard, 313
Brown, William, 86, 301, 299
Browne, 271
Bruce, B. K., 67, 218, 223
Bryant, William Cullen, 232
Buell, 187
Burgess, Prof., 206
Burleigh, Harry T., 290, 291
Burlin, Mrs. Curtis, 283, 284
Burnside, 124
Burr, Aaron, 289
Butler, General, 112, 116, 187
Byrd, Col., 67
Cable, George U., 293
Cain, 221
Calder, 314
Caldwell, Jonas, 87, 88
Calhoun, John C., 293
Callioux, Capt., 120
Campbell, Robert, 301, 304, 336
Carey, Lott, 330
Carr, Patrick, 87
Castaneda, Pedro de, 43
Castle, Vernon, 292
Catto, 300
Chamberlain, Governor, 220
Chambers, Colonel, 118
Chapman, C. E., 150
Charlton, Melville, 291
Chase, Simon P., 232
Chavis, John, 332, 333
Cheatham, 221
Chesnutt, Charles W., 303, 307
Child, Lydia Marcia, 293
Christophe, 92
Church, A. M. E., 300
Cinque, 159
Claiborne, Governor, 97
Clark, 49
Cleveland, 26
Clinton, Bishop Isaac, 89, 219
Cobb, General, 112
Cobb, Irvin S., 10
Coffin, Levi, 232
Cole, 310
Coleridge-Taylor, Samuel, 289, 290
Columbus, 35, 36, 37, 40, 265, 282
Commons, John R., 15
Conant, 36
Conner, A. J., 290
Connery, William J., 72
Constant, Benjamin, 314
Cooke, Governor, 93
Cooper, Peter, 232
Coppin, J., 153
Corbin, J. C., 220
Cardoza, F. L., 220-246
Cornwallis, 89, 177
Coronado, 44, 49
Cortes, 42, 45
Cotter, Joseph C. Jr., 304
Cravath, 214
Crogman, 302
Cromwell, J. W., 158, 182
Crummell, Dr. Alexander, 301, 302
Cuffee, Paul, 162, 172, 299
Cullen, Countée, 304
Curtis, Justice, 144
Curtis, Natalie, 282
Cushite, R. L. Perry, 302
Damrosch, 280
Dana, Gen. N. J. T., 193
Daquin, Major, 99
Davis, 304
Davis, Pres., 111, 112
Davis, Gussie L., 290
Davis, Jefferson, 107
De Charnay, 36
Dèdè, Edmund, 290
Delaney, Major M. H., 125
Delaney, Martin R., 300
Dennison, Chaplain, 123
Derham, Thomas, 316
De Soto, 43, 44
Dett, R. Nathaniel, 291
Dickinson, J. H., 73
Dickinson, S. L., 73
Diton, Carl, 291
Dix, 187
Dixon, Thomas, 293
Dodson, Jacob, 49
Dorantes, Stephen, 43, 44, 45
Douglas, Captain H. F., 125
Douglass, Frederick, 174, 208, 300, 301, 308
Dow, Lorenzo, 145
Drexel, Katherine, 324
Drinkwater, 311
DuBois, W. E. B., 13, 55, 58, 63, 153, 155, 161, 169, 249, 274, 297
DuBois, Wilcox, 73
Dubuclet, 221, 290
Dumas, 306
Dunbar, Paul Lawrence, 303, 304, 306
Dunmore, Governor, 89, 90, 176, 177
Dunn, Lieut.-Gov., 221
Duplessis, General Garnier, 131
Dvorak, 285, 291
Dwight, General, 118
Eaton, Col. John, 191, 193
Eastman, Max, 307
Edison, 28
Edward, Bryan, 151
Eliot, Dr. John, 57
Elliott, Robert Brown, 221, 301
Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 293
Equiana, Olaudah (See Gustavus Vassa)
Estevanico, 43, 44, 45, 46, 48, 49
Eustis, William, 94
Evans, Henry, 333, 334
Fairchild, Henry Pratt, 9
Fauset, Jessie, 304, 308
Finnegas, Lieut.-Col. Henry, 119
Fleming, Walter L., 194, 197, 226, 232, 234
Flipper, H. O., 43
Fontages, Viscount de, 93
Force, 176
Forrest, 117
Foster, Stephen, 275, 285
Forten, James, 299
Franklin, Benjamin, 90, 141
Freeman, Captain, 58
Freeman, Ralph, 334
Fremont, 49
French, D. C., 314
Frye, Colonel, 92
Fuller, Meta Warrick, 315
Gabriel, 172
Gage, Mrs. Frances D., 151, 264
Galvez, 95
Garner, J. W., 227
Garnet, Henry Highland, 299
Garrison, 174, 271
Garrison, William Lloyd, 146, 185
Gayarre, 95, 153
Geary, 25
Gibbs, Jonathan C., 220
Gibbs, M. W., 220
Giddings, Joshua R., 171
Gilmore, General, 109
Gilpin, Charles, 310, 311
Gladstone, 279
Gloucester, John, 330
Gomez, 288
Gonino, 36
Goodell, 266
Gottschalk, 289
Goybet, General, 131, 132
Graham, Stephen, 311
Grant, General, 188, 191, 193
Graves, John Temple, 130
Gray, Samuel, 87, 88, 173
Greeley, Horace, 105, 185
Greene, General, 91, 178
Grey, T. R., 158
Griggs, 302
Grimke, A. H., 156, 302
Grimke, Frank, 302, 303
Hagen, Helen, 291
Hagood, General, 246, 247, 302
Hahn, Governor, 194
Hall, Prince, 162
Halleck, 187
Hamilton, Alexander, 91, 174, 269
Hammon, Jupiter, 304
Hampton, Governor, 246
Hampton, Wade, 283
Handy, W. C., 285
Hapgood, Mrs. Emily, 310
Hare, Maude-Cuney, 291
Harleston, Edwin, 313
Harper, Frances E. W., 300, 302, 304
Harper, William A., 313
Harriot, George, 29, 94
Harris, Joel Chandler, 295, 296
Harrison, Hazel, 291
Hartgrove, W. B., 94
Hayes, Roland W., 292
Hayne, Robert Y., 172
Haynes, Lemuel, 299, 306, 332
Helps, 42
Hemmenway, J., 290
Hening, 148
Henry, Patrick, 141
Henson, Joshua, 171, 300
Henson, Matthew A., 50, 51
Higginson, Colonel, 116, 158, 275, 293
Hill, Dr. William, 335
Hogarth, George, 300
Hogan, Ernest, 310
Holland, Justin, 290
Hood, 302
Hooker, 187
Hope, Lawrence, 291
Hopkins, Samuel, 91, 175
Horton, George M., 304
Hosier, Harry, 332
Howard, General, 144, 145, 200, 249, 252
Howe, Julia Ward, 293
Howells, William Dean, 293
Hughes, Langston, 304
Hunter, General, 102, 103, 105, 116, 187
Hurd, John C., 148
Hyer, Sisters, 291
Jackson, General, 97, 99, 115, 182, 220
Jackson, M. Howard, 315
Jamison, J. F., 43
Jamison, Roscoe C., 304
Jay, John, 232
Jefferson, Thomas, 3, 141, 143, 154, 172, 317
Jenkins, Edmund T., 291
Johnson, E. A., 302
Johnson, Fenton, 304
Johnson, Georgia, 304
Johnson, James Weldon, 280, 292, 314
Johnson, John, 96, 113
Johnson, President, 201, 202, 203, 207, 208, 209, 214, 281
Johnson, Rosamond, 291
Jones, 173, 183, 330
Jones, C. C., 296, 325
Just, Ernest, 316
Kabell, 36
Keene, Edmund, 310
King George, 3rd of Britain, 142
Kingsley, Miss, 326, 327
Krehbiel, H. E., 281, 282
Kunst, J., 151
La Coste, 99
Lafitte, 99
Lafon, Thomé, 183, 323
Lambert, 92, 291
Langston, 22, 302
Las Casas, 42
Laurens, Henry, 141
Laurens, John, 91
Lawrence, Joseph, 8
Lawson, A. Augustus, 291
Leader, 8
Lee, Samuel J., 219
Leile, George, 330
Leon, Ponce de, 38
L’Enfant, Major Pierre, 318
Lewis, 49
Lewis, Edmonia, 315
Lewis, Julien H., 316
Lewis, R. B., 299
Lind, Jenny, 291
Lincoln, Abraham, 28, 106, 114, 135, 185, 187, 189, 195, 202, 203,
233, 271
Livermore, 84, 87, 89, 91, 92, 142, 175, 176, 178, 194
Livingston, Robert, 154
Lodge, Henry Cabot, 12
Loguen, Bishop, 182, 300
Low, A. A., 232
Lowell, James Russell, 293
Lucas, Sam (See Samuel Milady)
Lynch, 90
Lynch, John R., 220, 223
Macdonough, 96
Madison, James, 91
Majors, 302
Maldonado, 44, 45
Marcos, Fray, 45, 46, 49
Marquis de Condorcet, 317
Marshall, Colonel John R., 127
Martin, 96
Martineau, 268
Matzeliger, Jan E., 70, 71, 72
Maverick, Samuel, 87, 88
McCoy, Elijah, 72
McHenry, James, 318
McKay, 71, 304, 307
McKay, Claud, 308
McKee, Colonel John, 323
McKim, Miss, 275
McKinley, President, 126
McLean, Justice, 144
McClellan, 188
McPherson, 203, 209
McSweeney, Edw. F., Introduction to series
Melbourne, George, 290
Mencken, H. L., 305
Mendoza, 44, 45, 49, 150
Menendez, 43
Milady, Samuel, 290 (See Sam Lucas also)
Miller, Kelly, 303
Miller, Hon. Thomas E., 248
Mills, 271
Mitchell, George W., 303
Montalvo, Garcia de, 35
Moody, 279
Moore, G. H., 85, 91
Mossell, 302
Murray, 221
Murray, Freeman H. M., 304, 315
Narvaez, Panfilo de, 43
Nell, William Cooper, 300
Nelson, Alice Dunbar, 68, 69, 83, 97, 100, 145, 155, 267, 268, 289
Nelson, Colonel, 119
Niles, 97, 98, 100, 145
Northrop, Samuel, 300
Nosseyeb, 287
Oglethorpe, 140
O’Hara, 222
Olana, Nuflo de, 42
Olivier, 79
Olmsted, 69, 70
O’Neill, 311
Osceola, 171
Otis, James, 141
Ouverture, Toussaint le, 154, 156
Ovando, 39
Oviedo, 38
Page, Thomas Nelson, 293
Payne, Bishop Daniel, 301, 302
Peary, Commodore, 50
Pemberton, Thomas, 57
Penn, 7, 302
Pennington, J. W. C., 257, 299
Perier, Governor, 82, 83
Perry, 96
Pétion, President, 154
Phillips, Wendell, 270, 293
Pierce, Edward L., 191
Pike, G. D., 279
Pinchback, 221
Pinckney, Charles, 94
Pizarro, Marquis, 41
Plato, 2
Pleasants, Mammy, 271, 272
Poor, Salem, 92
Portugal, King of, 290
Preer, Evelyn, 311
Prendergast, J. P., 8
Preston, Captain, 87
Price, J. C., 308
Purvis, Robert, 299
Purvis, W. L., 73
Pushkin, 288
Putnam, Colonel, 123
Rainey, 223
Ralston, 271
Rapier, 221, 223
Redmond, 174
Reed, Lieut.-Col., 125
Revels, 221, 223
Revells, Hiram R., 218
Rice, Thomas D., 309
Rigaud, 92
Rillieux, Robert, 70
Rippy, J. F., 42, 43
Robertson, 267
Robeson, Paul, 311
Rodin, 315
Rush, Dr. Benjamin, 316, 332
Rutledge, 90
Salcedo, Governor, 67
Samba, 83
Sanine, 312
Savary, J. B. Capt., 99
Saxton, General, 188
Scammell, Alexander, 85
Scarborough, 302
Schomberg, A. A., 304
Schurz, Carl, 201, 210, 211, 213, 214
Scofield, 314
Scott, William Edward, 313
Sejour, Victor, 289
Sellick, 8
Sewall, 140
Seward, William H., 140
Seybert, Adam, 16
Seymour, General, 123
Shaftesbury, Lord, 279
Shakespeare, 293
Shaler, Governor, 203
Sharkey, Governor, 203
Sherman, General T. W., 187, 194
Shaw, Colonel, 123, 315
Simmons, 301
Simonton, Judge, 246
Sinclair, 303
Smith, Albert A., 313
Smith, Alexander, 271
Smith, Buckingham, 38
Smith, General, 124
Smith, Gerritt, 232
Smith, Rev. John Blair, 335
Southerne, 293, 309
Spence, Adam K., 277
Spencer, Rev. T. A., 9
Stanton, 124, 194
Stearns, George L., 232
Stephenson, General, 123
Steward, 93, 154, 303
Stewart, Ruth M., 293, 302
Story, W. A., 314
Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 293
Strachen, 96
Straker, 302
Strong, Gen., 123
Suarez, Illan, 41
Sumner, Charles, 198, 293
Talbert, Cole, 291
Talley, T. W., 297
Talmadge, DeWitt, 154
Taney, Judge, 143
Tanner, Bishop, 301, 313
Thacher, J. C., 36
Thebaud, A. J., 8
Thomas, General, 140, 193, 194
Thurston, 36
Tillman, 243
Toomer, Jean, 308
Tourgee, Judge Albion W., 237
Trotter, James Monroe, 301
Truth, Sojourner, 174
Tubman, Harriet, 171, 270, 271
Turner, C. H., 316
Turner, Nat., 157, 158, 302, 330
Tyler, Col., 186
Vaca de, 44, 45
Valdivia, 42
Vassa, Gustavus, 279 (See Olaudah Equiana)
Varick, James, 330
Vela, Blasco Nunez, 41, 42
Vernon, Capt. John, 8
Vesey, Denmark, 156
Victoria, Francisco Xavier de, 322
Victoria, Queen, 279
Walker, David, 164, 168, 299, 310, 311
Wall, Capt. O. S. B., 125
Wallace, Judge, 246
Warburg, Eugene, 289
Ward, Samuel C., 300, 308, 314
Ware, 214
Work, John W., 282
Warley, 231
Washington, 2, 38, 89, 102, 103, 115, 141, 298, 318
Washington, Booker T., 258, 298, 303, 308
Washington, Madison, 159
Wayman, Bishop, 301
Webster, Daniel, 86, 160
Wiener, 36, 37, 38, 40, 150
Wesley, 113
Wheatley, Phyllis, 298, 304, 306, 312
Wheeler, Laura, 313
White, Clarence Cameron, 291
White, E. P., 221
White, George L., 276, 277, 278
White, J. L., 219
White, Dr. William S., 336
Whitfield, James, 299, 300
Whitefield, George, 298
Whittier, John Greenleaf, 293
Whitman, A. A., 301, 304
Whitman, Walt, 293
Whitney, Eli, 70
Williams, 101, 104, 107, 117, 118, 124, 164, 187, 301, 310, 311
Williams, Bert, 310
Williams, Dr. Dan, 316
Wilson, 26, 95, 97, 108, 110, 124, 135, 179, 181, 303
Winslow, Sydney W., 70, 71
Witherspoon, D., 332
Wood, Liates, 73
Woods, Granville T., 73
Woodson, Carter, 64, 161, 303, 332
Wormeley, Ralph, 67
Wright, 302
Yeomans, Robert, 8
Young, Major Charles, 17, 18, 127, 131