STONE MONUMENTS (_continued_): CHAMBERED TUMULI.
TUMULUS AT NEWGRANGE--TUMULUS AT DOWTH--TUMULUS AT KNOWTH--CAIRNS AT
LOUGHCREW--PREHISTORIC ORNAMENT.
In the _Senchas-na-Relec_, or ‘History of the Cemeteries,’ a tract in
the _Leabhar-na h-Uidhre_, we have a list of the regal cemeteries of
Erin during a long period prior to the advent of St. Patrick. This was
compiled at Clonmacnoise, and transcribed by Maelmuiri in the twelfth
century. In the opinion of Petrie the tract ‘must be referred to a
period several centuries earlier than that in which its transcriber
flourished.’[38] It says:--‘These were the chief cemeteries before the
Faith (_i.e._ before the introduction of Christianity), viz. Cruachu,
Brugh, Tailltiu, Luachair Ailbe, Oenach Ailbe, Oenach Culi, Oenach
Colmain, Temhair Erann.... At Tailltiu the kings of Ulster were used
to bury, viz. Ollamh Fodhla, with his descendants, down to Conchobhar,
who wished that he should be carried to a place between Slea and the
sea, with his face to the east, on account of the Faith which he had
embraced.’ In the same MS. there is also a poem ascribed to Dorban, a
poet of West Connaught, dealing with the deaths and burials of Dathi,
the last of the Milesian kings, and other princes of the race interred
at Rathcroghan. It contains three stanzas:--
‘Fifty mounds, I certify,
Are at Oenach na Cruachna,
There are under each mound of them
Fifty truly-fine warlike men.
The three cemeteries of the Idolaters are
The cemetery of Tailten, the select,
The cemetery of the ever-fair Cruachan,
And the cemetery of Brugh....
The host of great Meath were buried
In the middle of the lordly Brugh;
The great Ultonians used to bury
At Tailten with pomp.’
Of the cemeteries named but two can be identified with any degree
of certainty, viz. those of Brugh na Boinne, the ‘Dwelling-place on
the Boyne,’ now generally acknowledged to be Newgrange, and Cruachan
(Rathcroghan), County Roscommon; but there is great probability that
Tailten may be the great necropolis situate on the Loughcrew Hills not
far from Oldcastle.
* * * * *
_Tumulus at Newgrange._--As the size and character of the grave
mounds would depend upon the rank of the dead, the magnitude of these
monuments of kings and heroes can be readily understood from the
MS. evidence. The Tumulus at Newgrange, in County Meath, lying at
a distance of about eight miles from Drogheda, is perhaps the most
remarkable monument of its class now existing in any part of western
Europe. In one respect, at least, it may compare with any Celtic
monument known to exist, inasmuch as a number of the great stones of
which its gallery and chambers are composed, exhibit a profusion of
ornamental design, consisting of spiral, lozenge, and zigzag work, such
as is usually found upon the ornaments, weapons, fictilia, and other
remains of prehistoric times in Ireland. The earliest account of the
tumulus is contained in a letter written by Edward Lhwyd, keeper of the
Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, and dated December 15th, 1699. The entrance
to the chamber had been discovered a short time before by workmen
employed in the removal of stones for the repair of a road. It is
recorded, however, in the _Annals of the Four Masters_ that Newgrange
was plundered by the Danes in 861.
[Illustration: The Tumulus of Newgrange, Co. Meath.]
[Illustration: Plan and Section of Newgrange Tumulus.]
[Illustration: Entrance to the Passage leading to the Great Chamber,
Newgrange.]
This vast cairn which, even in its present condition, measures from the
floor of the inside chamber to the summit 44 feet, and in its greatest
diameter 280 feet, presents, from a little distance, the appearance
of a grassy hill partially wooded; but upon examination the coating of
earth is found to be altogether superficial, and the stones, of which
the hill is entirely composed, can easily be laid bare. The quantity
of stones has been estimated at 100,000 tons. The base is surrounded
by a belt of large blocks of stones eight to ten feet in length, upon
which a dry wall five to six feet in height has been raised. The like
method was adopted in some of the great barrows in England, as in Uley,
in Gloucestershire. A circle of large stones, of which twelve may be
identified, originally surrounded its base, and when Lhwyd saw it,
there was ‘another lesser standing on the top.’ This pillar-stone no
longer exists. The stones stand about thirty feet apart, and if the
circle were completed the original number of stones would be 32. The
area of the mound is about one acre in extent; but if the area of the
circle within the stones be taken, it would extend to two acres.
[Illustration: Plan and Section of Chamber in Newgrange Tumulus.]
[Illustration: Carving on a Stone at the West Recess.]
[Illustration: Ornament on the Roof of the East Recess.]
[Illustration: Ornament on the Roof of the East Recess.]
[Illustration: Scoring on Stone in West Recess.]
The entrance to the gallery is to the south, and across it lies one of
the retaining stones, which is beautifully covered with spirals and
lozenges; two others, also richly carved, have been discovered in the
boundary circle to the north-west. The gallery, which extends in a
direction nearly north and south, communicates with a chamber or cave
nearly in the centre of the mound. This gallery, which measures in
length 63 feet, is, at its entrance from the exterior, 4 feet 9 inches
high; in breadth at the top, 3 feet 2 inches; and at the base, 3 feet
5 inches. These dimensions it fairly retains--except in one or two
places where the stones appear to have been forced from their original
position--and rises gradually to a height of about 6 feet through a
distance of 26 feet from the external entrance. Thence towards the
interior its size gradually increases, but sinks to 4 feet 10 inches at
43 feet, and again rapidly rises by the overlapping of the stones until
it joins the chamber roof. Large blocks of stone, from 5 feet to 8
feet high, and numbering 22 on one side, and 21 on the other, form the
passage. These are Lower Silurian rocks, the formation of the adjoining
district; they show but little traces of the weathering of surface
rocks, ‘but, on the contrary, even faces, which indicate that they have
been split along the cleavage, and care taken in their selection.’
The ground-plan of the chamber is cruciform, the head and arms of the
cross being formed by three recesses, one placed directly fronting
the entrance, the others east and west, and each containing a basin of
granite. The lower portions of the walls of the chamber are composed of
large uncemented stones, placed in an upright position, over which are
others laid horizontally, each course projecting slightly beyond that
upon which it rests, and so on, until the sides so closely approximate
that a single flag suffices to close in and complete the roof. The
chamber is 19½ feet high, and measures from the end of the gallery to
the back of the north recess 26 feet; from the back of the east recess
to the back of the west, 21 feet. The recesses are not of uniform size.
The east is 7 feet 9 inches in depth, the north 7½ feet, and the west
3 feet 4 inches. The sides of these recesses are composed of immense
blocks of stones; several of the stones in the recesses and passage
bear a great variety of carving, supposed by some to be symbolical. The
carvings represent various characteristic selections in the work upon
the roof of the east recess, in the construction and decoration of
which a great degree of care appears to have been exercised. A carving
upon a stone forming the north external angle of the west recess
is supposed to be an inscription; but even could any satisfactory
explanation of it be given, its authenticity is doubtful, as it has
been supposed to have been forged by one of the many dishonest Irish
antiquaries of the eighteenth century. The same stone, upon its east
face, exhibits what appears to have been intended as a representation
of a fern or yew-branch. An ornament of a similar character was found
within a tomb at Locmariaker, in Brittany.[39] It is a remarkable fact
that the majority of these carvings must have been executed before
the stones upon which they appear had been placed in their present
positions. Of this there is abundant evidence in the east recess, where
we find the lines continued over portions of the stones which it would
be impossible now to reach with an instrument, and which form the sides
of mere interstices. The illustrations on page 88 depict some of the
decorations which appear upon the sides of the east recess. A stone now
lying upon the surface of the mound, a little above the opening already
described, is shown in above engraving.
[Illustration: Carved Stone in East Recess.]
[Illustration: Carved Stone in East Recess.]
[Illustration: Carved Stone above the Entrance.]
A very remarkable series of carvings is to be seen on a boundary stone
on the north side opposite the entrance, consisting of spirals,
cup-markings, rings, and ‘cartouche-like figures.’ ‘No examples of
these’ (the last), says Mr. George Coffey, ‘have, I believe, been
previously found in Ireland.’
Of the basins contained in the various recesses, that in the chamber,
and which stood within the larger basin in the east recess, is the
most remarkable. It measures 4 feet by 3 feet 6 inches, and is formed
of a block of granite, that must have been brought from the nearest
granite district, either Down or Wicklow, a distance of over 50 miles.
Two small circular cavities have been cut within its interior--a
peculiarity not found in either of the others, which are of much ruder
construction, and very shallow.
We see in Newgrange a great advance in the architecture of sepulchres
from the rude cromlechs of the Stone Age to the well-developed vaulted
chamber, with its recesses, of the Bronze Period. But the principle of
the rude passage-graves is maintained; and the desire to honour the
dead under the most appropriate monument that art and skill could raise
remains the same. Within the chamber and recesses the relics of the
dead were most probably placed on the basins--a purpose for which these
were apparently adapted.
The general plan of Newgrange is similar to the bee-hive tomb at
Mycenæ, known as the Treasury of Atreus, but differing in size, detail,
and general magnificence. This great tomb consists of a long passage,
a large vaulted chamber--formed of successive courses of stones laid
horizontally and closed with a single slab--and a square recess. In
the centre of the rocky floor of the recess is a circular depression
3 feet in diameter and 2 feet deep. Dr. Schuchhardt is of opinion that
this was the actual grave, that the recess was never opened but to
admit another body, while the great vault was devoted to the cult of
the dead. ‘It was and remained easily accessible; the rich façade and
the expensively-built approach conclusively show that the entrance to
the vault was not blocked up after the reception of the bodies.’[40]
Other authorities consider that this was not the case, but that the
central chamber was the tomb for the family, and the side chamber
for specially distinguished persons and chiefs.[41] Whichever view
we accept, it is at least suggestive of the purpose for which the
Newgrange type of sepulchre was planned.
In the neighbourhood of the Newgrange tumulus are two other monuments
of the same class, and of an extent nearly equal, the ‘Hills’ of Dowth
and Knowth; or, as they are called by the Irish, Dubhath and Cnoabh,
the latter lying about one mile to the westward of Newgrange, and the
former at a similar distance in the opposite direction.
* * * * *
[Illustration: Tumulus at Dowth, from the South.]
[Illustration: Entrance to the Passage leading to the Chamber of Dowth.]
_Tumulus at Dowth._--This sepulchral mound corresponds closely to
Newgrange in dimensions; it is about 47 feet high, and measures 280
feet in diameter. Round the base is a belt of large stones as at
Newgrange; but it has no retaining wall. A double circle of stones
appears to have surrounded the cairn. Of these the greater number
lie buried; for in summertime their position, particularly after a
long continuance of sunny weather, is shown by the remarkably dry
and withered appearance of the grass above them. Of the internal
arrangement of this great tumulus, little was known beyond the fact
that it was different from that of the monument last described,
inasmuch as, instead of one great gallery leading directly towards the
centre of the pile, there appeared here the remains of two passages
in a very ruinous state, and completely stopped up, neither of which,
however, seemed to have conducted towards a grand central chamber. The
Committee of Antiquities of the Royal Irish Academy having, in the
course of the autumn of 1847, obtained permission from the trustees
of the Netterville Charity, the proprietors of the Dowth estate, to
explore the interior of the tumulus, the work was commenced and carried
on at considerable cost, under the immediate direction of Mr. Frith,
one of the county surveyors. Unfortunately no official record of the
work done has been kept, and the only account of it is a brief one
by Sir Wm. Wilde. Commenting on this, Mr. George Coffey says: ‘The
mound was so pulled about by the explorers, and the work carried out
with such doubtful wisdom, that the Committee seem to have had a not
unnatural shrinking from publicity.’ From the difficulty of sinking
a shaft among the loose, dry stones of which this hill, like that of
Newgrange, is entirely composed, the plan was adopted of making an
open cutting from the base of the mound towards its centre, in order
to arrive at the great central chamber which was supposed to exist.
The first discovery was that of a cruciform chamber upon the western
side, formed of stones of great size, every way similar to those
at Newgrange, and exhibiting the same style of decoration. A rude
sarcophagus, bearing a striking resemblance to that belonging to the
east recess at Newgrange, was found in the centre. It had been broken
into several pieces, but the fragments were all recovered and placed
together, so as to afford a perfect idea of the original form. In
clearing away the rubbish with which the chamber was nearly filled,
the workmen discovered a large quantity of the bones of animals in a
half-burned state, mixed with small shells. A pin of bronze and two
small knives of iron were also picked up. With respect to instruments
of iron being found in a monument of so early a date, we may observe
that, in the _Annals of Ulster_, there occurs a record of this mound,
as well as of several others in the neighbourhood, having been searched
by the Northmen of Dublin as early as A.D. 862: ‘On one occasion
that the three kings, Amlaff, Imar, and Ainsle, were plundering the
territory of Flann, the son of Coaing.’ It is an interesting fact
that the knives are similar in every respect to a number discovered,
together with a quantity of other objects, in the bog of Lagore, near
Dunshaughlin, and which there is reason to refer to a period between
the ninth and the beginning of the eleventh centuries. Upon the chamber
being cleared out, a passage 27 feet in length was discovered, the
sides of which incline considerably, leading in a westerly direction
towards the side of the mound, and composed, like the similar passage
at Newgrange, of enormous stones placed edgeways, and covered in with
large flags. The chamber, though of inferior size to that of Newgrange,
is constructed so nearly upon the same plan, that a description of the
one might almost serve for that of the other. It is 9 feet by 7 feet
and 11 feet high. There are three recesses between 5 and 6 feet deep;
these, however, do not contain basins. The south recess leads into
a double set of chambers, one extending south and the other west. A
single stone 8 feet long forms the floor of the south passage, in the
centre of which is a shallow oval ‘apparently rubbed down with some
rude tool.’ A huge stone, in height 9 feet, in breadth 8 feet, placed
between the north and east recesses, is remarkable for the singular
character of its carving. A portion of the work upon this stone bears a
resemblance to Ogam writing.
[Illustration: Carving on a Stone at Dowth.]
[Illustration: Carving on a Stone at Dowth.]
Another sepulchral chamber, of a quadrangular form, portions of which
show a great variety of carving, among which the cross, a symbol which
neither in the old nor the new world can be considered as peculiar to
Christianity, is conspicuous, has been discovered upon the southern
side of the mound. Here, as elsewhere, during the course of excavation,
the workmen unearthed vast quantities of bones, half-burned, many of
which proved to be human; ‘several unburned bones of horses, pigs,
deer, and birds, portions of the heads of the short-horned variety of
the ox, and the head of a fox.’ They also found a star-shaped amulet
of stone, a ring of jet, several beads, and some bones fashioned
like pins. Among the stones of the upper portion of the cairn were
discovered a number of globular balls of stone, the size of small
eggs, which Sir W. Wilde supposed probably to have been sling stones.
Further excavations under the direction of the Board of Works (1885)
led to other discoveries. An opening was made on the north side of the
known entrance that ‘led to a passage which terminated at either end by
circular cells carefully roofed with corbelling stones’; and, where it
met the entrance to the originally known chamber, a flight of steps was
discovered. This and the character of the work, which is microlithic,
indicate the portion of the underground passages and chambers to be a
much later addition.
Among the trees between the mound of Dowth and the mansion are two
smaller tumuli. One of these is open from the top; it contains a
corbel-roofed chamber 10 feet in diameter and 8 feet high; round it are
five cells constructed of small flags set upright. A little to the east
of the house is a fine specimen of the ancient military encampment or
rath, one of the largest in Ireland.
* * * * *
_Tumulus at Knowth._--The other great tumulus (Knowth) of the Boyne
group has probably never been entered since the time, as the Annalists
tell us, it was plundered and doubtlessly much injured by the Danes.
It is nearly 700 feet in circumference, and between 40 and 50 feet
in height. For many years it has served as a convenient quarry for
builders of houses and repairers of roads. That it could be explored at
little cost is certain, as, owing to the denudation it has suffered,
the passage or gallery leading to its chamber has, in part, been laid
bare. Its circle or circles are not altogether obliterated; and here
and there some portions remain which show that the work, though less
massive than that of Newgrange, was at least as striking as anything to
be found in Dowth, or in connection with the remains at Loughcrew, or
others occurring in the western districts of Ireland.
Among the objects found about the tumuli Lhwyd mentions a gold coin
of Valentinian, said to have been discovered on the top of Newgrange;
Molyneux mentions a similar coin, and one of Theodosius, as being found
outside the cairn. A gold chain, two finger rings, and two gold torcs
were found in 1842 close to the entrance of Newgrange; and on further
search a denarius of Geta and two small brass, but defaced, coins were
also found. Too much caution cannot be used in considering these as
evidence in determining the date of the tumuli. A bronze pin, a ring
pin, and a small iron weapon were found in the chamber discovered in
Dowth in 1885. If, as seems certain, this chamber and passage are of
much later date than the tumulus itself, the presence of these objects
is easily accounted for. A discussion of the evidence upon which expert
opinion is based, as to the date of these monuments, is outside the
province of this book. It takes into consideration the character of the
architecture, the nature of the ornamentation, and the objects found.
Weighing these, the Boyne tumuli are assigned to the Early Bronze
Period, and Newgrange is considered the oldest of the group.
* * * * *
_Cairns at Loughcrew._--Loughcrew is a range of picturesque hills,
three miles south-east of Oldcastle. The ridge of the range is
about two miles in extent, and there are three chief heights:
Slieve-na-Calliaghe, 904 feet; Patrickstown Hill, 885 feet; and
Carnbawn, 842 feet: but the name of the first is generally applied
to the whole range. Here, within the radius of a rifle-shot, may be
seen grouped together the most extraordinary collection of archaic
monuments to be found in the kingdom. These for the most part consist
of megalithic sepulchres surmounted by tumuli, and surrounded by stone
circles. These number ‘from 25 to 30 cairns, some of considerable size,
being 120 to 180 feet in diameter; others are much smaller, and some
are so nearly obliterated that their dimensions can hardly be now
ascertained.’ It is, we think, not too much to say that on the stones
among these cairns is found the greatest collection of rude prehistoric
scorings yet found in Ireland or, perhaps, in Europe.
Popular superstition has long attributed these cairns and other remains
to be the work of a witch named Cailleach Bhéartha, who, in attempting
a wild leap in the adjoining townland of Patrickstown, was unfortunate
enough to fall and break her neck. Nothing was known of the character
or contents of these cairns until 1858. In the autumn of that year
Mr. Wakeman measured and made plans of several of the remains, and
wrote a paper upon the subject, which was read in his name before
the Architectural Society of Oxford, by J. H. Parker. We are thus
particular in giving names and dates in connection with the _first_
public notice of the antiquities at Slieve-na-Calliaghe, as their
‘discovery’ was claimed and is still erroneously attributed to the late
Eugene Conwell. He, however, did great service to Irish archæology,
inasmuch as, with the liberal co-operation of the late J. L. W. Naper,
owner of the soil, he was enabled to clear out the majority of the
chambers, and investigate what had been left by former searchers of
their contents. An immense amount of _débris_ was removed, and stones
which had been buried for ages were brought to light. Many of the
latter are singularly carved, and some presented designs previously
unknown to archæologists. The result of Conwell’s investigations was
given in papers read before the Royal Irish Academy in 1864 and 1866,
accompanied with an index map of the cemetery, in which the letters
of the alphabet indicate the cairns.[42] These, however, were of a
sketchy nature, and the voluminous report, with the plans and sketches
which he had prepared, seems never to have been published. A series of
drawings of the incised markings on some of the stones of the chambers
were prepared by Du Noyer; these remained unpublished until recent
years, when a collection of seventy-six drawings and plans of six of
the cairns fell into the hands of the late Dr. W. Frazer, and were
reproduced by the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland.[43]
The idea seems to have struck Fergusson, who at least on one occasion
accompanied Conwell to the place, that the Loughcrew monuments
represented the once famous, but long-forgotten, cemetery of Taillten,
a place which was supposed to be represented by the modern Teltown,
about fifteen miles distant. After weighing the evidence in reference
to the supposed identification, Fergusson writes:--‘If, however,
this is not Taillten, no graves have been found nearer Teltown which
would at all answer to the description that remains to us of this
celebrated cemetery; and till they are found, these Loughcrew mounds
seem certainly entitled to the distinction. I cannot see that the
matter is doubtful.’[44] According to the _Annals of the Four Masters_,
numerous were the kings and nobles here buried. The first whose name
is mentioned is Ollamh Fodhla, son of Fiacha Finscothach, and founder
of the Feis at Tara. Eochaidh was his first name, and ‘he was called
Ollamh (Fodhla), because he had been first a learned Ollamh, and
afterwards king of Fodhla, _i.e._ of Ireland.’ The ‘Four Masters’ set
down his death as having occurred in 1277 B.C. The oldest and most
trustworthy authorities state that Taillten ceased to be used as a
cemetery on the death of Conchobhor, an Ultonian king, who flourished
in Erin at the commencement of the Christian era, and who, according to
the _Annals of Tighernach_, died A.D. 33.
In seventeen of the cairns sculptured stones have been found to the
number of 100. Cairn T has 28 stones with scribings, the largest number
yet noticed in any of the group. We can only briefly refer to the
contents of some of these cairns, which represent, as we have said, the
largest and most varied collection of inscribed stones hitherto found
in any Celtic monument. The largest is cairn D, which measures 180 feet
in diameter; no trace of interment has yet been found within it, and it
may have been merely monumental.
Cairn H is 5 or 6 feet high and 54 feet in diameter. Here Conway
collected 300 fragments of bones, 14 of rude pottery, 10 pieces of
flint, 155 sea-shells, and quantities of pebbles and polished stones.
But the most remarkable portion of the collection consisted of nearly
5000 pieces of bone implements, many more or less perfect, several
of which were engraved in Late Celtic pattern, as were many portions
of combs. In addition to this collection, beads of amber and glass,
bronze rings, and iron implements were found, and a recent examination
has added to these.
Cairn L is 135 feet in diameter, and has a circle of 42 stones set on
edge, varying from 6 to 12 feet in length, and 3 to 4 feet in height.
It is chambered, and the roof fashioned by overlapping stones similar
to that of Newgrange. The passage and chamber have a combined length
of 29 feet, and the latter is 13 feet in width. On the floor of the
passage is a flagstone, measuring 8 feet 9 inches by 3 feet 6 inches;
and in one of these recesses is the largest and best finished stone
basin yet discovered, measuring 5 feet 9 inches by 3 feet 1 inch.
Fragments of pottery to the number of 154 were found, and under the
basin pieces of burnt bone and many human teeth.
Cairn T is the most conspicuous monument of the group; it measures 116
feet in diameter, and rises with sloping sides to a height of 21 feet.
It contains a recessed chamber, like that at Newgrange, in miniature,
the entrance to which faces due east, and is reached by a shallow,
funnel-shaped passage. Round the base is a closely-set circle of 37
stones, varying from 6 to 12 feet in length, and acting as a kind of
retaining fence to the loose, dry boulders which form the body of the
tumulus. One of these stones on the north side is popularly known as
the ‘Hag’s Chair’ (see p. 39). Fergusson states there can be little
doubt that it was intended as a seat, or throne, but by whom it was
raised and for what purpose it is difficult to say. When opened in 1865
the roofing of the passage and much of the chamber had fallen away,
leaving them filled with stones; the combined length is 28 feet, and
the full width of the chamber is 16 feet 4 inches. The floor of the
central octagonal chamber was covered by three large and two small
flags, beneath which were found pieces of burnt bone and charcoal. It
has three recesses, about 4 feet square.
Conwell, without the slightest authority, rushed to the conclusion that
this particular monument must be the tomb of Ollamh Fodhla, and that
the chair cannot be other than the judicial seat, or throne, of that
famous king. He writes: ‘And to whom, keeping in view the preceding MS.
testimony,[45] could this great megalithic chair be more appropriately
ascribed than to Ollamh Fodhla? It would be natural to suppose that,
for the site of the tomb of the great king and law-maker, his posterity
(or, indeed, probably he himself, during his own lifetime) selected the
most elevated spot on the entire range; hence we propose to call the
carn on that spot--904 feet above the sea-level, and situated on the
middle hill--Ollamh Fodhla’s tomb, and the great stone seat “Ollamh
Fodhla’s Chair”; and the ruined remains of the smaller surrounding
cairns, six of which still remain, the tombs of his sons and grandsons,
mentioned in the previous extracts. In fact, on the summit of the
highest hill in the site of this ancient royal cemetery, we believe
there still exist the remains of the tombs of the dynasty of Ollamh
Fodhla’!
The construction of these chambered tumuli, so peculiar to our eyes,
had its origin in the primitive mound-dwelling, survivals of which
are still to be found among the Lapps inhabiting the extreme north of
Scandinavia. Here, as Mr. Arthur Evans points out, ‘are the ring-stones
actually employed in propping up the turf-covered mound of the
dwelling, and there is the low entrance gallery leading to the chamber
within, which, in fact, is the living representative, and at the same
time the remote progenitor, of the gallery of the chambered barrow.’
The bee-hive tombs of Mycenæ are traced back by Professor Adler to
Phrygia. Here, according to Vitruvius, the dwellers in the valleys dug
a circular pit, raised a cone-shaped chamber with posts, covered it
with weeds and branches; over all they piled a heap of earth, and cut
a passage into the chamber from without. Of this Dr. Schuchhardt says:
‘The analogy is certainly significant. Men in all ages have fashioned
the dwellings of the dead in accordance with those of the living; but
the dead are conservative, and long after a new generation has sought a
new home and a new pattern for its houses, the habitations of the dead
are still constructed in ancestral fashion.’[46]
The distribution of the spiral, which is so remarkable a feature at
Newgrange, has in recent years received much attention from European
archæologists. It was used in Egypt at a very early period. Dr.
Flinders Petrie has discovered it on scarabs dating as far back as
the fifth dynasty. It is now thought that the spiral reached Europe
from Egypt northwards through the Ægean. Mr. A. J. Evans has found
it in Crete on scarabs of the twelfth dynasty (2700–2500 B.C.), but
its adoption in Mycenæan ornament from this early wave northward is
doubted. Dr. Petrie considers that the intermediate stages so evident
in Egypt are absent in Greece.[47] Evidence seems to show that its
development in Greece was due to a wave of influence from Egypt during
the eighteenth dynasty (1580–1320 B.C.). In Greek hands it attained the
same degree of perfection as in Egypt, and has been found elaborately
decorating the stelæ, gold ornaments, and vessels in the tombs of
Mycenæ, in the alabaster frieze at Tiryns, and in the slabs of the
ceiling of the tomb at Orchomenos.
Mr. Evans says: ‘In the wake of early commerce the same spiraliform
motives were to spread still further afield to the Danubian basin, and
thence in turn by the valley of the Elbe to the Amber Coast of the
North Sea, then to supply the Scandinavian Bronze Age population with
their leading decorative designs. Adopted by the Celtic tribes in the
central European area, they took, at a somewhat later date, a westerly
turn, reached Britain with the invading Belgæ, and finally survived
in Irish art.’[48] But there is much to support the theory that the
spiral reached Ireland from Scandinavia, and not by the direct western
route, as communication existed between the races from a very early
date. This view is maintained by Mr. George Coffey, who discusses the
subject of prehistoric ornament in Ireland in a series of papers
contributed to the _Journal_ of the Royal Society of Antiquaries
(Ireland).[49] He also accepts the theory, advocated, too, by Prof.
Montelius, that the concentric circle is a debased spiral; and is of
opinion that, where both are found, the spiral is the earlier form of
the two. The distribution of the spiral is very widespread, and even
the returning spiral has been used by the Maori in facial decoration
and otherwise for a long period. The spiral is a form that would come
under the notice of primitive man anywhere; and it is quite possible
in such things as this, as in myths, customs, and objects common to
most races, to push theory too far in one direction. But the spread
of the spiral ornament throughout Europe, as the result of Mycenæan
influence, receives confirmation by similar parallels being established
in connection with other important branches of archæological research.
Many archæologists have hitherto been of opinion that the sculpturings
on the rocks composing these sepulchral chambers are symbolical; but
no satisfactory explanation has yet been given of their religious
significance. Some, however, consider that they are mere ornament,
and that in no sense have they a cryptic meaning. Many of the stones
from the position in which they are now placed, as we have already
pointed out, must have been carved beforehand, and may probably have
served some other purpose at an earlier period. It is easily seen that
the same ornamentation exists on many objects to which no symbolism
could be attached; there is an absence, too, of all idea of method
in design, and a want of unity in combination, which are against any
theory except that of primitive man’s mere desire to decorate. Though
much has been written on the question, yet, in the present state of our
knowledge, it is impossible to arrive at a definite conclusion upon the
subject.
[Illustration: Ornamented Bone Flake from Slieve-na-Calliaghe.]