DIVISION I.--THE CARINATE BIRDS (CARINATÆ).
THE ACCIPITRINE ORDER--BIRDS OF PREY.
VULTURES AND CARACARAS.
The Birds of Prey--Distinctive Characters--The Cere--How the
Birds of Prey are Divided--Difference between a Hawk, an Owl,
and an Osprey--The three Sub-orders of the Accipitres--Sub-order
FALCONES--Difference between the Vultures of the Old World and the
Vultures of the New World--THE OLD WORLD VULTURES--Controversy as
to how the Vultures reach their Prey--Waterton on the Faculty of
Scent--Mr. Andersson’s, Dr. Kirk’s, and Canon Tristram’s Views
in Favour of Sight--THE BLACK VULTURE--THE GRIFFON VULTURE--Its
Capacity for Feeding while on the Wing--THE EARED VULTURE--One of the
Largest of the Birds of Prey--Whence it gets its Name--THE EGYPTIAN
VULTURE--A Foul Feeder--THE NEW WORLD VULTURES--THE CONDOR--Its
Appearance--Power of Flight--Habits--THE KING VULTURE--THE TURKEY
VULTURE--THE CARACARAS--Distinctive Characters--Habits--THE SECRETARY
BIRD--How it attacks Snakes--Habits--Appearance--THE ÇARIAMA.
The first order of birds to be considered is the birds of prey
(_Accipitres_). They are all remarkable for strong and sharply-hooked
bills, and most of them have sharp and powerful talons. In the Eagles
and Falcons these characters are developed in the highest degree,
although many modifications of their structure take place in the
order--the Vultures, for instance, and other carrion-feeding birds,
not having such a hooked bill as the true Falcons and Eagles, while
their feet are larger and more adapted for holding their prey than for
striking it down in full career, as the Falcons do. In most of the
birds of prey the female is larger than the male, and is much the more
powerful bird. This fact is always recognised in falconry, especially
in the short-winged Hawks, such as Sparrow-Hawks or Goshawks, whose
females are always preferred, as possessing the greater power for
holding ground game, such as Rabbits, Hares, &c. The difference in
size is not very noticeable in the Vultures, but is unmistakable in
the long-legged Sparrow-Hawks, Eagles, and Falcons. The form of the
breast-bone, which plays such an important part in the classification
of other birds, is a character of less value in the birds of prey,
as it varies to a great extent even in those species which, by their
habits and general structure, are most closely allied. Another
character possessed by these birds is the distinct _cere_, which is
present in all, though much hidden by bristles in the Owls: it is a
waxy covering to the base of the bill, often hard, but generally fleshy
in substance.
Birds of prey are of three kinds: Hawks, Ospreys, and Owls. Under the
first name is included every rapacious bird which is not an Osprey or
an Owl, and, therefore, the first thing to find out is--how to tell
an Owl from a Hawk. At one time it was supposed that all Owls came
out by night and all Hawks by day, and so they were separated into
two great divisions, which were called diurnal birds of prey[143] and
nocturnal birds of prey.[144] Now, however, that the habits of birds
are getting better observed, these divisions have to be abandoned as
not being entirely true, for there are Owls which are quite at home
in the daylight, when they hunt for their food like any other bird of
prey, and at least one kind of Hawk is known, whose habit it is to feed
on Bats in the evening. This is Andersson’s Pern,[145] a kind of Kite,
allied to the Honey-kite of England. It is found only in the Damara
Country, in South-western Africa, and in Madagascar. A far better way
to distinguish Hawks from Owls is seen in the foot, as the latter have
the outer toe reversible--that is to say, they can turn their outer
toe backwards or forwards as they please. This is easily observed in
the living birds; and any one examining a caged Owl in the Zoological
Gardens will see that it sits with its toes in pairs--two in front
and two behind. A Hawk cannot do this, all his toes being arranged as
in a little perching bird, such as a Sparrow or a Canary, three in
front and one behind. Then, again, Owls have no “after-shaft” to the
feathers, a structure which most Hawks possess. The “after-shaft” is
the small accessory plume, which springs from the under-side of the
main feather. In some birds it is very large, in others small. It
occurs on the body feathers only, and is never found in the quills
or tail feathers (see p. 238). Lastly, in addition to the reversible
outer toe, and the absence of an accessory plume or after-shaft, Owls
may be distinguished from all other birds of prey, save one, by the
proportions of their leg-bones. In the skeleton figured on p. 241 the
three principal leg-bones are pointed out; and it is the length which
the tarsus bears in proportion to the tibia that is here insisted on.
In the Owls the tarsus is only about half the length of the tibia; this
is never the case in a Hawk, in which these two bones bear different
proportions the one to the other, according to the sub-family. Thus in
Sparrow-Hawks and Harriers[146] the tibia and the tarsus are equal in
length. In Eagles and Buzzards, Kites and true Falcons, the tibia is
always much longer than the tarsus, but is never double its length, as
it is in the Owls. The term “Hawk,” which has been employed throughout
the foregoing sentences, is intended to apply to every bird of prey
excepting the Owls, with the sole exception of the Osprey. The habits
of the Osprey are noticed later on, but they may be briefly stated to
be similar to those of a Sea-Eagle, its prey consisting entirely of
fish, while its plumage and general appearance are also those of an
Eagle, so that in many places it is popularly known as the “Fish Hawk,”
or “Fishing Eagle;” but here the resemblance of the Osprey to the Eagle
ends, and in its other characters it is very like an Owl. The tibia is
more than double the length of the tarsus, as in the Owls; the feathers
of the body have no after-shaft, as in the Owls, and the outer toe is
reversible, as in the Owls. Possessing, therefore, as it does, some of
the most prominent features of the Eagles, as well as some of the most
striking peculiarities of the Owls, the Osprey holds an intermediate
position between these two sub-orders of birds.
[Illustration: HEAD AND BILL OF SEA EAGLE. (_After Keulemans._) (_a_)
bony eye-shelf; (_b_) cere.]
The birds of prey, then, may be separated into three sub-orders:--
(_a_). Outer toe _not_ reversible; tibia varying in length in
proportion to the tarsus, sometimes equal to it, but never double
the length of the latter; body feathers _with_ an after-shaft or
accessory plume. (American Vultures excepted.)
I. Hawks (_Falcones_).[147]
(_b_). Outer toe _reversible_; tibia double the length of tarsus;
body feathers _without_ an after-shaft or accessory plume; plumage
compact, as in an Eagle; no facial disk.
II. Ospreys (_Pandiones_).[148]
(_c_). Outer toe _reversible_; tibia double the length of tarsus;
body feathers _without_ an after-shaft; plumage soft and fluffy; a
facial disk.
III. Striges;[149] Owls.
The Falcones, or Hawks, include in their number more kinds of rapacious
birds than the other two sub-orders. All the Vultures, the Caracaras,
the Harriers, the Sparrow-Hawks, the Buzzards, Eagles, Kites, and
Falcons, together numbering some four hundred different species, are
classified as _Falcones_. Only one species of Osprey is known, which is
found nearly all over the world; and about two hundred different kinds
of Owls remain to represent the STRIGES.
ORDER ACCIPITRES.--SUB-ORDER FALCONES.
The first sub-order is divided into two families, the first to be
noticed being the Vultures (_Vulturidæ_), which is again sub-divided
into two sections, the Vultures of the Old World (_Vulturinæ_) and the
Vultures of the New World (_Sarcorhamphinæ_).
THE FIRST SUB-FAMILY OF THE VULTURIDÆ.--THE OLD WORLD VULTURES
(_Vulturinæ_).
These Vultures are neither to be recommended for their habits nor
for their personal appearance. In fact, in both these respects they
are rather repulsive birds, but useful withal in hot climates,
where they act as scavengers, and clear away much putrid matter and
decaying substances, which but for their intervention would prove most
offensive. They are all inhabitants of tropical, or at least of warm,
countries; and it is only on rare occasions that they wander into the
North of Europe or occur in the British Islands. Both the Old and the
New Worlds have their Vultures, but the naturalist has no difficulty
in telling at a glance to which hemisphere the bird he is looking at
belongs, for all the Vultures of the New World have _a hole through
their nose_--or, in other words, want the wall of bone which divides
one nostril from the other; in the Vultures of the Old World this bony
wall is present so that the nostrils resemble those of other ordinary
birds.
[Illustration: BILL OF EGYPTIAN VULTURE, TO SHOW FORM OF NOSTRIL.
(_After Keulemans._)]
Besides their perforated nostril, the American Vultures differ from
the Old World species in having no after-shaft to the feathers,
therein resembling the Owls. This character has led some naturalists
to consider the New World Vultures as constituting a separate family,
which bears the name of _Cathartidæ_; but although the absence of
an after-shaft is a striking feature, yet the habits of the birds
so closely resemble those of their Old World cousins, that it seems
unnatural to separate them widely in any scheme of classification. The
head of a Vulture, whatever locality he may be from, proclaims the
nature of the bird at once, as it is always bare of feathers, or nearly
so: sometimes a few scattered tufts of down are seen on the head and
neck, but never any true feathers, as in the case of the other birds of
prey. The Vultures feed on the ground, where they walk with comparative
ease, their large feet being fitted for progression on the earth, and
their toes not being prehensile or capable of bending to the same
extent as in the other Hawks. This formation of the foot prevents them
from striking down or snatching their prey, as an Eagle or a Hawk would
do; and they do not carry food to their young, but devour the carcase
or carrion where it falls, and then feed the nestlings by throwing up
food from their crop. They are all birds of powerful flight, and are
capable of sustaining a prolonged soar in the air without any apparent
motion of the wings.
[Illustration: BILL OF TURKEY VULTURE, TO SHOW THE PERFORATED NOSTRIL.]
As to the way in which Vultures discover their prey, the opinion of
naturalists has for a long time been divided, and controversy has waxed
hot upon the subject, the question being whether the Vulture possesses
a more than usually keen sense of sight, or whether his sense of smell
is so powerful as to enable him to scent a decaying carcase at a
greater distance than other birds can do. The experiments of various
travellers seem to prove that both the senses of sight and smell are
possessed by the Vulture in no ordinary degree; but the balance of
evidence seems to prove that it is by their keen sight that they
generally find their food. Supposing that an animal is wounded, and
escapes from the hunter, his course is marked by a Vulture soaring
high in the air; another circling far away on the horizon sees the
first bird fly down, and follows in his track; and so on, until a large
company is feeding on the carcase. This action of the Vultures is well
described by Longfellow:--
“Never stoops the soaring Vulture
On his quarry in the desert,
On the sick or wounded Bison,
But another Vulture, watching
From his high aërial look-out,
Sees the downward plunge, and follows;
And a third pursues the second,
Coming from the invisible ether,
First a speck, and then a Vulture,
Till the air is dark with pinions.”[150]
The power of the Vulture’s sight was long disputed by the former
generation of naturalists, and the celebrated Waterton wrote an article
on the “Faculty of Scent in the Vulture,”[151] to prove that it was
more by this means than by sight that the bird was able to discover a
carcase. Waterton was well acquainted with Vultures in Demarara and in
Southern Spain, and he sums up his argument as follows:--“After the
repeated observations I have made in the country where it abounds, I
am quite satisfied that it is directed to its food by means of its
olfactory nerves coming in contact with putrid effluvium, which rises
from corrupted substances through the heavier air. Those are deceived
who imagine that this effluvium would always be driven to one quarter
in the tropics, where the trade-winds prevail. Often, at the very time
that the clouds are driving from the north-east up above, there is a
lower current of air coming from the quarter directly opposite. This
takes place most frequently during the night-time, in or near the
woods; and it often occurs early in the morning, from sunrise till near
ten o’clock, when the regular trade-wind begins to blow. Sometimes it
is noticed in the evening, after sunset; and now and then during the
best part of the day in the rainy season.... Vultures, as far as I have
been able to observe, do not keep together in a large flock when they
are soaring up and down in quest of a tainted current. Now, suppose a
Mule has just expired behind a high wall, under the dense foliage of
evergreen tropical trees; fifty Vultures, we will say, roost in a tree
a mile from this dead Mule. When morning comes, off they go in quest
of food. Ten fly, by mere chance, to the wood where the Mule lies, and
manage to spy it through the trees; the rest go quite in a different
direction. How are the last-mentioned birds to find the Mule? Every
minute carries them farther from it. Now reverse the statement; and
instead of a Mule nearly dead, let us suppose a Mule in an offensive
state of decomposition. I would stake my life upon it that not only
the fifty Vultures would be at the carcase next morning, but also
that every Vulture in the adjacent forest would manage to get there
in time to partake of the repast.” It will be seen from the above
that Mr. Waterton allowed the keen sight of the Vultures to play, on
some occasions, a part in their discovering food. Another observation
on this subject is contained in the late Mr. C. J. Andersson’s work
on the ornithology of South-western Africa. Writing on the Sociable
Vulture (_Otogyps auricularis_), he says:--“I believe naturalists are
not quite agreed as to whether Vultures hunt by sight, by scent, or by
both faculties combined. I have myself no doubt that they employ the
one sense as well as the other in finding their prey, though I feel
inclined to give sight the preference; and I once had a very striking
proof of how they employ their vision in guiding them to carrion--in
this instance, however, not so much by the actual sight of the carrion
(though the first discovery probably originated in that way) as by
another singular contrivance. Early one morning, as I was toiling up
the ascent of a somewhat elevated ridge of hills, with the view of
obtaining bearings for my travelling map, and before arriving at the
summit, I observed several Vultures descending near me: but thinking I
had merely disturbed them from their lofty perch, I did not take any
particular notice of their appearance, as the event was one of usual
occurrence; but on gaining my destination, I found that the birds were
not coming merely from the hill summit, but from an indefinite distance
on the other side. This circumstance, coupled with the fact that I had
wounded a Zebra on the preceding day in the direction towards which the
Vultures were winging their way, caused me to pay more attention. The
flight of the Vultures was low--at least five hundred to a thousand
feet below the summit of the mountain; and on arriving near the base,
they would abruptly rise without deviating from their direct course;
and no sooner was the obstacle in their way thus surmounted than they
again depressed their flight. Those Vultures which I saw could not have
themselves seen the carrion, but simply hunted in direct sight of one
another. There was a numerous arrival; and although I could not always
detect the next bird as soon as I had lost sight of the previous one,
yet, when at length it did come into view, it never seemed uncertain
about its course. Having finished my observations, I descended,
and proceeded in the direction which the Vultures had pursued; and
after about half an hour’s rapid walking, I found, as I anticipated,
the carcase of a Zebra, with a numerous company of Vultures busily
discussing it.”[152]
Dr. Kirk, the companion of Livingstone, in his paper on the “Birds of
the Zambesi Region of Eastern Tropical Africa,”[153] says that to the
inexperienced hunter the Griffon is “a great annoyance. If game be
left for an hour in the open plain while the men come to carry it off,
the birds will descend, and in a very short time completely devour
it. This is not so if it be covered over with a little grass or with
branches, clearly proving that sight alone is the sense by which the
birds discover their prey. If part of the animal be exposed it matters
not--probably owing to its being mistaken for one asleep; nor does the
presence of blood seem to guide the birds if the carcase be concealed
from view.”
Lastly, to quote from Canon Tristram’s interesting essay on the
“Ornithology of the Sahara:”[154] “As, happily for the traveller,
Camels do not die every day under the weight of their water-skins, the
Griffon does not habitually visit the desert. Still, he occasionally
gives it a passing call, though, if his meal be deposited near an
oasis, he is usually forestalled by the Hyæna (‘Dubba,’ Arab.), who
lurks in the ‘weds.’ On one occasion a Camel in our caravan having
become footsore had to be slaughtered on the spot. Our attendants
selected the tenderest morsels for ‘kouskous,’ the Arab broth; and
it was not until the next morning that a Vulture scented, or rather
descried, his prey. That the Vulture uses the organ of sight rather
than that of smell, seems to be certain from the immense height at
which he soars and gyrates in the air. In this instance one solitary
bird descended, and half an hour afterwards was joined by a second.
A short time elapsed, and the Nubian Vulture (_Otogyps nubicus_)
appeared, self-invited, at the feast; and before the bones were left
to the Hyæna no less than nine Griffons and two Nubians had broken
their fast. I should hesitate to assert that they had satisfied their
appetites. I have observed the same regular succession of diners out on
other occasions. May we not conjecture that the process is as follows?
The Griffon who first descries his quarry descends from his elevation
at once; another, sweeping the horizon at a still greater distance,
observes his neighbour’s movements and follows his course; a third,
still farther removed, follows the flight of the second; he is traced
by another; and so a perpetual succession is kept up as long as a
morsel of flesh remains over which to consort. I can conceive no other
way of accounting for the numbers of Vultures which in the course of a
few hours will gather over a carcase, when previously the horizon might
have been scanned in vain for more than one, or at the most two, in
sight. Does not this explain the immense number of Vultures who were
congregated in the Crimea during the siege of Sebastopol, where the
bird was comparatively scarce before? May not this habit of watching
the movements of their neighbours have collected the whole race from
the Caucasus and Asia Minor to enjoy so unwonted an abundance? The
Arabs believe that the Vultures from all North Africa were gathered to
feed on Russian Horses in the Crimea, and declare that during the war
very few ‘Nissr’ were to be seen in their accustomed haunts.”
The above extracts from authentic works have been made at some length,
as exhibiting the general habits of the Vultures. It remains now to
notice some of the most striking forms of these birds.
THE BLACK VULTURE[155]
This is an inhabitant of Southern Europe, whence it extends on both
sides of the Mediterranean to North-western India, where it is a cold
weather visitant, and even to China. In its habits this bird is rather
unsociable, and keeps more to the wooded districts, seldom venturing
into the open country, except when attracted by the presence of some
carcase, on which it feasts in company with the Griffon Vulture. It
breeds on trees, constructing a large bulky nest, and only selects a
rock for its breeding home when there are no trees to be found in the
neighbourhood. It lays one egg, of a richly mottled red colour, two
eggs being an extremely rare occurrence. In appearance they are very
like those of the Golden Eagle. A story is told of the rescue by a pair
of old birds of their young ones, which were in danger from the felling
of the tree on which the nest was situated. It is thus related by Count
von Tshusi Schmidthofen:--“The royal forester, A. Fikker, found in
1860, on the top of a giant beech in the valley of Dobrabach, in the
Sinnaer district, the nest of this Vulture. When the young birds were
large enough to be able to save themselves as the tree fell, orders
were given to cut the beech down. The wood-cutters had worked at the
tree some time, when the old birds appeared, uttering loud cries, and
suddenly pounced on the nest, caught hold of the young ones in their
claws and disappeared like lightning, carrying off the young (who
loudly complained of the unusual mode of locomotion) before the gaze of
the astonished spectators.”
[Illustration: GRIFFON VULTURE.]
The Black Vulture measures three feet and a half in length, and is
entirely black, the bare places on the head and neck being of a livid
flesh colour when the bird is alive.
THE GRIFFON VULTURE.[156]
The Griffon, or Fulvous Vulture (so called from its colour), is found
all over Southern Europe, and occurs occasionally at different points
in Central Europe, having once been taken in the British islands off
Cork Harbour; it therefore figures in the list of British birds. It
ranges all over North-eastern Africa, and extends eastwards into
Turkestan, Central Asia, and North-western India. As it goes eastwards
the Griffon becomes a more rufous bird, and is by some naturalists
considered to be a different species. In the British Museum is a very
interesting specimen of this Vulture, collected by Major Denham in
Bornou during his travels across Africa, being one of the comparatively
few birds that have been brought from Central Africa, about the
ornithology of which we do not even yet know much. Like other
Vultures, the Griffon feeds on carrion, but is also stated to frequent
the sea-shore in search of Crustacea and dead fish; while the South
African Griffon is said to feed on Locusts and small Tortoises, the
latter of which it swallows whole.[157]
This bird’s capacity for feeding is illustrated in a most amusing
anecdote of Canon Tristram’s:--“For some months we possessed two
Griffons taken from the nest, who at length arrived safely in England.
They never attempted to leave us, differing in this respect from our
Lämmergeiers, but remained contentedly about the tents or perched
on the backs of the baggage-camels _en route_. They took a peculiar
interest in taxidermy, scrutinising, head on one side, the whole
operation of bird-skinning, and perfectly aware of the moment when
a morsel would be ready, exhibiting a more than ordinary excitement
when they saw the skin drawn back over the head, and knew that the
whole carcase would soon be cut off for them. One of these birds was
of a desponding, querulous disposition, the other of a very different
natural temperament, always contented and cheerful, a universal
favourite in the camp, while his fellow received, I fear, many a sly
kick for his complaints. They were able to fast for days; but, whenever
such an opportunity as a Camel’s carcase presented itself, would be
revenged on their Lent. I have seen our pet, ‘Musha Pasha,’ attack the
entrails of a Camel, and, as his crop became distended, sink upon his
breast, unable to stand, till at length, even this position being too
much for him, he lay on his side, still eating, until, overpowered and
helpless, he fell asleep. This enormous capacity for food, combined
with the power of long abstinence, is a wonderful provision of creative
wisdom for carrion-feeders, whose supply is so uncertain, while the
necessity for the immediate removal of offensive matter is so urgent.
The strength of the Vulture’s stomach is equal to its capacity, for on
one occasion one of our Griffons devoured a half pound pot of arsenical
soap, with no further inconvenience than a violent fit of vomiting.”
The Griffon nests on rocks, sometimes several building in company in
the same neighbourhood. Its flight is majestic, and Mr. Salvin says
that it is a fine sight to watch the ease with which the Griffon sails
through the air; the apparently effortless extension of the wing
seems amply sufficient to sustain its huge body; no flapping motion
is necessary to enable it to mount to a great height. It is only on
leaving a rock that a few strokes are requisite to attain the necessary
impulse, after which, with primaries bent upwards by the force of the
air, it performs its stately evolutions by soaring only. In alighting,
the bird drops its legs some distance from the rock, and, sailing
to within a few yards, it checks its velocity by two or three heavy
strokes of the wing.
Among the ancient Egyptians the Griffon appears to have been a sacred
bird, and its remains have been found embalmed. It is also figured on
their monuments, sometimes in its natural form, sometimes with the head
of a Snake. In size the European Griffon stands about three feet and a
half high, and is of a general ashy fulvous colour, with black quills
and tail; the under surface is creamy-brown, with a darker brown mark
on the crop; the head and neck are bare, or with loosely scattered
tufts of white down; and round the neck there is a white ruff.
Besides the Griffon Vulture of Europe there are four others, which
seem to be distinct species, the Himalayan Griffon, the South African
Griffon, Rüppell’s Griffon from Abyssinia, and the Long-billed Griffon
from India. In addition to these there are the two White-backed Griffon
Vultures, which have only fourteen tail-feathers, and belong to the
genus _Pseudogyps_.
THE EARED VULTURE (_Otogyps[158] auricularis_[159]).
This is one of the largest species of the birds of prey found in the
Old World, being exceeded in size only by the Great Condor of the
Andes. It is an inhabitant of Africa, being plentifully spread over the
southern portion of the Continent, and also occurring in North-Eastern
Africa, whence it ranges in small numbers to Lower Nubia and the
Sahara, and has even been said to occur accidentally in Europe. It has
received the name of Eared Vulture on account of the folds of skin on
the sides of the neck, which are found only in one other species, the
Indian Vulture (_O. calvus_). These two kinds of Eared Vultures appear
to play the part of the King Vulture of South America, the smaller
Vultures, such as the _Neophrons_, always giving place to them, and
allowing them to finish their feast before venturing to approach.
[Illustration: EGYPTIAN VULTURE.]
The Egyptian Vulture (_Neophron[160] percnopterus_[161]) is also
familiarly known as Pharaoh’s Chicken. It is a small bird about two
feet and a half in length, white in plumage, with black wings. A great
part of the face is bare and of a yellow colour. The young birds
are brown. In Europe the Egyptian Vulture is a migratory bird, but
it breeds in many localities in the Mediterranean region, and has
even occurred once or twice on the shores of the British islands. In
winter it takes itself to the Cape of Good Hope. It is much valued in
certain places as a scavenger, as it devours excrementary matter, but
Mr. Gurney states that its food also consists of carrion of various
descriptions, and in default of such food it occasionally preys upon
rats, field mice, small lizards, snakes, insects, and even earthworms.
Colonel Irby observes that it is probably the foulest-feeding bird that
lives, and that it is very omnivorous, devouring any animal substance,
even all sorts of excrement; nothing comes amiss to it, and he has
sometimes seen them feeding on the sea-shore on dead fish thrown up
by the tide. The same gentleman[162] says that on their migrations
they pass Gibraltar, which is one of their lines of passage, about the
end of February, and they breed in the neighbourhood of that place,
beginning to lay about the 1st of April. The nest is composed of a few
dead sticks, always lined with wool, rags, or rubbish; and Colonel
Irby states that he found about a pound of tow in one nest, and the
sleeve of an old coat; while another observer says that on a foundation
of branches Pharaoh’s Hen heaps rags, patches, old slippers, and whole
basketfuls of camels’ hair and wool for the comfort of its offspring.
The Egyptians frequently represented this species on their monuments,
but do not appear to have attached any particular significance to it.
[Illustration: CONDOR.]
In India the place of the present species is taken by the Indian
Scavenger Vulture (_Neophron ginginianus_), and in Africa the Pileated
Vulture (_N. pileatus_), an entirely brown bird, occurs nearly all over
the continent.
THE SECOND SUB-FAMILY OF THE VULTURIDÆ.--THE AMERICAN VULTURES
(_Sarcorhamphinæ_).
THE CONDOR (_Sarcorhamphus[163] gryphus_[164]).
As before mentioned, all the American Vultures can be readily
distinguished by the perforation of their nostrils. The Condor is a
very unmistakable species, being the largest of all the Vultures,
and the male has a large comb on the head which is not developed in
the female. The hind toe also is extremely small, scarcely touching
the earth, and on this account the foot is less prehensile than in
any other Vulture. The home of this magnificent bird is the chain of
the Andes in South America, and the neighbouring countries to the
west, and it is found inhabiting these mountains from Ecuador and
Colombia, down to the Strait of Magellan, and again extending on the
east coast as far as the mouth of the Rio Negro in Patagonia. It bears
confinement well, examples being generally to be seen living in the
Zoological Gardens; and some idea of the extent of wing in the Condor
can occasionally be obtained when the birds are sunning themselves on
their perch. The expanse in large individuals is said to reach as much
as eight or nine feet. All observers agree that when seen in a wild
state the flight of the Condor is truly majestic, and it is capable of
ascending to an immense height, at which a man could not breathe on
account of the rarefaction of the air, a state of things which does
not seem to affect the Condor, who is often lost to sight amidst the
clouds. The most exaggerated stories of the strength and prowess of
this Vulture were circulated by the old authors, and it was even said
to attack full-grown oxen. The careful observations, however, of recent
travellers, have dispelled many of the fabulous stories respecting it,
and it is now a well ascertained fact that the Condor does not attack
full-grown animals of any size, but will devour newly-born and helpless
offspring, and several of them will unite to kill the mother should she
appear in a weak and sickly condition. The supposed habit, attributed
to these birds, of carrying off prey in their feet, is disproved by
the weakness of the last-named organs, and their utter incapacity for
grasping anything: in fact the feet play a very insignificant part in
the bird’s economy, the powerful bill being the chief factor in tearing
a carcase to pieces. The Condor measures about three feet and a half
in length, the closed wing being about twenty-nine inches. The general
colour of the bird is black, the secondary quills and most of the
wing-coverts being externally grey. Round the neck is a ruff of soft
white down. The bare parts of the head and neck are not remarkable for
any bright colour, but are blackish with traces of livid flesh colour
here and there. That the Condor lays sometimes in confinement is shown
by a specimen in the British Museum, which was hatched by a common
hen, who sat on the egg for six weeks and two days. The nestlings are
usually covered with white down.
THE KING VULTURE (_Cathartes[165] papa_[166]).
This is by far the handsomest of the whole family, its head and neck
being covered with caruncles, which in life are orange, purple, and
crimson in colour; the general plumage of the bird, too, is a delicate
fawn or cream colour. It is an inhabitant of Central and Southern
America, from Mexico southwards to Brazil, where it is found a little
below the twentieth degree of south latitude. It appears to be rather
a cleaner feeder than the Condor or other American Vultures, and
frequents wooded countries instead of those rocky places in which the
Condor delights. It is rarer than the last-named bird, and from its
forest-loving habits is less easily observed, and it is altogether
a more active and lively species. It is shy and suspicious, and is
most difficult to obtain, from its habit of sitting on the tops of
trees, whence it scans with ease the country around. On this account
it is seldom shot, and D’Orbigny, from whose works much of the above
information is derived, says that it is only captured by attracting
it to a carcase, and then shooting it from an ambush. Another mode of
capture, which he says is followed by the natives of Santa Cruz de
la Sierra,[167] is by finding out the tree on which the King Vulture
roosts, and to which it returns night after night, and then to climb
up and capture the bird with gloved hands. The same observer says that
it is not from any innate respect, but from fear of its powerful bill,
that the Turkey Vultures pay such deference to this present bird, not
venturing to commence their repast until he is satisfied, whereby he is
popularly known as the “King” of the Vultures.
THE TURKEY VULTURE (_Rhinogryphus[168] aura_).
This is an inhabitant of North America, whence it ranges throughout
Central America and the West Indian Islands down the Andean chain to
the Strait of Magellan. Their habits vary somewhat with locality, for
whereas in the Southern United States they act as scavengers in the
towns, in Guatemala and other places in Central America they are not
seen in flocks, but occur in pairs only in the forests. As in the case
of the other Vultures, their food consists of carrion, and they are
found in large numbers in deserts, where they obtain an ample supply of
food in the animals which perish. The Turkey Vulture is about two feet
and a half in length. The plumage is black with a purplish gloss, and
in life the bare head and neck are of a bright red colour, which soon
fades after death.
[Illustration: BRAZILIAN CARACARA.]
FAMILY FALCONIDÆ.--THE FALCON-LIKE HAWKS.
THE FIRST SUB-FAMILY.--THE CARACARAS (_Polyborinæ_).
All the members of this sub-family are more or less Vulturine in their
habits and appearance, and many of them are carrion feeders. The name
“Caracara” with which these birds are here designated is of Brazilian
origin, and all the species included under the present heading are
inhabitants of Central and Southern America, with the exception of the
Secretary Bird of Africa. They all seem to be at home on the ground,
and they differ from all other birds of prey in having a membrane which
joins the base of the two outer toes to the middle one, a feature
which is doubtless useful to the birds when wallowing in the marshy
ground, which many of them frequent in quest of frogs, &c. The Southern
Caracaras (_Ibycter australis_) are said to run with extreme quickness,
putting out one leg before the other, and stretching forward their
bodies very much like Pheasants. Mr. Darwin, who became acquainted
with these birds during his voyage in the _Beagle_, says that their
flesh is good to eat, and he gives a very interesting account of
the habits of the Southern Caracara in the Falkland Islands, where
they were extraordinarily tame and very mischievous, frequenting the
neighbourhood of the houses to pick up all kinds of offal. If a beast
were killed they congregated from all quarters like so many Vultures,
and they did not hesitate to attack and capture wounded birds, on one
occasion pouncing on a Dog which was lying asleep. They would also
carry off miscellaneous articles which were lying on the ground. “A
large black glazed hat was carried nearly a mile, as were a pair of
heavy balls, used in catching wild cattle. Mr. Usborne experienced
during the survey a severe loss in a small Kater’s compass, in a
red morocco case, which was never recovered.” According also to Mr.
Darwin, these birds were quarrelsome and extremely passionate, and it
was curious to behold them, when impatient, tearing up the grass with
their bills, from rage. It may be owing to their strong feelings, as
described by the last-named naturalist, that the colour of the face
changes in the Brazilian Caracara, concerning which a somewhat amusing
incident may be related. There arrived from Patagonia at the Zoological
Gardens two Caracaras, which were white instead of brown, like the
Brazilian species (_Polyborus tharus_), and the question which troubled
naturalists was, whether these Patagonian birds were a distinct
species, or whether they were simply a white variety of the ordinary
Brazilian bird. The latter had the bare skin of the face lemon-yellow,
whereas the white birds had this part purple, and this was looked
upon as one sign of their belonging to a distinct species. But one
memorable day an ornithologist went up to describe the new arrivals,
and to bestow on them a name, which should mark the character of the
purple face. No doubt existed in his mind, for the white birds had now
lived for a whole year in the Gardens, and were still white and had a
purple visage, but, happening to turn his head away for one moment,
he was not a little surprised, on looking back at his supposed new
species, to find that the facial character had disappeared, and that
the bird’s visage was now yellow. At the same moment the face of one
of the Brazilian birds in the adjoining den had turned red, and hence
it became clear that the Caracaras can change the colour of the bare
face at will, and that the lighter-coloured specimen was only an albino
after all! Besides the Caracaras, at least one other species of bird of
prey changes colour in a somewhat similar way--the Bateleur Eagle,[169]
which, if irritated, flushes up to the roots of its feathers, and
its bare face, which is usually scarlet, becomes a deep blood-red or
crimson. In the case of the latter bird the change of colour is visible
not only in the visage but in the feet also, which likewise acquire a
darker red than before.
THE SECRETARY BIRD (_Serpentarius[170] secretarius_[171]).
This is the only African representative of the Caracaras, or web-footed
birds of prey, and from its general look and from its habits, no less
than from some peculiar anatomical characters, it is by many good
authorities considered to be a game bird, and not a Hawk at all. No
one, however, who has seen a Secretary kill a Rat, and the prodigious
force with which, by repeated blows of his powerful legs, sometimes
springing into the air and bringing both feet down at the same moment
upon his victim, he quickly reduces it to a shapeless pulp, would
consider him anything but a bird of prey. Standing before a Cobra which
rises to attack him, the Secretary spreads his wings out in front as
a shield to guard his body, and then from behind this protection he
strikes his enemy down. On account of their prowess in destroying
venomous Serpents, they are protected with care by both the European
and Native Governments in South Africa, and in the Cape Colony a
penalty is inflicted upon any one who ventures to kill one of these
useful birds. Sometimes the Secretary does not win in the fight with
the Snake, for a good observer has stated that on one occasion he saw
a bird suddenly leave off fighting and run to a pool of water, where
he fell down dead. If the Snake bites a feather, the bird immediately
pulls it out, but in the above instance the reptile had drawn blood
from the point of the pinion. It is somewhat remarkable that the
Secretary should have such striking power in his legs, as they are
long and slender for the size of the bird, and are so brittle that it
is said that, if suddenly started into a quick run, their legs will
snap. The Secretary Bird is a most voracious feeder, devouring Rats,
Lizards, Locusts, Snakes, Tortoises, &c., and Levaillant states that
he took from the stomach of one of these birds three Serpents as long
as his arm and an inch in thickness, eleven Lizards of seven or eight
inches in length, and twenty-one small Tortoises of about two inches
in diameter, besides a large quantity of Grasshoppers or Locusts, and
other insects.
[Illustration: SECRETARY BIRD.]
A spirited and truthful account of the habits of the Secretary was
published in 1856 by the late M. Jules Verreaux, who spent upwards of
fifteen years in South Africa engaged in a study of the natural history
of that part of the world, and a few extracts from this paper cannot be
resisted.[172] “As Nature exhibits foresight in all that she does, she
has given to each animal its means of preservation. Thus the Secretary
Bird has been modelled on a plan appropriate to its mode of life; and
it is therefore for this purpose that, owing to the length of its legs
and tarsi, its piercing eye is able to discover at a long distance the
prey which, in anticipation of its appearance, is stretched on the
sand or amongst the thick grass. The elegant and majestic form of the
bird becomes now even more graceful; it now brings into action all its
cunning in order to surprise the Snake which it is going to attack;
therefore it approaches with the greatest caution. The elevation of the
feathers of the neck and back of the head shows when the moment for
attack has arrived. It throws itself with such force on the reptile
that very often the latter does not survive the first blow. But if
the bird does not succeed, and the enraged Snake draws itself up and
expands, at the same time, the skin of its neck, as is the way with the
more dangerous Serpents, the bird is forced to retreat, and takes a
spring backwards, waiting to seize a favourable moment for recommencing
the attack. Raising itself, the furious reptile moves its tongue
with the quickness of lightning, and gives forth the most vehement
hisses, which keep back the enemy and seem to force some respect from
it: but the bird, whose courage redoubles in the same ratio that the
difficulties increase, opens out its wings, and, returning to the
charge, assails the reptile afresh with blows from its terrible feet,
such as no one would believe, and which are not long in putting the
Snake _hors de combat_. We have, however, sometimes seen the Snakes
launch themselves on the Secretary, but, either by opening its wings,
whose long primaries serve it as a kind of shield, or by jumping
backwards or on one side, the bird is certain to parry the attack of
its antagonist, who at last, overcome by fatigue, falls at full length
on the ground. The moment is seized by the Secretary to redouble its
massive blows, which, by dislocating the vertebral column, soon cause
the reptile to give up the ghost. It is then that the victorious Hawk
darts like an arrow, and placing its foot on the Serpent’s neck, just
at the back of the head, commences to swallow it, which it does by
beginning at the tail first. Nor is this a long operation, even with
reptiles five or six feet in length and more than four inches in
diameter; and as soon as it arrives at the head it completely smashes
the skull by several blows of its bill before swallowing it.”
“Both sexes work at the construction of the nest, which is always
placed on the summit of a high dense bush, more often a mimosa. It is
added to each year, and it is easy to see the age of a nest by the
number of fresh layers which have been added year by year. The young
birds remain for six months before leaving the nest, their legs not
being strong enough to support the weight of the body. During the whole
of this time they are fed with great assiduity by both parents.”
The Secretary Bird stands more than four feet high, when fully grown.
The general colour of the plumage is grey, with black quills; the lower
back and rump are black, the upper tail-coverts white; the tail is
grey, tipped with white, and crossed with two black bands; below, the
colour is ashy-white, the thighs and abdomen black. From the hinder
part of the crown and occiput springs an elegant crest of plumes, which
the bird can raise or depress at will; they are either entirely black,
or grey with a black tip. It is from these long plumes that the bird
has got the name of the Secretary, from some fancied resemblance in the
bird’s head to the quills which a secretary places behind his ear.
In America, the Secretary is represented by the Çariama (_Çariama
cristata_), a bird which looks so like a game bird that, as we have
said, many ornithologists place both it and the Secretary among the
Gallinaceous birds, and not among the Hawks. From a consideration of
its anatomy, however, both Professor Parker and Professor Sundevall
determined that the Çariama is an accipitrine bird, though of a
very aberrant form. Those who differ from them admit that where the
Secretary is placed in the natural system the Çariama must also be
located, and no one who has studied the habits of the former, either
in a wild state or in captivity, can doubt for a moment that it is a
veritable bird of prey, and so it follows that the Bustard-like Çariama
must also be included in the same order.