THE PARROTS.
Characteristics of the Order--The Sub-orders--ZYGODACTYLÆ--THE
PARROTS--Their Talking Powers--Sections of the Family--THE
GREAT PALM COCKATOO--THE PYGMY PARROTS--THE AMAZON PARROTS--THE
AMAZONS--THE GREY PARROT--Court Favourites--Historical Specimens--In
a state of Nature--Mr. Keulemans’ Observations--THE CONURES--THE
ROSE-RINGED PARRAKEET--Known to the Ancients--Habitat--Habits--THE
CAROLINA CONURE--Destructive Propensities--THE PARRAKEETS--THE
OWL PARROT--Chiefly Nocturnal--Incapable of Flight--How this Fact
may be accounted for--Dr. Haast’s Account of its Habits--THE
STRAIGHT-BILLED PARROTS--THE BRUSH-TONGUED PARROTS--THE NESTORS--THE
KAKA PARROT--Skull of a Parrot--The Bill.
The birds which are contained in this order are of very different
forms, but they possess one character which, although an osteological
one, is found throughout nearly the whole group, and that is, the
double notch in the hinder margin of the sternum or breast bone.
In all the true _Passeres_, or perching birds, only a single notch
is observed. The hind toe, which in the true perching birds is an
essential character, and is separately movable, possessing its own
distinct flexor muscle, is in the Picarians not of so much account, its
flexor muscle being joined to the common flexor of all the toes; it is
sometimes absent altogether. If the Parrots have certain characters
in common with the _Accipitres_, the Cuckoos and the Plantain-eaters
undoubtedly show affinity to the Game-birds, while most of the other
families have peculiar structures which render them quite distinct
from the ordinary mass of true perching birds or Passeres. It may be
remarked that the eggs of most of the _Picariæ_, so far as we are
acquainted with them, are glossy white, and that the majority of them
breed in the holes of trees or of rocks, and that they are as a rule
bad nest-builders. The greatest exception to the above description of
the nesting of these birds is met with in the family of Goatsuckers
(_Caprimulgidæ_), some of whom lay their eggs on the ground, the eggs
being beautifully marbled with streaks and spots.
[Illustration: COCKATOOS.]
Within this great Picarian order there are two large sub-orders, called
respectively the Scansorial and the Fissirostral[232] _Picariæ_. The
Scansorial birds are also sometimes known as the Zygodactylæ,[233] or
yoke-footed birds, because they have their toes arranged in pairs,
two in front and two behind, and their name of Scansores is given to
them because most of them are climbing birds, and run up trees and
rocks with great facility, though in different ways. Parrots, for
instance, use their bills in climbing from branch to branch, while
Woodpeckers have very powerful feet and stiffened tail-feathers,
which support them as they cling to the bark of the trees, the bill
being chiefly employed to prise off the bark in order to get at the
insects underneath. Cuckoos do not climb trees in the same manner as
the Woodpeckers, though they have true zygodactyle feet: the present
writer has, however, seen a common Cuckoo (_Cuculus canorus_) cling
with both feet to the trunk of a huge elm while it picked off insects
from the bark. It must not be supposed, however, that the above are the
only birds which climb trees, for among the true Passeres, or perching
birds, there occur such birds as the _Dendrocolaptidæ_ in South
America, who have stiffened tails exactly as the Woodpeckers, while
the Tree-creepers are just as expert as the last-named birds, and yet
cannot be placed in the same order as the Scansorial (_Picariæ_), for
they possess a simple passerine foot, with three toes in front and one
behind.
The Fissirostres, or wide-gaping birds, are also called Gressorial
Picariæ, as their toes are more or less connected together, which gives
them a very flat sole to the foot. They generally hunt for their food
from some selected spot, ordinarily a post or a dead bough, whence
they take flights after their prey, usually returning to the same spot
to devour it. Their flight is active and swift, their gape extremely
large, and the head correspondingly big, and in many instances clumsy
and ungainly. The feet are generally small and weak.
SUB-ORDER I.--ZYGODACTYLÆ.
FAMILY I.--THE PARROTS (_Psittaci_).
Just as the Monkeys have been placed at the head of the Mammalia on
account of their high development, so the Parrots, from their general
cleverness, and especially on account of the facility with which
they can talk, have been considered the highest order of birds, and
placed at the beginning of the class. It is impossible for some people
to avoid the conclusion that these birds think and reason, and the
_à propos_ or sometimes _mal à propos_ way in which they introduce
speeches, coupled with the look of wisdom which they assume while being
spoken to, seems to show that the brain is being employed in thinking.
A friend in Manchester told the writer of a parrot-show in the North of
England, where the talking powers of each bird were made the subject
of a prize competition. Several of the birds had exhibited their
prowess, and at last the cover was removed from the cage of a Grey
Parrot, who at once exclaimed, on seeing the company to which he was
suddenly introduced, “By Jove! what a lot of Parrots!” an observation
which gained him the prize at once. Instances of famous talking birds
might be multiplied by the hundred, and it is wonderful to read some
of the stories which have been related of Parrots, whose fame has been
recorded in many popular works, leaving no doubt that these birds often
possess the power of reason of a very high order; at the same time,
it must be confessed that many of the Corvine birds, such as Ravens,
Jackdaws, and Magpies, do not fall far short of their Scansorial
friends.
The Parrots are divided into two large sections, firstly the Parrots
proper (_Psittaci proprii_), and secondly the straight-billed Parrots
(_Psittaci orthognathi_[234]). These two sections together contain six
families, of which five belong to the first and one to the second. The
true Parrots have a powerful and swollen bill, especially as regards
the lower mandible, which is much inflated, curved, and flattened in
front, the cutting edges (_tomium_) indented just behind their tip. The
sub-family which has to be noticed first are the _Camptolophinæ_[235]
or Cockatoos, which are birds entirely of the Australian region, being
confined to Australia and the Molucca Islands. The bill is higher
than it is broad, with a very distinct indentation of each side of
the cutting edge of the mandible, the tip of the bill short, rather
strong and perpendicular, the head crested in all except the Pygmy
Parrots (_Nasiterna_). This family contains at once the largest and the
smallest of the Parrots.
THE GREAT PALM COCKATOO (_Microglossus[236] aterrimus_[237]).
This is one of the most powerful of all the Parrot tribe, measuring
about twenty-four inches in length, and having a bill of unusual
thickness and power. Its black plumage also renders it a conspicuous
species, the only relief to this sombre colouring being the greyish
crest and the dull crimson cheeks. Its home is New Guinea, but it
is also found in the Cape York Peninsula in Australia, where it was
discovered by John Macgillivray during the voyage of the _Rattlesnake_.
He writes as follows respecting it:--“This very fine bird, which is
not uncommon in the vicinity of Cape York, was usually found in the
densest scrub among the tops of the tallest trees, but was occasionally
seen in the open forest land perched on the largest of the _Eucalypti_,
apparently resting on its passage from one belt of trees or patch of
scrub to another. Like the Black Cockatoos, or _Calyptorhynchi_, it
flies slowly and usually but a short distance. In November, 1849, the
period of our last visit to Cape York, it was always found in pairs,
very shy, and difficult of approach. Its cry is merely a low short
whistle of a single note, which may be represented by the letters
‘_Hweet-Hweet_.’ The stomach of the first one killed contained a few
small pieces of quartz and triturated fragments of palm-cabbage, with
which the crop of another specimen was completely filled; and the idea
immediately suggests itself, that the powerful bill of this bird is a
most fitting instrument for stripping off the leaves near the summits
of the _Seaforthia elegans_ and other palms to enable it to arrive at
the central tender shoot.”
THE PYGMY PARROTS (_Nasiternæ_).
These Parrots are represented by seven little manikins which are
found in New Guinea and the adjacent islands, each particular island
possessing its own peculiar species. Not one of these little birds
exceeds a Sparrow in size, the largest being a little over three inches
and a half in length. Owing to their small size and the resemblance of
the green colouring to the forests they inhabit, they are not easily
seen, and until recent years were very hard to procure. In the island
of Mafoor in the Bay of Geelvink, N.W., New Guinea, Baron von Rosenberg
says that he found it common near Roemsaro, and several specimens, both
alive and dead, were brought to him by the natives. They bred there in
January and February, nesting in hollow trees and laying two eggs, the
size of those of the English Bottle Titmouse. Their food consists of
fruit.
THE AMAZON PARROTS (_Androglossinæ_).[238]
This, the second sub-family, consists of the true Parrots, of which
the ordinary Grey Parrot (_Psittacus erythacus_) is the type. It also
includes all the Green Parrots of America, which are called Amazons,
as well as the Lories (_Eclectus_) and Love-birds (_Agapornis_). The
head is moderately smooth, without any highly-developed crest, as in
the Cockatoos, and the tail is short, or of only moderate length. The
tail-feathers are generally broad and obtuse, in a few widening at the
tip, or sharp at the end. In the genus _Prioniturus_, which inhabits
the Philippine Islands, and some of the Moluccas, the two centre
feathers have the shafts produced, and ending in a small spatule, or
racket.
THE AMAZONS (_Chrysotis_).[239]
[Illustration: AMAZON PARROT.]
These Parrots are entirely American, and are the only birds of the
New World which can compete in talking powers with the African Grey
Parrots, who, however, far surpass their American relatives. About
thirty species of Amazon are known, all of them confined within the
limits of the Neotropical region, which comprises the whole of Central
and Southern America, south of an imaginary line drawn through Northern
Mexico. The West India islands are also included in this area, and
most of them are inhabited by a species of Amazon. The habits of
all these Parrots seem to be very similar, and a good account of
the Active Amazon of Jamaica (_Chrysotis agilis_) is given by Mr.
Gosse[240]:--“All the Parrots are gregarious, cunning, watchful, noisy,
mischievous; and thus are like the Monkeys. This and the Yellow-billed
Parrot [Mr. Gosse’s name for _C. agilis_ is the Black-billed Parrot]
are so much alike in manners and general appearance, that a description
of one applies nearly to the other. Flocks varying from half a dozen
to twenty or thirty fly hither and thither over the forest, screeching
as they go, and all alight together on some tree covered with berries.
Here they feast, but with caution. On a slight alarm one screams,
and the whole flock is on the wing, vociferous if not musical, and
brilliant if not beautiful, particularly when the sun shines on their
green backs and crimsoned wings. They generally prefer lofty trees,
except when, in June, the ripe yellow plantain tempts them to descend,
or when the blackberry shines upon the pimento. Of the latter the
flocks devour an immense quantity, and the former they destroy by
cutting it to pieces with their powerful beaks, to get at the small
seeds. One day in January, when the pimento on the brow of Bluefields
Mountain was about ready for picking, being full-sized, but yet green
and hard, I observed large flocks of Black-bills, and a few Parrakeets,
flying to and fro with voluble chatter, now alighting to feed on the
hot, aromatic berry, now flying off, and wheeling round to the same
neighbourhood again. They were not at all shy, but, with unusual
carelessness of one’s proximity, scarcely moved at the report of the
gun which brought their companions to the ground. Of two which I shot
on this occasion, I found the craws stuffed with the cotyledons of the
seed alone, the most pungently aromatic part of the berry; the fleshy
part having been, as I presume, shorn off by the beak and rejected.
When alighted, as is often the case, on a dry branch, their emerald hue
is conspicuous, and affords a fair mark for the gunner; but in a tree
of full foliage, their colour proves an excellent concealment. They
seem aware of this, and their sagacity prompts them to rely on it for
security. Often we hear their voices proceeding from a certain tree, or
else have marked the descent of a flock upon it, but on proceeding to
the spot, though the eye has not wandered from it, and we are therefore
sure that they are there, we cannot discover an individual. We go
close to the tree, but all is silent, and still as death; we institute
a careful survey of every part with the eye, to detect the slightest
motion, or the form of a bird among the leaves, but in vain; we begin
to think that they have stolen off unperceived, but on throwing a
stone into the tree, a dozen throats burst forth into cry, and as many
green birds rush forth upon the wing. The screaming of this and the
following species differs from that of the Parrakeet, so far as to be
easily distinguished. That of the latter consists of a series of harsh
screeches, of comparative length; that of the Parrots is less shrill,
more broken into short and rapid articulations, forming a series of
varying length, separated by momentary pauses. It is, in fact, much
more like a hurried chattering.”
THE GREY PARROT (_Psittacus erythacus_).
This familiar cage-bird is a native of Africa, and it would appear
to have been a favourite in England for a longer period than can be
traced. They were held in great estimation at the court of the “Merry
Monarch” Charles II., for his Queen Catharine of Braganza had a
parrot-keeper, at a salary of £36 per annum, while the maids of honour
received only £10 a year each, and the “mother of the maids” £20 per
annum. Therefore, the custodian of the Parrots was better paid by £16
than the lady who held the very responsible post of care-taker of
the maids of honour.[241] A Grey Parrot which lived for forty years
with the Duchess of Richmond and Lennox, who died in 1702, and who
was a celebrated beauty at the court of Charles II., is preserved in
Westminster Abbey along with the effigy of that lady, having survived
its mistress only a few days.
It is strange that for a bird which has so long been one of the chief
pets in Europe, so little is known of its habits in a wild state,
and at the present time not a single authentic egg of this species,
taken in its native haunts, is known to exist. Occasionally it lays in
confinement a white egg, like other Picarian birds, but it is probably
from the care with which the species selects its breeding-place
that it has been so difficult to find their nest and eggs. The only
naturalist who appears to have discovered the latter appears to be the
celebrated natural history artist, Mr. Keulemans, who spent nearly
two years in West Africa, and has written the best account of the
Grey Parrot in a state of nature,[242] as observed by him on Ilha
do Principe, or Prince’s Island, in the Bight of Biafra. Here it is
very common, and breeds in the month of December in the very thickest
forests. Only one pair breed in each tree, laying five eggs in a hole
thereof, but a large number nest in close proximity to each other,
many hundreds breeding in the same area, according to the above-named
author. Both parents take a share in the rearing of the young birds,
sitting by turns, the one who is thus relieved bringing food to its
mate and feeding it out of its crop, which method is also adopted in
the care of the young birds. The food of the Grey Parrot is stated to
consist of palm-nuts, the arocat (_Laurus persea_), the banana (_Musa
paradisea_), goyare, mango, and many other fruits of a smaller size;
but it always gives the preference to palm-nuts. On Prince’s Island,
writes Mr. Keulemans, there is “a very lofty mountain, reaching some
1,200 feet above the level of the sea, and called by the natives ‘Pico
de Papagaio,’ or Peak of the Parrots. On the slope of this mountain,
and extending far up its side, is a magnificent forest. The trees are
of great size and height, and their trunks and branches give support
to the lianas and other climbing plants, which hang about them in
luxurious folds. The density of the forest is so great that it is only
with the greatest difficulty and toil that the explorer can force his
way through it; while to the Parrots who come up there every night it
presents no obstacle, but gives them, under the shelter of its thick
foliage, a secure and pleasant resting-place.”
Another observer in West Africa, Dr. Reichenow, found the Grey Parrot
breeding in West Africa in the low-lands along the streams and groves
of mangrove, and the great difficulty of traversing these swamps is,
according to him, the reason why their breeding habits are not better
known. They are very destructive to the crops of Indian corn, which
they visit in large flocks, wasting as much as they consume. They
proceed to roost in flocks, selecting the same route each night; and
Governor Ussher says that, whilst up the river Addo, near Lagos, he
has seen them crossing at sunset from their feeding-grounds to their
roosting-places, when they presented the appearance of one continuous
flock passing at a great distance overhead, their screams and
chattering being heard long after darkness has set in. They are said
by some travellers to be very good eating, but by others to be only
good for soup.
[Illustration: GREAT MACAWS.]
The Grey Parrot in his native haunts is an unsociable bird, and a
curious story is told by Dr. Dohrn, and confirmed by Mr. Keulemans,
respecting the species in Prince’s Island. As has already been stated,
the Parrots are extremely common there, but not a single Kite is met
with on the island. On the neighbouring island of St. Thomas there
is an abundance of Black Kites but not a single Parrot, between whom
and the Kites a constant warfare is waged, so that, should one of the
latter get driven over to Prince’s Island he is almost immediately set
upon by the Parrots and slaughtered; and the compliment is returned if
a Parrot is so unfortunate as to land uninvited on St. Thomas’s. On
the coast the chief enemy of the Parrots is the Vulturine Sea-Eagle
(_Gypohierax angolensis_).
[Illustration: GREY PARROT.]
The colouring of the Grey Parrot is simple, being of a clear
bluish-grey, with a red tail. About the face the skin is white, and
covered with a soft, velvety feathering, amongst which there is a
plentiful supply of white powder, as any one knows who scratches the
head of “Polly.” This powder is present in most of the family, but not
to the same degree as in the grey species. The young bird in the nest
is stated to have the tail dark-grey instead of red, and it is more of
a brownish-grey colour, not so clear as in the old bird, while the iris
is grey instead of yellow.
The CONURES (_Conurinæ_) are the third sub-family of Parrots,
and are represented largely in America, only one genus, _Palæornis_,
being found in India and Africa. They have the head devoid of a crest,
with a very long graduated tail, and short and weak tarsi. Amongst the
best-known species of this sub-family may be mentioned the Great Macaw.
THE ROSE-RINGED PARRAKEET (_Palæornis torquatus_).
[Illustration: ROSE-RINGED PARRAKEET.]
This Parrot is probably the species of which we have the earliest known
record, as Onesicritus, who was admiral of the fleet of Alexander
the Great, is said to have brought from Ceylon a specimen of a green
Parrot with a red neck. Many authors have supposed that the large
Alexandrine Parrakeet (_Palæornis eupatrius_, or _Alexandri_) was the
species referred to, but the habitat of this bird is now known to be
the island of Java, and the Rose-ringed Parrakeet is more probably the
bird intended. Professor Sundevall, the great authority on Aristotle,
believes that the present bird was the only Parrot known to the
ancients, being brought into Europe probably from Nubia. Other species
were not seen in Europe before the end of the Middle Ages, and the
West African species, such as the Senegal Parrot (_P. senegalus_), in
1455, and the Grey Parrot even later; the latter not being described
before Aldrovandus, about the year 1600. American species were brought
already in 1493 by Christopher Columbus, and many Indian species after
the circumnavigation of Africa about the year 1500. The present bird is
common in India and Ceylon, and is, moreover, one of the few species
of birds which are common to the Indian Peninsula and the continent of
Africa, as it is a well-known bird in Nubia and Abyssinia, and on one
occasion a flock has been seen in the neighbourhood of Port Elizabeth
in the extreme south of the continent. According to Dr. Jerdon, it
is one of the most common and familiar birds in India, frequenting
cultivated ground and gardens, even in the barest and least wooded
parts of the country, and it is habitually found about towns and
villages, constantly perching on the house-top. It is very destructive
to most kinds of grain, as well as to fruit-gardens. Burgess says
that they carry off the ears of corn to trees to devour at leisure,
and Jerdon has observed the same sometimes. When the grains are cut
and housed it feeds on the ground in the stubble cornfields, also in
meadows, picking up what seeds it can; and now and then takes long
flights, hunting for any tree that may be in fruit, skimming close and
examining every tree; and when it has made a discovery of one in fruit,
circling round, and sailing with outspread and down-pointing wings
till it alights on the tree. It associates in flocks of various size,
sometimes in vast numbers, and generally many hundreds roost together
in some garden or grove. At Saugor all the Parrakeets, Mynahs, Crows,
Bee-eaters, &c., of the neighbourhood, for some miles around, roost
in company in a large grove of bamboos; and the deafening noise heard
there from before sunset till dark, and from the first dawn of day
till long after sunrise, gives to the listener the idea of numberless
noisy steam machines at work. Many of the flocks of Parrots are very
late in returning, and fly along quite low, skimming the ground, and
just rising over a tree, house, or any obstacle in the way, and, for
several nights in succession, several Parrakeets flew against the wall
of a house, on the top of a hill in Saugor, and were killed. The
Rose-ringed Parrakeet breeds both in holes in trees, and very commonly
in the south of India about houses, in holes in old buildings, pagodas,
tombs, &c. It lays four white eggs. Its breeding season is from January
to March. Adams states that he has seen this Parrakeet pillage the
nests of the Sand Martin; but with what intent he does not guess at.
Its ordinary flight is rapid, with repeated strokes of the wings,
somewhat wavy laterally, or arrowy. It has a harsh cry, which it always
repeats when in flight, as well as at other times. Mr. Philipps remarks
that the Kite will sometimes swoop down on them when perched on a tree,
and carry one off in its talons; also that Owls attack these birds by
night.[243]
The length of this species is about sixteen inches and a half. It is
green with a black band extending from under the chin backwards nearly
to the nape, and having a rose-coloured collar round the hind neck. The
bill is cherry-red, the feet greyish, and the iris pale yellow. The
female does not possess the rose-coloured collar, but has instead a
narrower one of emerald green.
THE CAROLINA CONURE (_Conurus carolinensis_).
The Conures are inhabitants of the New World, and are very abundant
in South America, but one species, the Carolina Conure, penetrating
into the Nearctic region above the line of North Mexico. It is a very
handsome bird, but is rapidly decreasing in numbers, and becoming
restricted in its range, so much so, that in places where it was once
plentiful it is now no longer to be found at all. Even in 1842, when
Audubon wrote, they were then fast diminishing, and are now confined
to the Southern and South-western States, as far west as the Missouri
river. The food of the Carolina Conure is stated to consist chiefly
of the seeds of the Cockle-burr (_Xanthirum strumarium_), but it is
also very partial to fruit of all kinds, and it is owing to the way in
which it has been shot down that it is now so rare, for Mr. Audubon
describes the immense damage done by a flock of Conures to stacks of
grain, which they covered in such numbers that they presented to the
eye the same effect as if a brilliant-coloured carpet had been thrown
over them. The farmers resented the attacks on their property to such
an extent that the same naturalist states that he has seen hundreds
killed in the course of a few hours, the survivors, after each shot,
flying round for a few minutes, and then settling again in a place of
most imminent danger. Even in confinement the birds seem to develop
their destructive propensities, destroying wood, books, and, in short,
everything that comes in their way, while from their incapability of
talk, and their harsh, disagreeable voices, they are not much esteemed
as pets. As Audubon observes, the woods are the habitation best fitted
for them, and there the richness of their plumage, their beautiful
mode of flight, and even their screams, afford welcome intimation that
the darkest forests and most sequestered swamps are not destitute
of charms. According to the same observer, they deposit their eggs,
without making a nest, in the bottoms of such cavities in trees as
those to which they usually retire at night. Many females deposit their
eggs together, and he believed that the number laid by each hen bird
was two; the eggs were greenish-white, and nearly round, and the young
are at first covered with soft down, such as is seen in nestling Owls.
The colour of this Parrot is green, the head and neck bright-yellow,
and the forehead and region of the eye scarlet; the bill is white, the
feet pale flesh-colour, and the iris hazel; the length of the bird
being about fourteen inches. The female is like the male, but the young
bird has the head green instead of yellow.
THE PARRAKEETS (_Platycercinæ_).
These form the fourth sub-family, and are remarkable for their slender,
smooth tarsus, which is formed as in most birds; and the voice is
more agreeable than in the other genera, the members of which, almost
without exception, have a harsh and unpleasant cry. They are mostly
inhabitants of Australia, whence come several of them well known as
cage-birds, such as the King Parrakeet (_Platycercus scapulatus_), the
Rosella, or Rose Parrakeet (_P. eximius_), and in America they are
represented by the single genus _Bolborhynchus_.
[Illustration: ROSELLA.]
THE OWL PARROT (_Strigops_[244] _habroptilus_[245]).
The genus _Strigops_ is the sole representative of the fifth
sub-family, the _Strigopinæ_. It is one of the most remarkable of all
the Parrots, and is met with only in New Zealand. The face shows a disc
exactly as in the Owls, whence the name, and the wing is very short,
convex, and rounded. In its habits this bird is chiefly nocturnal, but
not entirely so; the most remarkable fact connected with it being,
perhaps, its unwillingness to fly. Thus Dr. Buller, F.R.S., in his
excellent work on the “Birds of New Zealand,” writes:--“All who have
studied the bird in its natural state agree on this point, that the
wings, although sufficiently large and strong, are perfectly useless
for purposes of flight, and that the bird merely spreads them to
break the force of its fall in descending from a higher point to a
lower, when suddenly surprised; in some instances even this use of
them is neglected, the bird falling to the ground like a stone. We
are naturally led to ask how it is that a bird possessing large and
well-formed wings should be found utterly incapable of flight. On
removing the skin from the body it is seen that the muscles by means
of which the movements of these anterior limbs are regulated are very
well developed, but are largely overlaid with fat. The bird is known to
be a ground-feeder, with a voracious appetite, and to subsist chiefly
on vegetable mosses, which, possessing but little nutriment, require
to be eaten in large quantities; and Dr. Haast informs us that he has
sometimes seen them with their crops so distended and heavy, that the
birds were scarcely able to move. These mosses cover the ground and the
roots or trunks of prostrate trees, requiring to be sought for on foot;
and the bird’s habit of feeding at night, in a country where there are
no indigenous predatory quadrupeds, would render flight a superfluous
exertion, and a faculty of no especial advantage in the struggle for
existence. Thus it may be reasonably inferred that _disuse_, under the
usual operations of the laws of nature, has occasioned this disability
of wing; for there is no physiological reason why the Kakapo should not
be as good a flier as any other Parrot.”
[Illustration: OWL PARROT. (_After Keulemans_)]
The Kakapo, as it is called in New Zealand, meaning a “Night Parrot,”
is becoming rarer every year, as the places which it affects become
more and more accessible to the colonists. From the long accounts
of its habits given in Dr. Buller’s work, the following note of Dr.
Haast is selected, as it gives a good idea of the habits of this
singular species:--“So little is known of this solitary inhabitant
of our primæval forests, that the following short narrative of
observations, which I was fortunate enough to make during my recent
West Coast journey, may interest you. Although I was travelling almost
continuously for several years in the interior of these islands, it was
only during my last journey that I was enabled to study its natural
history. I was well acquainted with its call, and had often observed
its tracks in the sands of the river-beds and in the fresh-fallen snow,
but I had not actually seen it. The principal reason for this was, that
formerly I had no dog with me; and consequently it would only be by the
greatest accident that this bird, not at all rare in those untrodden
regions, could be obtained. The true habitat of the Kakapo is the mossy
_Fagus_ forest, near mountain streams, with occasional grassy plots;
but it also lives both on the hill-sides, amongst enormous blocks of
rock, mostly overgrown with roots of trees and a deep covering of moss,
and on wooded flats along the banks of the larger rivers, liable to be
inundated by heavy rainfalls or by the sudden melting of the snow....
It is a striking fact, that--with the exception only of the valley of
the river Makarora, forming Lake Wanaka--I never found the Kakapo on
the eastern side of the Alps, although extensive _Fagus_ forests exist
there also. It appears to have crossed the main chain at the low wooded
pass which leads from the source of the Haast to that of the Makarora,
and reached the mouth of this river at Lake Wanaka, where probably
the absence of forest put a stop to its farther advance. It is very
abundant in the valley of the last-mentioned river, and is found even
in the Makarora bush, notwithstanding that numerous sawyers are at work
there. When camped on the borders of that forest we continually heard
its call near our tents; but none of the sawyers had any idea of the
existence of such a large bird in their neighbourhood, although the
irregular shrill call had sometimes attracted their attention. It also
occurs in the valley of the Wilkin, but is less numerous there, which
may be accounted for by the existence of wild dogs in this locality. We
may therefore safely assume that from the junction of this river with
the Makarora the Kakapo ascended toward the sources of the former. In
the valley of the Hunter, only divided by a mountain-range of great
altitude but with some low saddles, no sign of it was to be observed,
although large _Fagus_ forests would appear to offer a propitious
abode. This bird has hitherto been pronounced to be of true nocturnal
habits; but I think, from observations I was able to make, that this
opinion ought to be somewhat modified. It is true that generally an
hour after sunset, the dense foliage of the forest giving additional
darkness to the country, its call began to be heard all around us.
It then commenced to rove about, and, attracted by the glare of our
camp-fire, frequently came close to our tent, when the heedless bird
was immediately caught by our dog. But as we met with it on two
occasions in the daytime, occupied in feeding, and as I observed that
it knew and understood perfectly well the danger which approached, we
may assume that it has, at least in this respect, some relation to
diurnal birds. In order to show why I come to this conclusion, I will
particularise the two occurrences I have mentioned, as they appear
to bear directly upon some other important points in the structure
of this bird. When returning from the West Coast, we observed in the
afternoon (the sky being clouded) a Kakapo sitting on the prostrate
trunk of a tree in the open forest. When about ten yards from it, the
bird observed us, and disappeared instantly in its hole, whence, with
the aid of the dog, we afterwards took it. It is clear that in this
case the bird was not overtaken by the coming day when far from its
abode, but that it left its retreat voluntarily during daylight. The
second instance I shall mention is more striking, and shows that the
Kakapo feeds also during the day. It was towards evening, but still
broad daylight, when we passed along the hill-side near a deep rocky
gorge, and saw a large Kakapo sitting on a low fuchsia-tree, about ten
feet from the ground, feeding on the berries. When close to it, the
bird saw us, and instantly dropped down as if shot, and disappeared
amongst the huge fragments of rocks strewed along the hill-side. But
the most remarkable circumstance was, that the frightened bird did not
open its wings to break its fall, but dropped as if it did not possess
any wings at all. In order to see whether they would fly, or even
flutter, when pursued by an enemy, I placed on the ground a full-grown
specimen, which had been caught by the dog without being hurt. It was
on a large shingle-bed, so that the bird had ample room for running
or rising on the wing, if for this purpose it wanted space. I was not
a little astonished to observe that it only started running towards
the nearest point of the forest, where a dark shadow was apparent, and
it went quicker than I had anticipated, considering the position of
its toes and its clumsy figure, its gait resembling closely that of
a Gallinaceous bird in its movements. As I was standing sideways to
it, I thought that it kept its wings closed upon its body, so little
were they opened; but my companion, who was equally anxious to see
how our prisoner would try to escape, and who stood a little behind
it, observed that it opened its wings slightly, but without flapping
them in any degree, using them apparently more for keeping its balance
than for accelerating its movements. This would almost lead to the
conclusion that the Kakapo does not travel far, especially as I have
already shown that its whole structure is ill adapted for running.
But having myself frequently followed its tracks, and found them to
extend a great distance over the sandy reaches along the river, such
a conclusion as that suggested above would be erroneous. It must be
exceedingly fond of water, because in many localities its tracks were
observed for half a mile over shingle and sand to the banks of the
river; and I am unable to explain the curious fact, unless the object
be to mix river water with the enormous mass of pulpy vegetable matter
which is to be found in its crop. With the exception of two specimens,
the crops of which were filled with the large berries of a small-leaved
_Coriaria_, by which their flesh was flavoured, all the birds examined
by me had their crops widely distended by a mass of finely-comminuted
vegetable mosses, weighing many ounces.
“I carefully examined the subterranean abode of this bird. From the
account given by the natives, I thought that it would be found living
in well-excavated holes, resembling in their construction those of
the Fox or Badger; that the entrance would be so small as to enable
only the inhabitants to enter, and thus to exclude larger animals from
persecuting it. This, however, is not the case; because, with one
exception, all the specimens obtained were either in fissures amongst
rocks, or in cavities formed by huge blocks tumbled one over another,
and overgrown with moss, or in holes formed by the roots of decayed
trees. The cavities in the rocks were generally sufficiently large
to allow of my dog, a good-sized Retriever, freely entering them.
The openings to the other holes were smaller, and it was sometimes
necessary to cut away a few roots at the entrance. Inside, the cavity
was invariably of very large size, because we could plainly hear the
dog advancing several yards before commencing his scuffle with the
occupant; and on returning with the bird in his mouth, he always
emerged head foremost, thus proving that the chamber was large enough
to enable him to turn himself round. Before he had become accustomed to
the work, the dog was often punished severely by the bird’s powerful
beak and claws; but he ultimately became quite an expert, always
seizing his prey by the head and crushing the skull.
“The holes or abodes of the Kakapo were not only on the mountain sides,
but also on the flats near the river banks which are liable to be
overflowed. There can be no doubt that when a sudden inundation takes
place the bird can save itself upon a bush or neighbouring tree. I do
not think, however, that it can climb the boles of standing trees,
because it never resorted to them during the night or when persecuted
by the dog--except in one single case, when the bird ascended a leaning
tree close to our camp, and remained till the dog had given up the
attempt to obtain it. But, notwithstanding that almost all the abodes
that came under examination were natural cavities, I met with one hole
that seemed to have been regularly mined. On the northern bank of the
river Haast, just below the junction of the river Clarke, a large
flat occurs, formed by deposits of sand, over which a thin layer of
vegetable mould is spread, and on which a luxuriant vegetation has
sprung up. The river, in washing against these deposits, has in some
cases formed nearly perpendicular banks, about six to eight feet high.
At one spot, about two feet below the surface, several rounded holes
were observed, and the dog tried in vain to enter them. After carefully
scenting the ground, he began to scratch the surface with his paws, and
soon succeeded in widening the entrance sufficiently to admit his body,
and he immediately afterwards emerged with the bird in his mouth. There
is no doubt in my own mind that this hole at least had been excavated;
and the burrowing faculty of the bird may be considered so far
established. On a flat in the valley of the Makarora, the dog brought
one from the interior of a hollow drift-tree, which was lying amongst
sedges and grasses in an old river channel. There never was more than
one individual in the hole, although very often, within twenty or
thirty yards of it, another specimen would be scented out by the dog,
the two being generally of opposite sexes. At night-time, in visiting
our camp fire, they generally came in pairs, the two being successively
caught by my dog, a single or sometimes a repeated angry growl from
the bird informing us that he had hold of it. These circumstances lead
me to conclude that during the day each inhabits separately its own
hole, and that only after dark do they meet for feeding and for social
intercourse.”
In size, the Owl Parrot is about twenty-six inches in length, and is of
a dark sap-green colour, varied and mottled with dark brown and yellow;
the face is lighter, being darker brown, the ear-coverts mixed with
yellow; the belly and under tail-coverts, as well as the wing-lining,
are rather brighter yellow than the rest of the under surface. The tint
of green varies a good deal: from light yellowish to dark sap-green.
THE STRAIGHT-BILLED PARROTS (_Psittaci orthognathi_).[246]
In this second section of the Parrots only one family is known, all the
members of which are easily recognisable by their straightened bills,
the lower mandible being gently compressed, and not bulged out, with a
nearly straight tip, the cutting edges with scarcely any indentation.
With the exception of the Lorikeets (_Loriculus_), members of which
are found in India and the Indo-Malayan region, the whole family is
Australian, being confined to that continent and the adjacent Molucca
Islands, New Zealand, and the islands of Polynesia.
[Illustration: LORIKEET.]
THE BRUSH-TONGUED PARROTS.[247]
The Brush-tongued Lorikeets are all birds of very beautiful colouring,
and are mostly found in Australia, the Moluccas, some few species
extending through the Oceanic Islands. All seem to be very similar
in their habits, an account of which is given by Mr. Gould. He
says:--“This arboreal group of honey-eating Lorikeets, if not so
numerous in species as the seed-feeding Parrakeets, is individually as
abundant, and more universally dispersed, being found in every part
of Australia yet visited. In their structure, habits, food, and mode
of nidification, no two groups of the same family can be more widely
different than these forms: the pencilled tongue, the diminutive
stomach, thick skin, tough flesh, and fœtid odour of the _Trichoglossi_
presenting a decided contrast to the simple tongue, capacious crop
and stomach, thin skin, delicate flesh, and freedom from odour of the
_Platycerci_; besides which, the _Trichoglossi_ possess a strong _os
furcatorium_, which bone is wanting in the _Platycerci_. Hence, while
the _Trichoglossi_ are powerful, swift, and arrow-like in their flight,
the _Platycerci_ are feeble, pass through the air in a succession of
undulations near the ground, and never fly to any great distance.
The mode in which the two groups approach, alight upon, and quit the
trees is also remarkably different--the _Trichoglossi_ dashing among
and alighting upon the branches simultaneously and with the utmost
rapidity, and quitting them in like manner, leaving the deafening
sound of their thousand voices echoing through the woods; while the
_Platycerci_ rise to the branch after their undulating flight, and
leave them again in a quiet manner, no sound being heard but their
inward piping note. The eggs of the _Trichoglossi_ are from two to four
in number; those of the others are more numerous.”
THE NESTORS (_Nestor_).
These Parrots, which are only found in New Zealand, are generally
placed with the other Brush-tongued Parrots. “In all Parrots the fleshy
tongue ends anteriorly in a dilated portion, supported by a narrower
neck. This tip is much like the end of a human finger, as mentioned by
most observers; and its function is similar also, for it is employed
by the bird as a third prehensile organ in connection with the upper
and lower beak, any solid substance being held by the tongue and upper
beak, while the mandible is freed to give another bite. Continuing the
simile of the finger, the tip is directed forwards with the nail-like
portion downwards, the part corresponding to the free edge of the nail
appearing along the lower margin of the anterior rounded surface.[248]
In the _Trichoglossi_, this ‘nail,’ or horny plate, is stated to be
present; but on the superior surface of the tongue, between the lateral
edges of the unguis, or nail, there is an arrangement of retroverted
papillæ, forming a spinous covering, and their mechanism is such that
when the tongue is protruded beyond the mouth to grasp any object,
the papillæ stand upright, or are even directed somewhat forward. In
Nestor,” continues Professor Garrod, “there are no papillæ of this
description; but the tongue is here, as Dr. Buller says, ‘soft, rounded
on the edges, with a broad central groove,’ and it is as smooth as in
other Parrots. Therefore, the Kaka Parrot cannot in this point be said
to approach the _Trichoglossini_ (badly so called). The peculiarity of
the tongue of _Nestor_ consists in the fact that the interior edge of
the unguis, or nail, always free (though for a very short distance)
and jagged in the other birds of the class, is here prolonged forwards
beyond the tips of the tongue for about one-tenth of an inch, as a
delicate fringe of hairs with a crescentic contour. In the living bird
the mouth is moist, as in the Lories, and not, as in the Cockatoos and
others, dry and scaly.”
[Illustration: TONGUE OF NESTOR.
(_After Garrod._)]
The members of the genus _Nestor_ are entirely confined to New Zealand,
the species of Philip Island (_Nestor productus_) being now extinct.
Their habits, like those of all New Zealand birds, are sufficiently
curious, one of them, known as the “Kea” (_N. notabilis_), actually
feeding on raw flesh, as is noticed by Dr. Buller:--“Those that
frequent the sheep stations appear to live almost exclusively on
flesh. They claim the sheep’s heads that are thrown out from the
slaughter-shed, and pick them perfectly clean, leaving nothing but
the bones.” An eye-witness described this operation to Dr. Hector as
follows:--“Perching itself on the sheep’s head or other offal, the bird
proceeds to tear off the skin and flesh, devouring it piecemeal, after
the manner of a Hawk; or at other times holding the object down with
one foot, and with the other grasping the portion it was eating, after
the ordinary fashion of Parrots.” Dr. Buller also mentions instances of
tame Parrots devouring their comrades in captivity; but the Kea is the
only Parrot known to eat flesh when flying wild.
THE KAKA PARROT (_Nestor meridionalis_).
This Parrot is best described by the above-named ornithologist in the
work on the Birds of New Zealand, to which frequent reference has been
made in these pages:--“Sprightly in its actions, eminently social, and
more noisy than any other inhabitant of the woods, the Kaka holds a
prominent place among our native birds. Being semi-nocturnal in its
habits, it generally remains quiet and concealed during the heat of the
day. If, however, the sportsman should happen to find a stray one, and
to wound instead of killing it, its cries of distress will immediately
rouse the whole fraternity from their slumbers, and all the Kakas
within hearing will come to the rescue, and make the forest echo with
their discordant screams. Unless, however, disturbed by some exciting
cause of this sort, they remain in close cover till the approach of
the cooler hours. Then they come forth with noisy clamour, and may be
seen, far above the tree-tops, winging their way to some favourite
feeding-place; or they may be observed climbing up the rough vine-clad
boles of the trees, freely using their powerful mandibles, and assuming
every variety of attitude, or diligently tearing open the dead roots of
the close epiphytic vegetation in their eager search for insects and
their larvæ. In the spring and summer, when the woods are full of wild
blossom and berry, these birds have a prodigality of food, and may be
seen alternately filling their crops with a variety of juicy berries,
or sucking nectar from the crimson flowers of the rata (_Metrosideros
robusta_) by means of their brush-fringed tongues. With the earliest
streaks of dawn, and while the underwoods are still wrapped in
darkness, the wild cry of this bird breaks upon the ear with a strange
effect. It is the sound that wakes the weary traveller encamped in the
bush; and the announcement of his ever active Maori attendant--‘Kua
tangi te Kaka’--is an intimation that it is time to be active. But
although habitually recluse during the day, it is not always so.
[Illustration: KAKA PARROT.]
“During gloomy weather it is often very active; and sometimes even in
the bright sunshine a score of them may be seen together, flying and
circling about high above the tree-tops, uttering their loud screams,
and apparently bent on convivial amusement. When the shades of evening
bring a deeper gloom into the depths of the forest, and all sounds are
hushed, save the low hoot of the waking Morepork, or the occasional
_cheep-cheep_ of the startled Robin, the Kaka becomes more animated.
It may then be heard calling to its fellows in a harsh rasping note,
something like the syllables ‘_t-chrut, t-chrut_,’ or indulging in a
clear musical whistle with a short refrain. It is strictly arboreal
in its habits, and subsists to a large extent on insects and their
larvæ, so that it is probably one of our most useful species. Where
they exist in large numbers they must act very beneficially on the
timber forests; for in the domain of Nature important results are often
produced by apparently trivial agencies. Like all the honey-eaters,
while supplying their own wants, they do good service with their
brush tongues by fertilising the blossoms of various trees, and thus
assisting in their propagation; while, on the other hand, the diligent
search they prosecute for insects and grubs, and the countless numbers
daily consumed by each individual, must materially affect the economy
of the native woods. On this latter point Mr. Potts has furnished
the following valuable note:--‘Although so often accused of injuring
trees by stripping down the bark, from careful observation we do
not believe a flourishing tree is ever damaged by its beak. It is
the apparently vigorous, but really unsound, tree that is attacked,
already doomed by the presence of countless multitudes of insects of
many varieties, of which it is at once the food and refuge, either
in their perfect or larval state. In the persevering and laborious
pursuit of this favourite food, the Kaka doubtless lends his assistance
in hastening the fall of decaying trees; the loosened strips of bark
dissevered admit to the exposed wood rain and moisture collected from
dews and mists, to be dried by evaporation by the heat of the sun,
by the desiccating winds, only to become saturated again. Under this
alternation the insidious fungi take root, decay rapidly sets in, the
close-grained timber gives place to a soft spongy texture, branches
drop off, and gradually the once noble-looking tree succumbs to its
fate; but its gradual decay and fall, the work of years, has proved
beneficial to the surrounding plants: the dropping of the branches
admits light and air to the aspiring saplings, assists in checking the
undue spread of lichens and epiphytes; and when the old stem falls,
tottering down from its very rottenness, its place is supplied by
vigorous successors.’
“In estimating the value of the labours of the Kaka as an insect-eater,
it should not be forgotten that the family of Woodpeckers is entirely
absent from our bird-fauna, and that upon this indefatigable climber
devolves some share of the duty of representing that peculiar group of
forest birds. How diligently the insects are sought for by the Kaka may
be judged from the heaps of bark chips that lie beneath the decaying
trees. Often it may be noticed on the ground tearing away the mossy
clothing of the huge gnarled roots that spread around; even the soft
rotten boughs are gnawed to obtain the larvæ of some of the larger bush
insects.”
The Nestors vary immensely in colour, so that many of the plumages
now known to be only occasional varieties have been supposed to be
specifically distinct. They are birds of large size, and have the cere,
or fleshy portion at the base of the bill, rather strongly developed,
the bill being large and powerful. The colour is of an olivaceous
brown, with a dash of dark red, the crown grey, and the ear-coverts
shaded with orange, the cheeks with dark red, as also are the lower
back, rump, and upper tail-coverts and abdomen.
The structure of the bill of the Parrots is so remarkable as to be
worthy of a more extended description than could be given to it when it
was incidentally referred to in our account of the osteology of birds
in general. The way, however, in which the upper and lower jaws are
connected with the skull was there explained, and a reference to the
description on pp. 241-2 will save the necessity of much repetition
now. That account embraced all members of the class of birds; here we
are dealing only with certain peculiar modifications.
If the skull of an adult bird of any familiar type, such as a Crow,
be examined, it will be seen that the bones of the upper jaw are
apparently continuous, and form one piece, with those of the forehead
and sides of the head. There is nothing that looks like a joint, or
“articulation,” between the bill where it is attached to the forehead
above, or to the long jugal arch (“quadrato-jugal”) that runs each
side to reach the quadrate bone, or to the flattened bones that help
to form the palate below. But if the skull of this same bird had been
carefully examined in an earlier stage of its existence, it would
have been found that the bones were at first distinctly separate at
the three points here indicated, and were merely connected by a soft
membranous substance. In many birds this “inter-osseous” membrane
connecting the bones of the upper mandible with the skull proper never
becomes true bone at all, but remains throughout life more or less soft
and flexible. And by this means a sort of elastic joint is established,
conferring upon the beak a certain range of up and down motion.
Now in Parrots, more conspicuously than in any other birds, each
of these joints, not alone that of the beak with the forehead, is
converted into a true hinge-like articulation, so that the upper
jaw can be raised to a very considerable extent; and to effect this
motion the muscles of the palate are developed into a somewhat complex
apparatus.
If the figure be examined, the actual relations of the bones can be
readily made out. At _a_ is seen the line where the bill is articulated
to the frontal bones. At _b_ is the joint which the bill makes with the
long jugal bone (_j_). And at _c_ is its articulation with the palatine
bone (_pl_).
[Illustration: SKULL OF THE GREY PARROT.]
But it is not this mobility of the upper mandible alone that gives
the characteristic aspect to the Parrot’s face. There are several
other points in which Parrots agree, with a wonderful uniformity,
among themselves, and differ from most other birds. Besides the
absence of certain important processes, called “basi-pterygoid,”
the ploughshare-like bone, or “vomer,” is altogether wanting. The
maxillo-palatines are very largely developed and spongy; they unite
with one another in the middle line, and with the thick wall of bone
into which the _septum nasi_ is in Parrots strongly ossified, and thus
fill up almost the whole base of the beak. The long palatine bones
proper are remarkably flattened from side to side for most of their
length; their hinder edges are more or less notched, and quite free
from any bony attachment; and they are united at about the hinder third
of their length by a plate-like extension from each. The scoop-like
lower mandible, with its tip that seems to have been cut off “square,”
to be out of the way of the strongly-hooked upper jaw, is too familiar
to call for any particular description.
THE SECOND ORDER.--PICARIAN BIRDS. SUB-ORDER I.--ZYGODACTYLÆ.