{ 50.0% 47.1% 2.9%
Ro. { 15 11 0 0 0
{ 57.7% 42.3%
Bl. { 4 15 7 2 0
{ 14.2% 53.5% 25.1% 7.2%
By. { 4 21 8 0 1
{ 11.8% 61.8% 23.5% 2.9%
Bs. { 5 1 15 0 2
{ 21.8% 4.3% 65.2% 8.7%
Br. { 11 8 2 0 0
{ 52.3% 38.1% 9.6%
Totals { 76 90 54 2 3
{ 33.8% 40.0% 24.0% .8% 1.4%
Number of subjects, 9; number of sections, 4; number of experiments,
34; number of associations, 225.
Reversing the order by placing the concrete noun second, it gains in
influence. We are told by the subjects at this point, "The choice seems
to be determined by the concreteness of the word." (H.) "The abstract
soon exhausted itself as a word-suggester." (Ro.) There was fusion in
24% of the associations of the first group, and 22.2% in the second.
There are six cases where the second alone prevails, two for the first
starting-point and four for the second. There are eleven cases of
fusion beginning before the sixth word and continuing throughout the
series. There is much partial fusion, with the second predominating in
influence.
The results again emphasize the fact that the influence is
transferable, also that normally the second has the advantage;
furthermore, they illustrate the preponderance of the concrete word as
a starter of associations, and that the abstract term when it exerts
an influence tends to fuse rather than persist in having separate
associations; all of which shows that concrete terms produce more vivid
impressions than abstract ones, and would, when it is possible to use
them, be of direct aid to the learner.
TABLE VII. TWO WORDS: ABSTRACT--CONCRETE SPOKEN
Time--15 seconds.
Characters--same as Table I.
(1) Honesty--Tide
A. - | - - - -
M. - - - - | | | |
F. | - - - - -
H. | - - -
Ro. | | - - - -
Bl. | - - - - - -
By. - - + +
Bs. - - - - - - -
J. - + + + + + +
(1) Honesty--Tide.
(2) Skill--Coal.
(3) Terror--Sky.
(4) Refined--Flag.
| - + α β
A. { 2 7 11 0 4
{ 8.4% 29.2% 45.8% 16.6%
M. { 4 11 10 1 5
{12.9% 35.5% 32.3% 3.2% 16.1%
F. { 2 8 9 0 0
{10.5% 42.2% 47.3%
H. { 8 11 1 3 0
{39.2% 43.5% 4.1% 13.2%
Ro. {10 13 3 0 0
{38.4% 50.0% 11.6%
Bl. {15 10 0 0 0
{60.0% 40.0%
By. { 2 20 3 0 0
{ 8.0% 80.0% 12.0%
Bs. { 1 11 6 0 2
{ 5.0% 55.0% 30.0% 10.0%
J. { 6 16 6 0 0
{21.4% 57.2% 21.4%
Totals {50 107 49 4 11
{22.6% 48.4% 22.2% 1.9% 4.9%
Number of subjects, 9; number of sections, 4; number of experiments,
36; number of associations, 221.
Increasing the disparateness by making the one a proper name and the
other a pure abstract noun, we find the name dominates consciousness,
almost to the exclusion of the abstract term. The tables confirm the
conclusions that the abstract term, even when given the advantage of
position, exerts little influence, for in the first group of eighteen
experiments of two hundred and eighty-four associations there are 13.4
times as many associations for the first as for the second, or two
hundred and fifteen words for the first (75.8%) and sixteen (5.5%) for
the second.
Reversing the order, the burden of influence swings back to
thirty-eight (12.8%) for the first and one hundred and fifty-six
(52.7%) for the second with an amount of fusion increased to
ninety-nine (33.4%).
TABLE VIII. TWO WORDS: PROPER NOUN--ABSTRACT NOUN SPOKEN
Time--50 seconds.
Characters--same as Table I.
(1) Lowell--Liberty
M. | | | | α α α | | | | | |
R. | α α | | | | | | | | | | | | |
K. | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
J. | | | + + + α α α α α α α α α α α α α
S. | | | | | - | | | | | | |
Ht. - - | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
(1) Lowell--Liberty.
(2) Roosevelt--Fidelity.
(3) Eliot--Integrity.
| - + α β
M. { 29 3 2 7 0
{ 70.7% 7.4% 4.8% 17.1%
R. { 30 0 17 2 0
{ 61.2% 34.7% 4.1%
K. { 43 2 0 0 0
{ 95.5% 4.5%
J. { 42 0 8 13 0
{ 66.6% 12.7% 20.7%
S. { 40 2 0 0 0
{ 95.2% 4.8%
Ht. { 31 9 3 1 0
{ 70.4% 20.4% 6.9% 2.3%
Totals {215 16 30 23 0
{ 75.8% 5.5% 10.7% 8.0%
Number of subjects, 6; number of sections, 3; number of experiments,
18; number of associations, 284.
TABLE IX. TWO WORDS: ABSTRACT NOUN--PROPER NOUN SPOKEN
Time--50 seconds.
Characters--same as Table I.
(1) Individuality--Lincoln
M. | + | + + + + + + + + + + + +
R. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
K. - - - - - - - - - - - -
J. | - - - - - - - - - - - | | | | | | | | | |
S. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Ht. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
(1) Individuality--Lincoln.
(2) Brevity--Webster.
(3) Justice--Hanus.
| - + α β
M. { 4 19 25 0 0
{ 8.3% 39.6% 52.1%
R. { 5 31 12 0 0
{10.4% 64.5% 25.1%
K. {14 31 0 0 0
{31.2% 68.8%
J. {13 11 44 0 0
{19.1% 16.1% 64.8%
S. { 2 40 0 0 0
{ 4.8% 95.2%
Ht. { 0 24 18 0 3
{ 53.4% 40.0% 6.6%
Totals {38 156 99 0 3
{12.8% 52.7% 33.4% 1.1%
Number of subjects, 6; number of sections, 3; number of experiments,
18; number of associations, 296.
GROUP VII
Occasional experiments of the previous groups indicated an abnormal
influence of those ideas which were accentuated by the special
interests of the subjects. We ask therefore: What is the relation of
the newly aroused associations to the present content of consciousness?
May the present content of consciousness be so varied as to reënforce
or inhibit the characteristic influence of the individual impressions
successively presented? In order to test this, words or a sentence were
pronounced just previous to the presentation of the two starting-points
related to them as follows; in the first divisions the preparatory
words lead to the second, in the second divisions to the first, in the
third divisions to neither, in the fourth divisions to both, and in the
last we have a slight change in the marginal setting and a sentence
leads to the second.
The following are examples of the first and second divisions:
Quartz--Granite--Shale.
HORN--SLATE.
Dog--Sheep--Horse.
SQUIRREL--TELEGRAM.
SUBJECT XVIII
--slate slate
--slate ledge (Col.) slate
--Great Falls, Mont. quartz, granite, shale
--geology quartz, granite, shale, G. F.
--Will B. geology
--State University Will B.
--Sexton James State University
--Mrs. J. Sexton James
--C. S. J. Mrs. J.
--Indian School C. S. J.
--Fort Shaw School Indian School
--Mrs. C. Ft. Shaw School
--Mrs. E. Mrs. C.
--Seattle, Wash Mrs. F.
--Miss M. Seattle, Wash.
--Everyman Miss M.
--Cousin V. Everyman
--theatre Cousin V.
SUBJECT XII
| hunt squirrel (and dog)
| pasture sheep, horse, and hunt
| yard squirrel and pasture
| Harvard yard
| Freshman Harvard
| themes Freshman and squirrel
| hunting themes, dog, "
| George hunting
| squirrel George
| creatures squirrel
| animals creatures
| activity " animals
| agility " "
| grace " "
| cuteness " "
| pets " "
| civilisation creatures
| vs. cats "
| enemies cats
That one starting-point establishes itself more firmly, and offers
more dominant associations with an increased degree of suggestiveness
is intimated by various expressions of the subjects who state, "the
preparatory words called forth associations connected with this or that
starting-point"; or "there was a felt fusion of all"; "a summation of
all"; or "the preparatory words had an influence throughout"; "they
strengthened this or that starting-point"; "they affected one and not
the other"; and many similar expressions.
The influence of these preparatory marginal settings was also indicated
very often by the nature or kind of words in the series.
Turning to the tables which collectively represent in a graphic and
quantitative form the notes of the subject, and which are in harmony
with the above, we find they demonstrate that there is a very intimate
and definite relationship. When the state of mind immediately preceding
the moment of the formation of the associated series is conditioned by
the preparatory words leading to the second, the amount to which that
starting-point dominates consciousness in arousing associations is
greater than in any previous case where the words of like nature are
pronounced.
With the preparatory words leading to the second starting-point, we
have 11.5% of the influence for the first, 69.2% for the second; with
them leading to the first, 58.2% for first, 17.2% for second; with
them leading to neither, 40.6% for first, 44.2% for second; with them
leading to both, 16.1% for first, 54.8% for second; with a preparatory
sentence leading to second, 12.9% for first, 59.7% for second.
A few experiments were made where one word was given as a setting and
four or eight starting-points were shown, but the starting-points were
so numerous that they tended to confuse the subject's introspective
account.
TABLE X. TWO WORDS SHOWN: THREE PREPARATORY WORDS SPOKEN LEADING TO THE
SECOND
Time--50 seconds.
Characters--same as Table I.
Corn, Wheat, Oats. (1) MOB--HAY
M. + + + - + + - - - -
R. - - - | + + α + β - - - - -
K. - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
S. + + + + - - - - - - - - - - - -
J. + + + + + + β β - - - - - - -
Ht. - + + + + β β β β β β β β
(1) Corn, Wheat, Oats. MOB--HAY.
(2) Cloud, Mist, Dew. ORATION--CANOE.
(3) Turtle, Fish, Frog. KEY--NET.
(4) Quartz, Granite, Shale. HORN--SLATE.
(5) Geometry, Plane, Rectangle. CASE--CUBE.
| - + α β
{ 10 41 17 0 7
M. { 13.3% 54.7% 22.7% 9.3%
{ 15 37 21 1 4
R. { 19.3% 47.4% 26.9% 1.2% 5.2%
{ 0 55 0 0 0
K. { 100.0%
{ 8 64 4 0 0
S. { 10.5% 84.2% 5.3%
{ 17 69 6 0 2
J. { 18.1% 73.4% 6.3% 2.2%
{ 2 45 17 0 8
Ht. { 2.8% 62.5% 23.6% 11.1%
{ 52 311 65 1 21
Totals { 11.5% 69.2% 14.4% .2% 4.7%
Number of subjects, 6; number of sections, 5; number of experiments,
29; number of associations, 449.
TABLE XI. TWO WORDS SHOWN. THREE PREPARATORY WORDS SPOKEN LEADING TO
THE FIRST
Time--50 seconds.
Characters--same as Table I.
Dog, Sheep, Horse. (1) SQUIRREL--TELEGRAM
M. | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
R. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
K. | | | | | | | | | | | | |
S. | | - - - - - - - - - -
J. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Ht. | | | | | | | | | | - - - - - - - -
(1) Dog, Sheep, Horse. SQUIRREL--TELEGRAM.
(2) Pineapple, Banana, Orange. FRUIT-STAND--ELECTRIC LIGHT.
(3) Justice, Truth, Beauty. CHARITY--PHOTOGRAPH.
(4) Gold, Copper, Silver. DIME--SKULL.
M. {28 3 15 0 8
{51.8% 5.5% 27.9% 14.8%
R. {16 9 23 0 11
{27.2% 15.3% 38.9% 18.6%
K. {56 2 0 0 0
{96.5% 3.5%
S. {36 24 0 0 0
{60.0% 40.0%
J. {38 4 24 1 7
{51.4% 5.4% 32.4% 1.4% 9.4%
Ht. {37 20 0 0 0
{64.9% 35.1%
Totals {211 62 62 1 26
{58.2% 17.2% 17.2% .2% 7.2%
Number of subjects, 6; number of sections, 4; number of experiments,
24; number of associations, 362.
TABLE XII. TWO WORDS SHOWN. THREE PREPARATORY WORDS SPOKEN LEADING TO
NEITHER
Time--50 seconds.
Characters--same as Table I.
Botany, Statue, Postal. (1) CHOCOLATE--BANNER
M. | | - - - - - - - - - - - - - |
R. - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
K. | - | | | - | - | - | - |
S. | | - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
J. | | | | | | | - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Ht. - - + + + - - - - - - - - - - -
(1) Botany, Statue, Postal. CHOCOLATE--BANNER.
(2) Idea, Proposition, Syllogism. SILVER--GAME.
| - + α β
M. {3 28 0 0 0
{9.6% 90.4%
M. {22 1 2 0 14
{56.5% 2.5% 5.2% 35.8%
K. {28 5 0 0 0
{84.8% 15.2%
S. {13 20 0 0 0
{89.4% 60.6%
J. { 17 22 0 0 0
{ 43.6% 56.4%
Ht. { 0 14 8 7 0
{ 48.3% 27.6% 24.1%
Totals { 83 90 10 7 14
{ 40.6% 44.2% 4.9% 3.4% 6.9%
Number of subjects, 6; number of sections, 2; number of experiments,
12; number of associations, 204.
TABLE XIII. TWO WORDS SHOWN. THREE PREPARATORY WORDS SPOKEN LEADING TO
BOTH
Time--50 seconds.
Characters--same as Table I.
Tree, Shrub, Grass. (1) TEA--FERN
M. + + α α α α α α α - -
R. + + + + + + + + + + + +
K. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
S. - - - - - - - - - - - -
J. | - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Ht. + + α α α α α α | | | | |
(1) Tree, Shrub, Grass. TEA--FERN.
(2) Fox, Wolf, Moose. DEER--DOVE.
| - + α β
M. { 2 12 4 8 0
{ 7.6% 46.3% 15.3% 30.8%
R. { 0 0 25 0 0
{ 100.0%
K. { 1 30 0 0 0
{ 3.2% 96.8%
S. { 8 12 0 4 0
{ 33.3% 50.0% 16.7%
J. { 8 26 0 0 0
{ 23.5% 76.5%
Ht. { 8 12 2 6 0
{ 28.5% 42.8% 7.2% 21.5%
Totals { 27 92 31 18 0
{ 16.1% 54.8% 18.4% 10.7%
Number of subjects, 6; number of sections, 2; number of experiments,
12; number of associations, 168.
TABLE XIV. TWO WORDS SHOWN (AUTHORS)--WITH A PREPARATORY SENTENCE
LEADING TO THE SECOND
Time--50 seconds.
Characters--same as Table I.
"God's in His Heaven--all's right with the world."
(1) BURNS--BROWNING
M. + - - - - - - - - - | | | | | |
R. | - - - - - - - - - - -
K. + + + + + + + + + + + + +
S. | - - - - - - - - - - - - - | | |
J. | | - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Ht. - - - - - - - - - -
(1) "God's in His Heaven--all's right with the world."
BURNS--BROWNING.
(2) "All that glistens is not gold."
BYRON--SHAKSPERE.
(3) "Hitch your wagon to a star."
SPENCER--EMERSON.
| - + α β
M. { 9 15 15 0 4
{20.9% 34.8% 34.8% 9.5%
R. { 1 47 0 0 0
{ 2.1% 97.9%
K. {15 0 26 0 0
{36.5% 63.5%
S. { 6 34 0 0 0
{15.0% 85.0%
J. { 3 43 14 0 0
{ 5.1% 71.6% 23.3%
Ht. { 0 18 13 0 0
{ 58.1% 41.9%
Totals {34 157 68 0 4
{12.9% 59.7% 25.8% 1.6%
Number of subjects, 6; number of sections, 3; number of experiments,
18; number of associations, 263.
GROUP VIII
The aim here is to test the effect of interruption in the series of
associations, and to throw further light on the relation of the series
to the present content of consciousness when this content is a series
of associations and the new content is a pronounced word which is to
act as a point of departure for new associations.
There are three divisions. The time in all is fifty seconds; in the
first a word of general connotation is given and after an interim of
ten seconds a second more specific word is pronounced. In the second
three similar words are given at an interval of fifteen seconds; the
third four words with an interval of ten seconds. The following are
examples of the first and third divisions:
SUBJECT III
Commencement--Sieve
commencement
| college commencement
| cap college
| gown cap
| boys commencement
| confetti commencement
sieve
- holes sieve
- water sieve
- flour sieve
- space holes
- concept space
- Royce concept
- time concept
- eternity time
- damnation eternity
- Hamlet "Consummation," etc
- Shakspere Hamlet
SUBJECT VII
Wax--Jug--Tar--Sod
wax
| Charley wax
| picnic Charley
| horse Charley
| saddle horse
jug
- ink jug
- clay jug
- Hegel jug
tar
/ 'old tar' tar
/ ship 'old tar'
/ Bermuda 'old tar'
sod
\ grave sod
\ graveyard grave
\ house graveyard
\ church house
\ music church
\ white church
In all the experiments the subject simply knew that possibly more than
one starting-point would be given. There was of course the conscious
recognition on the part of the subjects that the pronounced words were
starting-points, which would imply an attentive consciousness, but they
were cautioned neither to favor nor inhibit the newly pronounced word
nor an association in progress.
The notes are uniform in showing that often one, two or three words
of the former association-series are written after the new word is
pronounced. "The momentum," says F., "was great enough to carry the
associations two or three words beyond the pronounced word"; while Bl.
found "a tendency for the trend of associations to persist, though
not strong enough to overcome the new influence." By.'s experience
was slightly different. As stated before, he often wrote the word as
it came into consciousness. "On hearing a new word it gets precedence
over the next associations not yet formed, and there is considerable
confusion and lost time unless the motor discharge of writing the
pronounced word is permitted to have free expression." The tables
verify the same, and also show that there are more associations during
the first interval.
Does a former starting-point regain its influence? In the first
division there are two cases where the first and second fuse, but no
place where the first independently forms an association; in the second
but one word for subject Bl. in "Quill--Bench--Chalk," and in the third
not any. There was a small amount of fusion in all, since but two words
are due to the combined influence of the first and third, five to the
combined influence of the first and fourth, with three starting-points,
and one to the combined influence of the first and third with four
starting-points.
The train of associations is inhibited by a new starting-point which
dominates in influence. No mention is made in any note that a former
starting-point remains in consciousness for the series, but M.
emphatically writes, "Absolutely no influence of the preceding word
or words when the next is taken up"; and later, "As soon as the new
one is pronounced the old word and the series it had brought up were
immediately suppressed." Bl. comments, "How remarkable it is that each
new word crowds the old trend of associations out and starts new ones";
and the graphic representation, one of which only is given here on
account of lack of space, shows that there is no return to the original
series.
The tables are indicative of the tendency. In the first division of
the group there are three possible lines of fusion, in the second six
possible lines, and in the third twelve possible lines, but we find
only 13.2% for all forms of fusion in the first, 7.9% for the second,
and 10.5% for the third. In the eighty-seven experiments of the series
there is but one absolute return to the previous starting-point. (See
Group IX, sec. 2, Bl.) The tables show the varying degrees of fusion,
and while the percentages have little meaning, as there is a variable
time-element, the numbers do show accurately the number of words and
the relative and continued influence of each starting-point.
We conclude that, when the present content of consciousness is a
series of associations, the newly given impression establishes itself
sufficiently to inhibit the associations of the previous series.
TABLE XV. TWO WORDS--GENERAL AND PARTICULAR--SPOKEN
Time--50 seconds, with an interval of 10 seconds between 1 and 2.
Characters--same as Table I.
(1) Commencement--Sieve
M. | | | - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
F. | | | | | | + + + + + + +
H. | | | | | - - - - - - - - - - - -
V. | | | | | - - - - - - - - - - - -
S. | | | | | | | | - - - -
E. | | | - - - - - - - - -
Bs.| | | - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Ht.| | - + + + + + +
By.
| - + α β
M. { 3 14 0 0 0
{17.6% 82.4%
F. { 6 7
{46.2% 0 53.8% 0 0
H. { 5 12 0 0 0
{29.4% 70.6%
V. { 5 12 0 0 0
{29.4% 70.6%
S. { 8 4 0 0 0
{66.6% 33.4%
E. { 3 9 0 0 0
{25.0% 75.0%
Bs. { 3 14 0 0 0
{17.6% 82.4%
Ht. { 2 1 6 0 0
{22.2% 11.2% 66.6%
By. 0 0 0 0 0
Totals {35 66 13 0 0
{31.4% 55.4% 13.2%
Number of subjects, 9; number of groups, 1; number of experiments, 8;
number of associations, 114.
TABLE XVI. THREE WORDS SPOKEN
Time--50 seconds. Interval, 15 seconds.
Characters: | first, - second, / third, + partial fusion between
first and second, α partial fusion between first and second with
first predominating, β partial fusion between first and second with
second predominating, γ partial fusion between first and third, δ
partial fusion between second and third, ε partial fusion between
first and third with third predominating.
(1) Gun--Bug--Jaw
M. | | | | | | | | - - - - - - / / / / / /
F. | | | | | - - - δ δ δ
H. | | | | | | - - - - / / / / /
V. | | | | | | | | - - - - - - / / / / / /
Bl. | | | | | | - - - - - / / / / / / /
By. | | | | | | | | | - - - - - - / / / / / /
Bs. | | | | | + + + + / / / / /
Ht. | | | | | | | α | | | δ - - - -
Ro. | | | | | | - - - - - - / / / / / /
(1) Gun--Bug--Jaw
(2) Quill--Bench--Chalk
(3) Hall--Moss--Leather
| - / + α β γ δ ε
M. {20 14 18 1 0 0 0 0 0
{37.8% 26.4% 33.9% 1.9%
F. {15 11 15 0 0 0 2 3 0
{32.6% 23.9% 32.6% 4.4% 6.5%
H. {19 11 15 0 0 0 0 0 0
{42.3% 24.4% 33.3%
V. {24 15 21 1 0 4 0 0 0
{36.9% 23.1% 32.3% 1.5% 6.2%
Bl. {15 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0
{45.4% 27.3% 27.3%
By. {23 8 14 3 0 4 0 3 0
{41.8% 14.5% 25.5% 5.5% 7.2% 5.5%
Bs. {13 10 10 4 0 0 0 0 5
{30.9% 23.8% 23.8% 9.6% 11.9%
Ht. {23 11 10 1 1 2 0 1 0
{46.9% 22.5% 20.5% 2.0% 2.0% 4.1% 2.0%
Ro. {15 15 24 0 0 0 0 0 0
{27.8% 27.8% 44.4%
Totals {167 104 136 10 1 10 2 7 5
{ 37.8% 23.5% 30.8% 2.3% .2% 2.3% .4% 1.5% 1.2%
Number of subjects, 9; number of sections, 3; number of experiments,
27; number of associations, 442.
TABLE XVII. FOUR WORDS SPOKEN
Time--50 seconds. Interval, 10 seconds.
Characters -- same as Table XVI, with addition of \ representing the
fourth, ς partial fusion between first and fourth, η partial fusion
between second and fourth, θ partial fusion between third and fourth,
☐ total fusion between first, second, third, and fourth, ι partial
fusion between first, third, and fourth, κ partial fusion between
second, third, and fourth, λ partial fusion between third and fourth,
with fourth predominating, [ partial fusion between first, second,
and third.
(1) Den--Nag--Cot--Fan
F. | | | | | | - - - - - - δ - - \ \ \ \ \
H. | | | | | - - - / / / / / / \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
V. | | | | | - - - / / / / \ \ \ \ \ \ \
Bl. | | | | - - - - / / / \ \ \ \
By. | | | | | | - - - - - δ δ δ \ \ \ \ \
Bs. | | | - - / / / \ \ \ \ \
Ht. | | | | | - - - - - / / / / \ \ \ \
Ro. | | | | - - - - / / / / \ \ \ \ \
(1) Den--Nag--Cot--Fan
(2) Tax--Fan--Map--Dog
(3) Paw--Wand--Box--Mug
(4) Bud--Car--Cub--Mat
(5) Wax--Jug--Tar--Sod
(6) Cur--Elk--Pug--Man
(7) Rope--Wig--Ink--Grass
(_Table on page 460_)
GROUP IX
The aim here was to see if it were possible to have the first
starting-point such that the conditions would be similar to the results
obtained by using preparatory marginal settings, but include rather
than inhibit the second starting-point. A review of the tendency toward
mental combination in the former experiments suggested that the words
be in the relation of the whole and part. The "part" was given the
position of predominating influence in order to see to just what extent
it would persist in combining.
| -- / \ + γ δ ς η θ
F. { 29 19 11 19 3 0 4 0 0 11
{ 30.3% 19.8% 11.4% 19.8% 3.1% 4.2% 11.4%
H. { 31 18 24 25 3 0 0 0 0 8
{ 28.5% 16.5% 22.1% 22.9% 2.7% 73%
V. { 28 28 21 50 0 0 0 0 0 0
{ 22.0% 22.0% 16.6% 39.4%
Bl. { 18 17 17 29 0 0 0 0 0 0
{ 21.6% 20.5% 20.5% 34.9%
By. { 36 22 9 24 2 4 3 0 6 2
{ 32.1% 19.6% 8.0% 21.4% 1.8% 3.7% 2.6% 5.3% 1.8%
Bs. { 22 13 17 18 4 1 0 1 0 6
{ 24.2% 14.3% 18.7% 19.8% 4.4% 1.1% 1.1% 6.6%
Ht. { 30 18 10 21 3 0 0 0 2 1
{ 34.4% 20.6% 11.4% 24.2% 3.4% 2.4% 1.2%
Ro. { 24 22 16 48 0 0 3 0 0 0
{ 21.3% 19.4% 14.2% 42.4% 2.7%
Totals{218 157 125 234 15 5 10 1 8 28
{ 26.6% 19.2% 15.2% 28.5% 1.9% .6% 1.3% .2% .9% 3.4%
☐ ι β κ λ [
F. 0 0 0 0 0 0
H. 0 0 0 0 0 0
V. 0 0 0 0 0 0
Bl. 0 0 0 2 0 0
2.5%
By. 4 0 0 0 0 0
Bs. 0 3 1 0 5 0
3.3% 1.1% 0 5.4% 0
Ht. 0 0 0 0 0 2
2.4%
Ro. 0 0 0 0 0 0
Totals{ 4 3 1 2 5 2
{ .4% .3% .2% .3% .7% .3%
Number of subjects, 8; number of sections, 7; number of experiments,
52; number of associations, 819.
In the light of the interpretation of previous facts and the subsequent
results of this group of experiments, we are now in a position to
conclude that, if the present content of consciousness on the reception
of a new impression is such that the reactions are not antagonistic
but reënforce each other, the second will not persist in independent
influence, but will be rather included in and supplementary to the
influence of the first, which otherwise would be less assertive. The
results below show that while the first of the two starting-points has
a decided disadvantage of position, and therefore has little influence
in arousing associations, it here is responsible for 43.2% and the
second for but 9.5%, while there is a combined influence of 47.3%, the
first strongly predominating in partial fusion. There is but one case
where the second was followed exclusively.
The explanation of this, extended to an hypothesis, would rest in
the fact that each word has definite characteristic reactions and
that the fusion of two words or lines of thought means that the motor
accompaniments are such that they unite and reënforce each other, or
that the one includes the other. There are few antagonistic impulses.
TABLE XVIII
TWO WORDS--WHOLE AND PART--SPOKEN
Time--15 seconds.
Characters--same as Table I.
(1) Crowd--Man
A. | + +
M. + + + + + + + + +
F. + + + + +
H.
J. | | | | | | + + +
S. - - - -
V. + + + α α α α α α
E. | + + +
L. | | | |
Bs. α α α α α α
Br. | | | | | + +
(1) Crowd--Man
(2) Ton--Pound
(3) Moose--Horn
(4) Engine--Whistle
(5) Book--Page
(6) Music--Octave
| - + α β
A. { 4 3 24 0 0
{ 12.9% 9.6% 77.5%
M. { 13 0 27 2 0
{ 30.9% 64.2% 4.9%
F. { 7 3 22 1 0
{ 20.6% 8.8% 64.8% 5.8%
H. { 28 5 0 0 5
{ 73.6% 13.2% 13.2%
J. { 21 1 17 6 0
{ 46.6% 2.3% 37.8% 13.3%
S. { 25 12 0 0 0
{ 67.5% 32.5%
V. { 4 2 16 10 0
{ 12.5% 6.3% 50.1% 31.1%
E. { 11 3 9 5 0
{ 39.2% 10.8% 32.2% 17.8%
L. { 14 6 4 0 0
{ 58.4% 25.0% 16.6%
Bs. { 15 2 11 6 0
{ 44.2% 5.8% 32.4% 17.6%
Br. { 25 0 9 9 0
{ 58.2% 20.9% 20.9%
Totals { 167 37 139 39 5
{ 43.2% 9.5% 35.9% 10.0% 1.4%
Number of subjects, 11; number of sections, 6; number of experiments,
62; number of associations, 387.
GROUP X
In the last group the words were called whole and part, although
the reader no doubt observed that this was not always strictly the
case, but rather that the more complex was more influential as a
word-suggester than the simple and often tended to include it. Can
this be demonstrated in another way? Attention was called in Group of
Experiments IV (two pictures shown) that picture no. 3 (a man sawing
wood), although first, had more than the normal number of associations,
the explanation of which might lie in the fact that it contained more
objects. We here attempt to test this by comparing a comparatively
complex and a comparatively simple picture as starting-points. It has
been clearly proven that the second picture to be presented has a
decided advantage of position. The simple picture is here given the
advantage of position. The notes show the first to be more important,
while there is no suggestion of the first including the second, on
account of there being less fusion than for words and more independent
associations for the second starting-point; the averages are 38.5% for
the first, 30.5% for the second, 31.0% fusion.
(a) Picture of Blacksmith shoeing horse
(b) Picture of a Sheep.
| shop (a)
| nails shop
| shoe shop and (a)
| blacksmith shop and shoe and (a)
| Longfellow blacksmith
- pasture (b)
- sheep pasture
- lambs pasture and sheep
- grass pasture and lambs
- hillsides grass
- brook pasture and hillsides
| iron shop-shoe
| hammering iron
| soldier iron-hammering and first group
| battle soldier
| shoe battle
| horse-shoe nail iron, hammering, soldier, battle
| anvil horse-shoe nail
TABLE XIX. TWO PICTURES SHOWN
Time--50 seconds.
Characters--same as Table I.
(1) (a) Blacksmith shoeing Horse
(b) A Sheep
J. | | | | | - - - - - - | | | | | | |
E. | + + - - | | |
W. | - | - - - | | | | | | |
V. | | + + + + + + + + + + + + +
L. - | | | | | | | |
Ht. - - α α | | | | - + + + + +
(1) (a) Blacksmith shoeing Horse
(b) A Sheep
(2) (a) Girl and Boy
(b) A Bird
(3) (a) Three Children
(b) A Duck
(4) (a) A Sower
(b) A Dog
| - + α β
J. { 30 23 9 18 0
{ 37.5% 28.8% 11.2% 22.5%
E. { 28 10 2 0 0
{ 70.0% 25.0% 5.0%
W. { 14 18 5 0 0
{ 37.8% 48.7% 13.5%
V. { 6 11 37 0 13
{ 8.9% 16.4% 55.3% 19.4%
L. { 27 4 1 0 0
{ 84.3% 12.5% 3.2%
Ht. { 16 30 6 6 0
{ 27.6% 51.8% 10.3% 10.3%
Totals {121 96 60 24 13
{ 38.5% 30.5% 19.2% 7.6% 4.2%
Number of subjects, 6; number of sections, 4; number of experiments,
24; number of associations, 314.
GROUP XI
Three words spoken, one immediately following the other, are given
in this group in order to test the span of consciousness and the
influence of an immediate interruption, as one was given immediately
following the other in such a way that all associations were checked
until after the third starting-point. If we attempt to follow the
initial starting-points we see they may disappear after the first few
associations and reappear in the series; or each remain as initial
starting-points for a few associations; or one alone control the whole
series, while the others are present without influence; or there may be
an alternation of independent influences; or an influence which shows
a modifying effect of one or both of the other starting-points, which
may reach such a degree that all fuse, and in so doing get an advantage
over the single words. The starting-points are to a large extent
disparate and there is very little fusion; we find only .5% total
fusion and 18.7% partial fusion.
An example would be as follows:
SUBJECT VIII
FROG--ICE--TABLE
- snow ice
| bench table
| fish frog
| pole fish
| boat fish
| line fish
| bait fish
| weeds fish
- skating ice
- sleds ice
- coasting sleds
- girls coasting
There were no cases of the total fusion of all the starting-points
throughout the series, no cases of total fusion of the first and
second, and two cases for the second and third. There were two cases of
partial fusion of the first, second, and third throughout. The first
was followed exclusively in two cases, the third in one. The first and
third were followed intermittently in four cases, the second and third
in eleven, the first, second, and third in thirty-five.
The second starting-point has the ascendency of influence. This is
not due to habits formed in earlier experiments, as the two groups
of experiments with two words were given in connection with other
experiments. This group informs us that in immediate interruption the
new impression has not sufficient power to establish itself more firmly
than a past impression which is just past, and must in a manner be
reproduced to start associations. The influence of the first has been
somewhat destroyed, but the second is greater than the third.
TABLE XX. THREE WORDS SPOKEN
Time--50 seconds.
Characters--same as Table XVI, with the addition of [ representing
total fusion between the first, second, and third, μ partial fusion
between first, second, and third with first predominating, ν partial
fusion between first, second, and third with first and third
predominating.
(1) Frog--Ice--Table
A. / - - - - -
M. - | | γ γ γ γ γ γ γ γ γ
F. - - - - - / / | | | | / / / - - -
H. | - - - - - | | | | / / / - - -
J. | - - / / / / - + + + + + + + +
Bl. - / | | | | | | - - - -
By. | / / / / / / - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Bs. - | | | - - - / /
Ro. | | - - / / / / / / / / / / /
Br. - / / / δ δ δ δ δ δ
(1) Frog--Ice--Table
(2) Key--Shoe--Knife
(3) Desk--Park--Glove
(4) College--Church--Cafe
(5) Boston--Elevator--Lake
(6) Skate--Book--Theatre
(7) Bridge--Sleigh--Ticket
(8) Gun--Lamp--Watch
| - / + α β γ δ [ μ ν
A. { 26 32 30 0 0 0 0 0 2 10 0
{ 26% 32% 30% 2% 10%
M. { 25 36 21 3 0 0 10 1 1 0 6
{ 24.3% 34.9% 20.5% 2.9% 9.8% .9% .9% 5.8%
F. { 15 23 24 8 11 0 7 6 0 0 0
{ 15.9% 24.5% 25.5% 8.5% 11.8% 7.4% 6.4%
H. { 31 68 31 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
{ 23.8% 52.4% 23.8%
J. { 19 18 48 15 0 0 0 22 1 0 0
{ 15.5% 14.6% 39.1% 12.2% 17.8% .8%
Bl. { 23 33 16 5 0 0 0 22 0 0 0
{ 23.2% 33.2% 16.0% 5.0% 22.6%
By. { 13 56 48 15 0 1 17 2 0 0 0
{ 8.7% 36.8% 31.5% 9.8% .6% 11.2% 1.4%
Bs. { 19 13 19 9 0 0 0 19 2 0 0
{ 23.4% 16.0% 23.4% 11.2% 23.5% 2.5%
Ro. { 32 33 33 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
{ 32.6% 33.7% 33.7%
Br. { 12 24 38 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 0
{ 15.0% 30.0% 47.5% 7.5%
Totals{215 336 308 55 11 1 40 72 6 10 6
{ 20.3% 31.1% 29.1% 5.2% 1.1% .9% 3.6% 6.8% .5% .9% .5%
Number of subjects, 10; number of sections, 8; number of experiments,
79; number of associations, 1060.
GROUP XII
In order to test the relative influence and to throw more light on the
problem of immediate interruption four words were shown and the subject
was directed to read from left to right. There were few experiments
and most of the subjects were new. The results show that the third
starting-point has a decided disadvantage, having an influence of only
7.8%. The second and fourth are almost equal, while the first is again
less.
TABLE XXI. FOUR WORDS SHOWN
Time--50 seconds.
Characters--same as Table XVII, with the addition of ξ partial fusion
between the second, third, and fourth with the second predominating.
(1) Gun--Car--Ink--Fan
M. \ \ \ - - - - - / / / / / /
R. \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
K. \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
S. - | / - - - - - - - -
J. | | | - - - - - - - - - - -
Ht. + + α α α | | | | | | | | |
(1) Gun--Car--Ink--Fan
(2) Brain--Umbrella--Telephone--Chain
(3) Book--Money--Hour--Chart
| - / \ + γ θ α κ ξ
M. {14 6 9 4 0 6 0 0 0 0
{35.9% 15.4% 23.0% 10.3% 15.4%
R. {16 0 0 30 0 0 0 0 0 0
{34.8% 65.2%
K. { 0 35 0 16 0 0 0 0 0 0
{ 68.6% 31.4%
S. { 5 15 7 4 0 0 0 0 0 0
{16.2% 48.4% 22.5% 12.9%
J. {13 13 4 15 2 0 0 0 0 0
{27.7% 27.7% 8.5% 31.9% 4.2%
Ht. {15 9 0 5 2 0 7 3 1 1
{34.8% 20.9% 11.6% 4.7% 16.3% 6.9% 2.4% 2.4%
Totals{63 78 20 74 4 6 7 3 1 1
{24.5% 30.4% 7.8% 28.5% 1.6% 2.4% 2.6% 1.4% .4% .4%
Number of subjects, 6; number of sections, 3; number of experiments,
18; number of associations, 257.
GROUP XIII
Four similar words were pronounced in immediate succession, the results
of which show that we are correct in calling the above a case of
succession and also to establish clearly and definitely that there is
a difference of degree between immediate and postponed interruption.
The third starting-point has again a decided disadvantage of influence
and exerts no apparent influence in thirty-seven of the fifty-two
experiments. The last starting-point exerts the greatest influence.
TABLE XXII. FOUR WORDS SPOKEN
Time--50 seconds.
Characters--same as Table XVII with the addition of ο partial fusion
between first, second, and third with first and second predominating.
(1) Cow--Roof--Fence--Girl
(2) Cathedral--River--Elevator--Newspaper
(3) Cane--Harness--Box--Coat
(4) Book--Snow--Rope--Stone
(5) Wire--Flower--Horse--Paper
(6) Gun--Wharf--Chair--Stove
| - / \ + λ δ η θ ☐ ι ο ε β
M. { 35 3 6 32 0 3 17 0 9 0 0 0 0 0
{ 33.4% 2.8% 5.8% 30.4% 2.8% 16.2% 8.6%
F. { 16 11 1 35 0 3 0 0 1 2 1 0 5 0
{ 21.3% 14.6% 1.4% 46.6% 4.0% 1.4% 2.7% 1.4% 6.6%
H. { 21 38 11 30 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
{ 20.6% 37.3% 10.8% 29.5% .9% .9%
V. { 16 16 0 36 2 2 9 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
{ 19.3% 19.3% 43.3% 2.4% 2.4% 10.9% 1.2% 1.2%
Bl.{ 36 8 10 19 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
{ 46.8% 10.3% 12.9% 24.8% 5.2%
By.{ 23 30 3 36 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
{24.5% 31.9% 3.3% 38.3% 1.0% 1.0%
Bs.{ 22 14 1 20 1 0 0 7 0 1 0 0 0 0
{33.3% 21.3% 1.6% 30.0% 1.6% 10.6% 1.6%
Ht.{ 9 19 4 31 0 0 0 0 1 14 0 0 0 0
{11.5% 24.3% 5.2% 39.8% 1.3% 17.9%
Ro.{ 26 23 6 16 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
{36.6% 32.4% 8.4% 22.6%
Totals
{204 162 42 255 4 8 30 7 13 17 2 1 5 1
{27.2% 21.6% 5.4% 33.9% .5% 1.1% 3.9% .9% 1.8% 2.3% .3% .2% .7% .2%
Number of subjects, 9; number of sections, 6; number of experiments,
52; number of associations, 751.
We ask finally how far our results and notes point to a theoretical
understanding of the mechanism of associations. Previous work,
especially that of James, Cordes, Calkins, and Scripture, as well as
the accumulated notes of my subjects, confirm that the transition
may be made by means of total, partial, and focal recall, and that
in partial and focal recall the prominent persisting elements are
surrounded in the formation of a new idea by other new elements.
If a latent idea remains in the margin of consciousness and exerts
an influence, which not merely modifies but determines the series of
associations, and leads up to the focalisation of the latent idea,
we have a case of predetermined association, which, when noted by
investigators, has invariably become confused with mediate association.
Here there is an element or group of elements, persisting in the margin
of consciousness, which is gradually maturing and becoming focalised
into groups of elements comprising an idea which ultimately dominates
consciousness. In some cases three, four, and five ideas have been
named before this takes place, and we have here a reversed form of
association. Four subjects noted the experience on different occasions,
and it is not to be confused with the common experience of apprehending
the present contents of consciousness as part of a larger whole where
we are conscious of its existence but not of what it is.
The notes further show that the common conscious elements may be
predominantly visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, or kinæsthetic,
or a complex or compound of these in character, while to this may be
added an indication of the fact that the transition, incipient as it
is, may in many cases be reduced to a condition which is in the last
analysis one of the motor nervous system. Ht., for instance, finds
that the words all pass over into innervations of the organs of speech
and "are accompanied by the impulse to make the sound," stating later,
"they hang on the tongue." The following is one of the series given
which represents rather an extreme case, Taft, taffy, toffy; tough,
rough, ruff; buff, bluff, tough; muff, duff, tuff. Br., who also gave a
large percentage of verbal associations, finds that "some part of each
word seems to linger on the tongue with motor sensations till the next
comes." "I am subject," he adds, "more or less frequently to verbal
automatism of this auditory incipient motor type." Ro., who has many
auditory associations, reports "they are always accompanied by motor
images, together with many associations." A changing of orientation is
a common accompaniment, with statements of the feeling of the impulse
to turn in various directions. For F., who is predominantly of the
motor type, we have an example where the rhythmic ticking of a clock
fades into the rhythmic watching of a boat rising and falling on the
water.
The notes would seem to indicate that there is no idea without a
motor fringe, and also that these elements of incipient impulses to
movement may accompany the elements of transition, and are observed
introspectively by the subjects. They are therefore data for
psychology. Do they influence or direct the associations? In short, are
they the processes which connect and which determine the associations?
F. states, "There seem to have been waves of motor sensations. Such
waves may start with a word and carry one in faint mimicry through
the whole succession of bodily sensations that one experienced in
that event, and then may come a relapse until other stronger currents
appear." Here we are face to face with the dynamics of association,
the most fundamental and important problem of brain association. Have
these phenomena of ideational images "acquired by contact a kind of
magnetism which causes the one to attract the other and have, so to
speak, become magnetic?" (Zanotti.) Or are they on the other hand
independent of all force and "merely ideas of antecedence and sequence
only?" (Mill.) While there is no mention of a magnetic force, the notes
and results all show that the ideas are systematically conditioned in
a way which cannot be explained by the contiguity of the objects. The
motor elements play the deciding role. Ht. emphasises the influence
of ideated movement when he writes, "Kinæsthetic. Slow regular
tramping on snowshoes brought up the characteristic swing of arms,
and therewith the idea (sensations of weight) of the stick (or stock)
which I have generally carried on Norwegian snowshoes. Transition from
Vermont to the Black Forest by association with snowshoeing in both
places. Real sensations in play were free breath, movements in chest
(kinæsthetic), fresh air (olfactory), cold (thermal), and emotion
of emotional strength." Again, "Looking up at sun suggested general
ideas of expansion of attention and with this breath comes the idea,
breezes"; another subject adds, "A tendency to imitate the sounds of
syllables and this leads on to a train of associations"; another, "A
slight feeling of sudden changed impulse"; another, "A sort of motor
after-image came back and took the foreground"; and F. goes further
when he states, "Ideationally my hand wandered to the upper right-hand
corner of the page, then suddenly the auditory image of 47 came up as
if whispered to me." All of which indicate that some ideas at least
depend for their entrance into consciousness upon motor reactions.
Passing to the more refined reactions expressed in emotions we find
that they are not merely accompanying coloring influences, but also
often actual determining factors. All of the subjects notice at some
time a coloring atmosphere from an emotion, but others find that "the
growing word is rather felt emotionally than definitely formulated,"
and we have "a nameless idea, largely feeling-tone" (Ht.); or the words
may "all come as parts of a growing feeling, an indistinct though
strong state of mind." (J.) The same subject observed, "The previous
word may create a mood or feeling which in the main determines the
associations; a group of words is dependent upon strong accompanying
feeling--there is a summation and a discharge while the next word has
been accumulating force" (J.), and we have a form of summation; or
in other words, "a general mood accumulated while several words were
in mind at once, then all dropped and another general feeling came
to the front with an accumulation of other words." (F.) Here we have
a typical example of constellation where all the words and ideas are
implicitly present as a total attitude or disposition, the elements of
which become successively focalised into a series of associated images.
The last subject finds that "the emotional atmosphere often controls
the associations." Indeed, it would seem that occasionally for some
subjects this strong accompanying undercurrent of undifferentiated
emotional feeling is capable of bringing about trains of thought
independent of any logical connection. K. finds "the feeling to carry
one on"; H. finds the "point of departure the interesting idea"; all
find that the words change with the disposition, as may be verified by
a study of the lists of associations.
We are forced to conclude that the impulses to movement or other
emotional attitudes may act as determining factors in association,
which extended to an hypothesis would mean that the mode of transition
in the associated series is in the last analysis to be found in
delicate incipient motor tendencies to action, the psychic concomitants
of which are observable; that psychic states are both as to their unity
and organisation consequences of motor reactions which are implicitly
present as parts of a total reaction to the present situation. It is
these motor tendencies to action which determine what idea shall enter
consciousness. Just in so far as they become released they become
prolonged, accentuated, and form a nucleus for the new idea. To speak
of association independent of motor elements is merely to make an
empirical classification of successive states of consciousness.
There remains a psychical phenomenon which must be satisfactorily
accounted for before we go farther. An element of an idea, an idea or
a series of ideas may occupy consciousness to the exclusion of others.
If the second starting-point were not given, the associations would
undoubtedly follow the given one. Inhibition must then be one form of
"obstructed association," the inhibiting ideas being present to the
exclusion of the inhibited. But are we thus forced to say inhibition
is the "negative side of the association process," claiming that
all ideas not in consciousness are inhibited, and thus being forced
to conclude the conscious idea is inhibiting an unconscious idea,
which cannot exist (by the very definition and presuppositions of
psychology) until it is an object of consciousness. This would mean
that content of consciousness and inhibition are identical. On the
other hand, the notes and exemplifying facts of the tables show Dr.
Breese's fallacious position when he concludes that "because, obeying
the laws of association, the train of ideas takes one direction
rather than another can hardly be considered sufficient ground to
hold that the other possible train of ideas is inhibited."[137] He
has overlooked the possibility of two or more trains of associations
having been started and the associations of one starting-point are
excluded from entering the focus of consciousness by the direction
of the given series. Inhibition would then be the negative side of
fusion. The explanation must, as has already been demonstrated, be
psycho-physical in character. If these impulses to action have actually
been observed by the subjects we are justified in concluding that just
as in physiological inhibition one action excludes another, so the
correlative tendencies to movement of one idea exclude others.
By. observed that the image of the starting-point lingered and
inhibited subsequent ideas. The implication here, from our previous
reasoning, would be that not the ideational images, as such, but the
physiological motor concomitants, persisted and excluded others, and
this is why disparate terms give a "shock to the nervous system"
(A.), "require different lines of expression" (A.); and "one has more
momentum," as so many report. This would explain why the associations
of a new starting-point inhibit the associations of a former one; for
as the motor nervous impulses tend to work themselves out into action,
the reaction of the previous impulse will be suppressed by those of a
new impulse which enters, by the conditions of these experiments, an
attentive consciousness. Thus the prepotent impulses to action are the
conditioning factors in mental inhibition.
All this indicates that the basis of habit which has been the universal
principle of explanation of associations is inadequate. As Münsterberg
has pointed out, contrary to what we mean by habit, either idea may
bring to consciousness the other, in a manner independent of the order
of the original presentation. Extending our hypothesis to include the
formation of associations, the conclusion will be that in order for
two ideas to become associated they must be together in consciousness,
each as parts of a total experience, a total attitude; the motor
reactions of the ideas must be parts of a more comprehensive reaction
which includes both as simultaneous correlated motor impulses: when,
in future time, the reactions of the one are reëxperienced, there is
a sequence of infinitely delicate and complex impulses to movement,
and any tendency toward such reaction tends to reproduce the whole of
which it is a part, as each reaction is more or less bound up in the
integrity of the whole central nervous system.
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 133: Cordes, G.: Experimentelle Untersuchung über
Association, Phil. Studien, vol. 17, p. 30.]
[Footnote 134: Scripture, E. W.: Elements of Experimental Phonetics, p.
142.]
[Footnote 135: Calkins, M. W.: Memory and Association, Psychol. Rev.,
vol. 5, p. 451.]
[Footnote 136: Calkins, M. W.: Association, Psy. Monograph, no. 2, p.
46.]
[Footnote 137: Breese, B. B.: On Inhibition, Psy. Rev. Monograph, vol.
3, p. 15.]
DISSOCIATION
BY C. H. TOLL
The purpose of this investigation, of which the following gives a
preliminary report, was to compare the tendency to associate by
contiguity, with the tendency to associate by similarity.
In every series of stimuli to which one gives attention there is
tendency to association by contiguity. But some similarity among
certain elements of the series may produce a dissociation of the given
elements into two series with some bond of similarity in each. This
is a matter of common experience, as when you find you can read your
newspaper and listen to your neighbors' conversation at the same time,
understanding both, although the actual order in which the several
words are perceived would form a meaningless mixture.
We may say dissociation is always accomplished by a tendency to
association by similarity overcoming the constant tendency to
association by contiguity. Study of the relative efficacy of the two
may therefore be called a study of dissociation. The tendency to
associate by contiguity might be measured in two ways.
First, when one attempts to learn a series in exactly the given order,
the number of errors in the series as recollected may be taken as an
inverse indication of the strength of association by contiguity. The
three kinds of error possible in nearly all of the experiments were
Omissions, Displacements, and Imperfections. All of these three have
been tabulated. But the number of elements omitted seems considerably
the most reliable as an indication of the degree of inadequacy of the
associative tendency. The cases of displaced or imperfect elements are
comparatively few: moreover, Displacements and Imperfections are not
mutually exclusive categories. A single element may be both imperfectly
recollected and wrongly placed in the recollected series. On the whole,
it seems that the number of given elements which were omitted in the
recalled series is the most positive and reliable of the errors. Our
conclusions are based on the Omissions.
Second, when one makes no attempt to learn the series, simply giving
attention to each element as it comes, and afterward lets the elements
recur spontaneously, the number of cases in which a recollected element
is followed by an element given contiguously may be taken as a direct
indication of the strength of association by contiguity.
Tendency to association by similarity can evidently be measured in
the same two ways, by counting errors when one purposes to learn the
series as two groups of similar elements, and by counting sequences of
similar elements when one avoids any effort to learn the series and
recollection is spontaneous.
In the first seven experiments we used the first method. The errors
made when the purpose is to associate by contiguity can then be
compared with the errors made when the purpose is to associate by
similarity, an equal number of series, given under the same conditions,
and of identical character, being given in each case.
In the last four experiments we have used the second method. The number
of sequences of elements given contiguously can then be compared with
the number of sequences of similar elements.
Five subjects have coöperated in this, but the experiments were
strictly individual, one observer being alone in the room with the
experimenter. Each test lasted about an hour. As a matter of course,
the results have been calculated for each of the five subjects and
their agreements and disagreements have been carefully considered. But
as this first report is to indicate merely the general tendency, we
give here at first only the average of the five persons.
The experiments have varied as to the kind of elements used, the manner
of presentation, the time allowed, and the manner of recording the
recollected series. But throughout each experiment the series were of
one identical type, while the individual elements were altered in each
series.
In the experiments where the series were to be learned, some in the
given order, some dissociated by similarity, it was found rather
confusing to turn from one method to the other; so several consecutive
series were learned by one method, and then several by the other, four
alternations being made each hour to neutralize any effect of practice
or of fatigue.
The series were of course different in kind in the several experiments,
but were usually of eight or of ten elements. Half of this number had
some distinct characteristic in common, the other half some other
characteristic. In some experiments these elements were alternated, in
some arranged irregularly.
In the first eight experiments the subject wrote down the elements
recalled, as soon as the series had been given. In the last three the
subject spoke the elements recalled.
In all cases where the first method of measurement was used, the time
allowed for learning the series was made a little too short to permit
of learning the series perfectly. Since comparison of the number of
mistakes was our method, we naturally had to make sure there would be
mistakes to compare.
The details of the several experiments were as follows:
(1) The elements were letters and numbers. They were about 12×8 mm. in
size and were printed on white cards 15×30 mm.
Five letters and five numbers were placed, alternately, in a straight
row on a sheet of white cardboard. The series was then exposed to
the subject by turning up the small tin shutter of a screen that was
clamped to the table-edge.
The time of exposure was measured with a stop-watch and was constant
throughout the hour for each individual subject. Four seconds proved
the best time for most of them, but in one case it was necessary
to allow only three seconds. Twenty series were presented during
each hour, ten for each method of memorizing. There were duplicates
of all the numbers, and of eight letters, but not more than two
of any element. Selection in forming the series was by chance. In
dissociating, the letters were separated from the numbers.
As soon as the exposure was ended, the subject wrote down the elements
recollected, trying to preserve their relative order. This recollected
list was then copied beside the operator's record of the given series,
so making the errors apparent.
(2) The elements were all letters, printed as before, and the alternate
cards were placed half their length out of alignment with the original
row.
The method of presentation, the length of exposure, the number of
elements presented, etc., were as in no. 1. In dissociating, the
letters on one level were separated from those on the other.
(3) The elements were all letters, printed as before, and five of the
ten elements presented were placed out of alignment. But the disaligned
cards were at irregular intervals and often in groups, and were only a
quarter of an inch out of alignment. This order was varied each time,
but without any system.
The other details were as in no. 1.
During this experiment I came to notice the effect produced by the
natural tendency to learn the five elements of the dissociated series
in a rhythmical form, thereby increasing the ability to retain them;
while there appeared to be no natural tendency to apply any such
inclusive rhythm to the ten elements of the series when learned in the
given order. To counteract this effect the subjects were instructed
to consider the series, when learned in the given order, as two
consecutive series of five elements each, and to use the same natural
rhythm in learning these as they did in the dissociating. But this
correction was not made in the first two hours, nor very perfectly in
the rest.
(4) The elements were all numbers, printed as before, five of the ten
being placed a quarter of an inch out of alignment, and in irregular
groups, precisely as in the last experiment.
The time was reduced to three seconds for some and two seconds for the
others. Details of presentation were as described in no. 1.
This time all the subjects tried to neutralize the effect of the
instinctive rhythm for the five-element series by learning the
ten-element series in two groups of five elements each.
(5) The elements were all nonsense syllables, each consisting of a
vowel between two consonants, printed on white cards 20×20 mm. Eight
of these were placed in an even row on a sheet of white cardboard, and
four of them were marked by laying a quarter-inch strip of blue paper
over the bottom of the card. The serial position of the marked cards
was irregular, and was altered each time.
Ten seconds was given to some subjects, eight to the others. Other
details of exposure, etc., were as in no. 1.
In learning the series in the given order, the blue markings were
ignored; but in dissociating, the marked and unmarked syllables were
learned in separate groups.
There seemed to be no rhythmical tendency; but to be safe the subjects
were instructed to learn the straight series in groups of fours.
Seven series were given to be learned in each method during the hour
with each subject.
(6) The elements were one-syllable nouns, alternated with nonsense
syllables, all spoken by the operator. The nonsense syllables were all
different from those used in the preceding experiment: the nouns were
ordinary words, and were so arranged as to avoid any obvious sequence
or relation among them. Very few, if any, were used twice in one hour.
Five nouns and five syllables were given in each series.
The elements were spoken at the rate of forty-six a minute, timed by a
metronome which was muffled in a heavily padded box so that its sound
was no disturbing factor. The speaker sat within three feet of the
subject and enunciated as distinctly as possible.
Dissociation was performed as previously: in each hour eight series
were dissociated, and eight learned in the given order.
(7) The elements were one-syllable nouns, spoken as before, alternated
with nonsense syllables, printed on small white cards. The nouns were
all different from those used in the previous experiment: the nonsense
syllables were the same, but were this time printed, in letters 10 mm.
high, on cards 40 mm. square. They were exposed by sliding them, one at
a time, in front of an opening in a cardboard screen which was fastened
to the table-edge.
The optimum rate for presenting the elements was found to be about
forty a minute, measured with the metronome.
Five nouns and five nonsense syllables were given in each series. Eight
series were given to be learned in the given order, and eight to be
dissociated into separate series of nouns and of syllables.
(8) The elements were names of mammals, alternated with names of cities
of the United States, all spoken. The names were all fairly familiar.
Ten elements were given in each series.
The interval in reading was planned to be long enough for some
appreciation of the meaning of the words, but not enough to permit
mental repetition of the preceding elements. Any mechanical
time-measurement was found impracticable.
The subjects were instructed to avoid any effort to memorize the
series, simply receiving each element as given.
After the last element there was a pause of about two seconds, to
decrease the mere sound-recollection of the last few elements. Then the
operator repeated, in an altered tone, one of the given elements. The
subject at once wrote down the first element that came to mind, then
the next, and so on.
In the seven preceding experiments the set of series presented had been
different for each subject, though of course identical in character.
But in this experiment and the following ones the lists of words were
identical as read to each subject. The same element was repeated for
each. Sixteen lists were given.
(9) The elements were nouns. In each series five names of similar
objects were alternated with five names of a different sort of objects,
_e. g._, names of fishes with names of poets. All were read, as before.
In each series new sorts of objects were chosen. The subject never knew
what sort of words were to be given; the subjects agreed this was not a
disturbing factor to them, and it obviated the tendency to think what
words would probably be given, as is natural when the general character
of the series is announced beforehand.
The subjects were instructed to be passive during the reading, and
during the four-second pause that followed, avoiding mental repetition
of the words. Then the operator gave a signal and the subject repeated
aloud the words as they happened to be remembered. The words being
numbered on the list from which they were read, the operator was able
to record the words as fast as spoken.
The subjects were instructed to give the word which they found to be
foremost after they had spoken the preceding one, rather than to try to
repeat a group of words which usually appeared simultaneously at the
first effort of recollection, but which usually faded while one of them
was being spoken.
The same sixteen series, of ten elements each, were given to each
subject.
(10) The elements were nouns, the ten presented in each series all
being names of similar objects, _e. g._, flowers. Five were spoken,
alternated with five printed on small cards which were shoved in
front of a 10×10 cm. opening in a cardboard screen fastened to the
table-edge. Cards were 40 mm. square, the words printed by hand, but
carefully, in letters 10 mm. high.
A series was given in about 13 seconds, but the time was not
mechanically measured; it was at a rate which some practice showed to
give a fair time to comprehend each element.
As before, the subjects were told to be passive until, after a
four-second pause at the end of the series, the operator gave a signal.
Then the recollected words were spoken.
The class of nouns was different in each series.
(11) The elements were nouns. In each series five of some familiar
class were alternated with five of some other familiar class. The
classes were different in each of the twelve series given.
From this regular series of ten, five were chosen irregularly, and
were printed on cards as in no. 9. The remaining five, of course also
irregularly placed in the series, were spoken. This irregularity was
different in each series. Thus some words of one kind were spoken,
the rest printed; some words of the other kind were spoken, the rest
printed.
The other conditions were exactly as in the last experiment.
* * * * *
A table for the individual subjects, indicating not only the omitted
but also the displaced and imperfect objects would have, for instance,
the following character: C indicates that the effort was made to
associate by Contiguity, S by Similarity.
SPOKEN NOUNS, ALTERNATED WITH PRINTED NONSENSE SYLLABLES
Nouns Omitted Syll. Omitted Displaced Imperfect
C S C S C S C S
Turley 13 16 21 14 7 13 6 10
Emerson 4 5 26 16 7 4 4 13
Miss Kent 5 8 15 8 18 5 9 4
Flexner 4 6 10 9 7 3 8 16
Toll 8 7 8 2 10 12 8 3
Total 34 42 80 49 49 37 35 46
If we consider total results only, and among them only the omitted
elements, we come to the following percentages. They give the
percentage of the errors of omissions among the elements recalled.
1. Letters and numbers alternated C 26. S 10.8
2. Letters, alternatingly disaligned C 21.2 S 15.
3. Letters irregularly disaligned C 23.8 S 22.4
4. Numbers irregularly disaligned C 7. S 20.
5. Nonsense Syllables, irregularly marked C 27.5 S 27.5
6. Nouns and Nonsense Syllables alternated, spoken C 35. S 37.2
7. Nouns and Nonsense Syllables alternated, nouns spoken,
syllables printed C 28.5 S 22.7
In the second group, experiments 8 to 11, not the errors of omission,
but, as explained above, the different kinds of reproduced elements,
had to be analyzed with special reference to the question whether a
sequence linked two contiguous or two similar objects. In the following
table the total number of recalled sequences is taken as basis and
the different kinds of sequences are given in percentages of it. The
elements themselves are described above. B means a break, that is, a
sequence without similarity or contiguity.
8. Dissimilar elements, similarly presented S 45 C 28 B 28
9. Dissimilar elements, different kind in each series S 53 C 25 B 21
10. Similar elements, dissimilarly presented S 54 C 20 B 26
11. Dissimilar elements, dissimilarly presented
S (Meaning) 27 C 7 B 8
S (Presentation) 13.
The results by the first method of measurement may be summarized
as follows, though the first and third conclusions are weakened by
disagreement among the individual subjects.
_A._ When the only dissociating factor is some slight unessential
feature (a bit of color on the card, a slight disalignment), this
similarity and contiguity are nearly equally efficient. No. 3 and no. 5.
As this unessential feature is made more striking (disalignment half a
card-length), the strength of similarity increases, only three fourths
as many errors being made in dissociation as in contiguous association.
No. 2.
The case of no. 4 (all numbers) is of little or no value. The time
allowed for learning had to be made short enough to ensure the
appearance of some errors; perfect recollection would obviously give
no basis for comparison. And the time had to be so short in this
case (only two seconds for some of the subjects) that the additional
eye-motions and adjustments necessary in dissociating took time enough
to spoil the results.
_B._ When the only dissociating factor is in the meaning of the
elements (letters and numbers), this similarity is stronger than
contiguity, only one half as many errors being made. No. 1.
The results of no. 6 do not support this proportion, but its results
are not consistent, while those of no. 1 are.
_C._ When both meaning and manner of presentation are combined as
dissociating factors (nouns and nonsense syllables, seen and heard),
this similarity is stronger than contiguity, only three fourths as many
errors being made.
But this method of measurement is not well adapted to series of
auditory elements, so this experiment is unsatisfactory. No. 7.
The results by the second method of measurement may be summarized as
follows:
_A._ When the only dissociating factor is in the meaning of the
elements (names of different sorts of objects), this similarity is
stronger than contiguity, twice as many similarity sequences as
contiguity sequences being recalled. No. 8 and no. 9.
_B._ When the only dissociating factor is in the manner of presentation
(to sight and hearing), this similarity is stronger than contiguity,
nearly three times as many similarity sequences being recalled. No. 10.
_C._ When both meaning and manner of presentation are dissociating
factors, these similarities are much stronger than contiguity, more
than four times as many similarity sequences being recalled.
_D._ When these two dissociating factors are opposed to each other:
(1) Four of the subjects show similarity of meaning much stronger
than similarity of presentation, from two to five times as many
similarity-of-meaning sequences being recalled. (2) One subject is
strongly and consistently otherwise, giving nearly three times as many
similarity-of-presentation sequences. No. 11.
MOTOR IMPULSES
THE ACCURACY OF LINEAR MOVEMENT
BY B.A. LENFEST
The starting-point for our investigation was the observation of
Woodworth[138] that there is a certain rhythm in which a certain
hand-movement is made with the maximum of exactitude, and which
represents thus an optimum for the periodical discharge of the
particular motor centre. Our question was whether this rhythm is a
constant one for all parts of the body, or whether different groups of
muscles produce the greatest exactitude in different periods; further,
whether secondary factors, like complexity of movement, resistance by
weight, fatigue, etc., influence this psycho-physiological optimum.
The investigation, however, showed soon the necessity to consider the
whole problem of the accuracy of rhythmical linear movements, and the
experiments are thus not always directly related to our starting-point.
There is very little material published that can be collected under
the subject head, accuracy of voluntary movement, and still less when
the enquiry is confined to the accuracy of straight lines or linear
movements.
The most suggestive contribution is that of Dr. Woodworth on the
accuracy of voluntary movement. He has collected consistently what can
be found up to the date of his publication, and the reader is referred
to pages 7-16 of his monograph for the most reliable collection of
authorities.
It must be said, as we run over the list from Goldscheider on the
threshold of perceptible movement, through the results of Hall,
Hartwell, Loeb, and Delabarre on "bilateral asymmetry" and comparisons
of right and left hands; consider Fullerton and Cattell in their
suggestive results, and Münsterberg's studies of movements; and finally
take the testimony of Bryan as to the growth of accuracy of movement
in children, that the vast accumulation of material bearing on reaction
time--and similar phenomena would be of more value if concerned more
with the accuracy and less with the production or perception of
movement.
A paper by Miss M. K. Smith, in the Philosophische Studien for 1900,
with the title, Rhythmus und Arbeit, concerns the influence of
rhythmical action upon the quality and quantity of work performed. The
method was to commit to memory nonsense syllables and letters.
The results show a tendency to take up a certain rhythm, especially
in the later results and after practice; easier memorizing if rhythm
is present; motor reactions, as tapping, nodding, or swaying of body
are noted frequently; the feeling of pleasure accompanies rhythmic
reactions. While there are no data as to accuracy, there is suggestive
matter bearing on the optimal rate and on the relations of compound and
simple movements of the hand.
As far as the writer knows, he is the first to present systematic
results as to the head and foot movement. The purposes of this enquiry
may be briefly stated as
(1) the collection of a large body of facts, bearing on the actual and
relative accuracy of straight-line movements possible with various
parts of the body, such as hands, arms, head, legs, and feet;
(Something like 340,000 lines have been drawn and calculated.)
(2) to introduce certain variations in the conditions attending the
production of ruled lines, such as
(_a_) to rule with the eyes opened and eyes closed, with other
conditions the same;
(_b_) to change the rate of ruling or interval between the production
of ruled lines; the rates chosen were 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 100,
120, 140, 160, 180, and 200 beats per minute;
(_c_) to change the length of the normal or first line; the lengths
used were 14, 10, and 1 cm.;
(_d_) to impose a weight on the ruling hand to either retard or
accelerate the movement, choosing a weight of such magnitude that it
would be perceptible, but would not have mass enough to cause pain or
fatigue; 260 grams was used;
(_e_) to introduce a simultaneous movement of the free hand; _i. e._,
the one that did not carry the recording pencil, of a similar character
and extent but of opposite direction to the ruling hand;
(_f_) to record movements of both hands, of the head and of both feet;
(_g_) to conduct a series of experiments of similar character, as
regards time-rate and extent of movement, to the series presented by
Dr. Woodworth, with the idea of corroborating or disproving the results
of his investigations; lines of 140 cm. were accordingly chosen;
(_h_) to conduct a series of experiments where the subject chooses his
own rhythm or rate at which the easiest and best lines, subjectively
speaking, could be ruled;
(_i_) to find the rates of respiration and pulse-beats and find the
connection, if any, between them and the linear records.
(3) To examine, by variations of the number of lines ruled, the
questions of fatigue and persistence of the memory-image; series of
50 lines for the first year and of 20 lines for the second year, were
accordingly selected.
(4) To find the relations, if any, between constant errors and mean
variations, so called.
THE APPARATUS
It is proposed to give the briefest possible discussion or explanation
of the apparatus required for the investigation, it being desired at a
later stage to enter into a comparison of the method adopted here with
that of the only other investigation at all comparable to this one: the
research problem of Dr. Woodworth, already referred to.
The underlying principle has been to avoid complication in apparatus,
partly because of the delay and expense involved in working out, and
making up elaborate schemes for apparatus, but mainly because of the
advantage in duplicating this series of experiments, or of carrying
on related investigations, to be derived from a choice of such
parts, entering into the complete apparatus, as are at hand in any
psychological laboratory, or that can be obtained and set up at small
expense.
The use of smoked paper has been avoided, because a short preliminary
series, using the usual smoked-paper records, was found to give no
better results than did the method here adopted of ruling on white
paper with a soft pencil, and the labor was thus considerably reduced.
To the objection that the pencil-ruling is more difficult, and involves
more loss in friction and more complicated adjustments on the part of
the subjects, only one of fourteen subjects admits that this is the
case; and even if the testimony was unanimous as to the greater ease
of production of the smoked records, it would be no reason for its
adoption, since one of the first rules for all experimental work is
uniformity of conditions, and this is equally well attained in either
case.
The apparatus for free hand-movements and for the compound movements of
both hands consists:
(1) Of an adjustable wooden rest (see Fig. _A_) with a base (_a_) about
40 × 60 cm. hinged to a vertically adjustable flat board (_b_), called
the arm-rest, about 40 × 70 cm., and having on its upper edge two brass
pins or plates (_c_) about 30 cm. apart.
The pencil is started from one of these pins, depending on the hand
used, and moved until it comes in contact with a wooden rod that is
held against the opposite pin and which is of the right length to give
a movement of the pencil of 1, 10, or 14 cm., as desired.
The operator holds this rod in place for the first line ruled and then
instantly removes it, so that the second and all later lines are ruled
by memory of the first one, as closely in length to the first, or
so-called normal line, as is possible.
(2) The apparatus for actuating and taking care of the paper.
This consists of two drums (_d_ and _d´_, Fig. _B_) 20 cm. diameter
by 40 cm. wide, mounted on suitable supports about 1 metre apart, and
fastened to a table, with axes parallel.
The drum upon which the record is to be made (_d_) is adjusted close
to the arm-rest, so that each ruled line will be carried down and out
of sight before the next one is ruled, the pencil being held in the
position (_e_); note that the arrow shows the direction of rotation.
The second drum (_d´_) is actuated by a motor (_F_) through a round
belt (_g_), this motor being a clockwork type, with gear-changes and
adjustable vanes for varying the speed, and having the power derived
from a suspended weight (_w_).
The recording paper (_h_) transmits motion from (_d´_) to (_d_). This
paper consists of a strip about six metres long by twenty-eight cm.
wide, with one end pasted to (_d_), and then wound upon (_d_), leaving
enough to be carried to (_d´_) and pasted to the latter. As the paper
is unwound from (_d_), it is wound upon (_d´_), and, both to keep
the paper tight and to prevent too rapid unwinding of (_d_), it is
necessary to apply a friction-brake to the shaft of (_d_).
(3) A metronome, capable of being used for a range of 20 to 200 beats,
and a stop-watch, to enable the operator correctly to time the subject,
are in constant use.
[Illustration]
The metronome is set in vibration and the subject is permitted to take
his own time to start the ruling, the operator holding the wooden
rod in place with one hand, while the other hand holds the stop-watch
ready to start it the instant the subject's pencil is moved. There is
thus a personal equation for the length of period, but this is of no
consequence, as will be apparent when the method of calculation and the
use of the planimeter is considered.
In the series of records with the weight, it is impossible to run the
speed about 80 to 100 beats, unless the modification in apparatus shown
in Fig. _C_ is used; for the vibration of the string running from the
hand to the weight around a pulley is violent enough either to throw
the string off the pulley or cause the weight to jump so severely as to
render the records useless.
This is entirely obviated by the given method of using a heavy weight
acting with a small leverage (about 1 cm.) and thus moving only a short
distance, so that it is capable of operating at the highest speeds with
no perceptible shock or jump; the string is led to the hand or wrist
from a grooved pulley of about 12 cm. radius, so the highest velocity
of the weight is only about one twelfth that of the hand. This method
makes it possible to carry the weighted records to the highest speeds.
This same method is used for the head and foot records, with the
following additional apparatus; the string (Fig. _C_), shown leading to
the hand, is led horizontally over to and around a similar large pulley
on the opposite side of the table and either down to the foot or in a
diagonally upward direction to the head; so that movements of the head
or foot are faithfully recorded on the drum by means of a pencil held
in a block of wood, this block of wood being fastened on the horizontal
string in a suitable position for recording on the drum paper. The
pencil is kept against the paper by a light spring or elastic band.
The foot is connected to the string by a stirrup that prevents any
movement of the feet at all, unless the same is recorded by the pencil.
The head is furnished with a skull cap or harness consisting of
non-elastic webbing and stiffened, where the string is attached, by
a strip of sheet brass formed to fit the forehead or the back of the
head, as the case may be. The object of the brass strip is to prevent
a lost motion in the flexible webbing, that is found troublesome
otherwise.
It will be evident, then, that the weight is continually acting as an
accelerating or retarding influence in all records for head and feet,
but it is not considered objectionable, for it is a constant throughout
the series.
The other plan would require a circuit of cord leading in both
directions from the head or feet in a complete circuit, and would cause
in the opinion of the writer too much complication of apparatus.
The pulse-beats were taken by the stop-watch and wrist method so
familiar to the physician, while the respiration results were obtained
by the usual tambour apparatus for registering the chest expansion upon
smoked paper.
THE METHOD OF CALCULATION
Suppose that the drums have been set in rotation and that the paper is
unwinding from (_d_) and being wound on (_d´_), Fig. _B_, and suppose
that the subject has ruled series of 20 to 50 lines, as may be desired,
regulated by the stop-watch in the hands of the operator. The records
will appear much as Fig. 5 under the planimeter discussion, there being
for each speed one normal line to start and a series of lines following
and intended to be of the same length as the normal line. A series of
records, then, consists of 13 records of 20 or 50 lines, each running
from 20 to 200 beats per minute, the complete series having not less
than 260 and not more than 650 lines.
It should be added that the operator holds a pencil-point on the end
of each normal line just after the record of 20 or 50 lines is made
and turns the drum (_d_), thus marking a line nearly perpendicular
to the ruled lines and at the average or normal distance from the
starting-point; an absolutely correct record would show all ruled lines
ending on this line.
The calculation of this series of records by the ordinary method of
measuring each line, adding the lines of the series, averaging for the
constant error, and repeating the operation in a slightly different
form for the mean error or mean variation is of such enormous labor for
an extended investigation as to be beyond the capacity of one or of
several students; it is fortunate that the planimeter is at hand to be
employed in averaging each series, and this instrument has therefore
been selected as overcoming this difficulty.
It is desirable to consider the method employed by Dr. Woodworth to
overcome this danger of excessive computation, and it will now be
subjected to a critical and comparative examination.
He says, page 19 of his monograph on the Accuracy of Voluntary
Movement, that the subject's sole duty was to make the present line
equal to that immediately preceding, and the width of the slot was
so adjusted that the subject could see only the line just ruled.
After discussing certain matters of memory and its relation to the
memory-image, in the attempt to support this changing normal plan,
he confesses, on page 20, that this device is advantageous in much
simplifying the most tedious part of the graphic method, that of
computation.
While this is undoubtedly true, it needs careful scrutiny before
adoption, for, on the same page, he says that one source of error in
the method of making each line equal to the preceding one is that the
different movements in the same series are not comparable, but the
positive constant error is cumulative in its effect, and the normal
tends to become longer and longer.
Some relation between this source of error and such a record as shown
on page 29, Fig. 2, is evident, for, while it should be noted that this
cumulative effect is peculiar to a series of lines for one speed, it
has further a tendency to produce overruling at all speeds, and the
natural result is to increase the error unduly and unnaturally for the
higher speeds or as the speed increases, because there is then less
time for the discrimination and choice that will tend to shorten the
ruled line. It may be predicted, then, that Dr. Woodworth's method
will show a slight lengthening of normal between lines at slow speeds
and a much greater one at high speeds, the effect being to introduce
a variable factor that would have no existence were a better plan
adopted. The computation required for the average error is simple,
being dependent only on the first and last lines of a series, and it
is suspected that this very simplicity has led to its adoption and the
consequent neglect of certain serious sources of error.
He tells us, on page 20, that the constant and variable error may
well be isolated and studied separately, but indicates that they must
"somehow" be considered combined as nature has made them; that is,
analysis is desirable, but the synthetic method is more scientific.
This investigation will present data suggesting that
(1) Such a curve as that on page 29 of his monograph is not a
characteristic one and relations of length of ruled line, as well as
effects of weight, make it impossible to apply Weber's law or even the
law of Fullerton and Cattell in the way proposed by Dr. Woodworth.
(2) There is no relation, mathematical or other, between constant and
mean errors, and they not only may be but must be isolated and studied
separately, if an investigation is to be conducted in the interests of
scientific exactness.
It will be necessary to reject the method of Dr. Woodworth if the
most reliable results are desired, in which case the planimeter is a
necessity.
The theory of the planimeter cannot be developed at this place; every
physicist and engineer is acquainted with it. The writer believes he
was the first to apply the planimeter to the calculation of results
from psycho-physical data for averaging both mean and variable errors.
More than 340,000 lines were involved, each demanding two measurements.
The best type of planimeter for general use and the one used here is
the Amsler adjustable-arm form.
In Fig. _D_ is shown a record taken at twenty beats per minute that
will both explain the method of computation and show how the planimeter
has been used to find the constant and mean errors.
[Illustration: Fig. D
Hylan-20 beats. L.H.E.c.-2-13-Ό1.]
The record, as made and ready for computation, is not provided with the
line _cd_ or with the dotted lines that connect the ends of the ruled
lines. The line _ab_ is drawn by turning the drum of the apparatus with
a pencil held at the end of the normal or left-hand line _af_, which
was here 100 mm. long.
The tracing-point of the planimeter being placed at _a_, a reading
is taken, which was in this case 1486; after following with the
tracing-point the dotted path to _g_ and returning, via _gb_ and _ba_,
a second reading is taken, which was 1248; subtracting gives 238,
which should be read 2380 square mm. for the area of the space _agba;_
dividing by the distance _ab_, in this case 119 mm., gives the average
height, which is + 20.0 mm., the plus sign suggesting that the distance
thus found, which is the constant error for the series, be laid off in
addition to or beyond _Fa_.
This being done, a line _cd_ is drawn parallel to and 20.0 mm. from
_ab_, as the mean line of constant errors.
To find the mean error of the series a slightly different method is
necessary.