THE CONCEPT
In considering the process of thinking, we must classify the several
steps or stages of thought that we may examine each in detail for the
purpose of comprehending them combined as a whole. In actual thinking
these several steps or stages are not clearly separated in
consciousness, so that each stands out clear and distinct from the
preceding and succeeding steps or stages, but, on the contrary, they
blend and shade into each other so that it is often difficult to draw a
clear dividing line. The first step or stage in the process of thinking
is that which is called _a concept_.
A concept is a mental representation of anything. Prof. Wm. James says:
"The function by which we mark off, discriminate, draw a line around,
and identify a numerically distinct subject of discourse is called
_conception_." There are five stages or steps in each concept, as
follows:
I. _Presentation._ Before a concept may be formed there must first be a
presentation of the material from which the concept is to be formed. If
we wish to form the concept, _animal_, we must first have perceived an
animal, probably several kinds of animals--horses, dogs, cats, cows,
pigs, lions, tigers, etc. We must also have received impressions from
the sight of these animals which may be reproduced by the
memory--represented to the mind. In order that we may have a full
concept of _animal_ we should have perceived every kind of animal, for
otherwise there would be some elements of the full concept lacking.
Accordingly it is practically impossible to have a _full_ concept of
anything. The greater the opportunities for perception the greater will
be the opportunity for conception. In other books of this series we have
spoken of the value and importance of the attention and of clear and
full perception. Without an active employment of the attention, it is
impossible to receive a clear perception of anything; and unless the
perception has been clear, it is impossible for the mind to form a clear
concept of the thing perceived. As Sir Wm. Hamilton has said: "An act
of attention, that is an act of concentration, seems thus necessary to
every exertion of consciousness, as a certain contraction of the pupil
is requisite to every exertion of vision.... Attention, then, is to
consciousness what the contraction of the pupil is to sight, or to the
eye of the mind what the microscope or telescope is to the bodily
eye.... It constitutes the half of all intellectual power." And Sir B.
Brodie said: "It is attention, much more than in the abstract power of
reasoning, which constitutes the vast difference which exists between
minds of different individuals." And as Dr. Beattie says: "The force
with which anything strikes the mind is generally in proportion to the
degree of attention bestowed upon it."
II. _Comparison._ Following the stage of Presentation is the stage of
Comparison. We separate our general concept of _animal_ into a number of
sub-concepts, or concepts of various kinds of animals. We compare the
pig with the goat, the cow with the horse, in fact each animal with all
other animals known to us. By this process we distinguish the points of
resemblance and the points of difference. We perceive that the wolf
resembles the dog to a considerable degree; that it has some points of
resemblance to the fox; and a still less distinct resemblance to the
bear; also that it differs materially from the horse, the cow or the
elephant. We also learn that there are various kinds of wolves, all
bearing a great resemblance to each other, and yet having marked points
of difference. The closer we observe the various individuals among the
wolves, the more points of difference do we find. The faculty of
Comparison evidences itself in inductive reasoning; ability and
disposition to analyze, classify, compare, etc. Fowler says that those
in whom it is largely developed "Reason clearly and correctly from
conclusions and scientific facts up to the laws which govern them;
discern the known from the unknown; detect error by its incongruity with
facts; have an excellent talent for comparing, explaining, expounding,
criticising, exposing, etc." Prof. William James says: "Any personal or
practical interest in the results to be obtained by distinguishing,
makes one's wits amazingly sharp to detect differences. And long
training and practice in distinguishing has the same effect as personal
interest. Both of these agencies give to small amounts of objective
difference the same effectiveness upon the mind that, under other
circumstances, only large ones would make."
III. _Abstraction._ Following the stage of Comparison is that of
Abstraction. The term "Abstraction" as used in psychology means: "The
act or process of separating from the numerous qualities inherent in any
object, the particular one which we wish to make the subject of
observation and reflection. Or, the act of withdrawing the consciousness
from a number of objects with a view to concentrate it on some
particular one. The negative act of which Attention is the positive." To
_abstract_ is "to separate or set apart." In the process of Abstraction
in our consideration of _animals_, after having recognized the various
points of difference and resemblance between the various species and
individuals, we proceed to consider some special quality of animals,
and, in doing so, we _abstract_, set aside, or separate the particular
quality which we wish to consider. If we wish to consider the _size_ of
animals, we abstract the quality of size from the other qualities, and
consider animals with reference to size alone. Thus we consider the
various degrees of size of the various animals, classifying them
accordingly. In the same way we may abstract the quality of shape, color
or habits, respectively, setting aside this quality for special
observation and classification. If we wish to study, examine or consider
certain qualities in a thing we abstract that particular quality from
the other qualities of the thing; or we abstract the other qualities
until nothing is left but the particular quality under consideration. In
examining or considering a class or number of things, we first abstract
the qualities _possessed in common_ by the class or number of things;
and also abstract or set aside the qualities _not common_ to them.
For instance; in considering classes of animals, we abstract the
combined quality of milk-giving and pouch-possessing which is possessed
in common by a number of animals; then we group these several animals in
a class which we name the _Marsupialia_, of which the opossum and
kangaroo are members. In these animals the young are brought forth in an
imperfect condition, undeveloped in size and condition, and are then
kept in the pouch and nourished until they are able to care for
themselves. Likewise, we may abstract the idea of the _placenta_, the
appendage which connects the young unborn animal with the mother, and by
means of which the foetus is nourished. The animals distinguished by
this quality are grouped together as the Placental Mammals. The
Placental Mammals are divided into various groups, by an Abstraction of
qualities or class resemblance or difference, as follows: The
_Edentata_, or toothless creatures, such as the sloths, ant-eaters,
armadillos, etc.; the _Sirenia_, so-named from their fancied resemblance
to the fabled "sirens," among which class are the sea-cows, manatees,
dugongs, etc.; the _Cetacea_, or whale family, which although fish-like
in appearance, are really mammals, giving birth to living young which
they nourish with breast-milk, among which are the whales, porpoises,
dolphins, etc.; the _Ungulata_, or hoofed animals, such as the horse,
the tapir, the rhinoceros, the swine, the hippopotamus, the camel, the
deer, the sheep, the cow, etc.; the _Hyracoidea_, having teeth
resembling both the hoofed animals and the gnawing animals, of which the
coney or rock-rabbit is the principal example; the _Proboscidea_, or
trunked animals, which family is represented by the various families of
elephants; the _Carnivora_, or flesh-eaters, represented by various
sub-families and species; the _Rodentia_, or gnawers; the _Insectivora_,
or insect feeders; the _Cheiroptera_, or finger-winged; the
_Lemuroidea_, or lemurs, having the general appearance of the monkey,
but also the long bushy tail of the fox; the _Primates_, including the
monkeys, baboons, man-apes, gibbons, gorillas, chimpanzees,
orang-outangs and Man.
In all of these cases you will see that each class or general family
possesses a certain _common quality_ which gives it its classification,
and which quality is the subject of the Abstraction in considering the
particular group of animals. Further and closer Abstraction divides
these classes into sub-classes; for instance, the family or class of the
_Carnivora_, or flesh-eaters, may be divided by further Abstraction
into the classes of seals, bears, weasels, wolves, dogs, lions, tigers,
leopards, etc. In this process, we must first make the more general
Abstraction of the wolf and similar animals into the dog-family; and the
lion, tiger and similar forms into the cat-family.
Halleck says of Abstraction: "In the process of Abstraction, we draw our
attention away from a mass of confusing details, unimportant at the
time, and attend only to qualities common to the class. Abstraction is
little else than centering the power of attention on some qualities to
the exclusion of others."
IV. _Generalization._ Arising from the stage of Abstraction is the stage
of Generalization. _Generalization_ is: "The act or process of
generalizing or making general; bringing several objects agreeing in
some point under a common or general name, head or class; an extending
from particulars to generals; reducing or arranging in a genus; bringing
a particular fact or series of facts into a relation with a wider circle
of facts." As Bolingbroke says: "The mind, therefore, makes its utmost
endeavors to _generalize_ its ideas, beginning early with such as are
most familiar and coming in time to those which are less so." Under the
head of Abstraction we have seen that through Abstraction we may
Generalize the various species into the various families, and thus, in
turn, into the various sub-families. Following the same process we may
narrow down the sub-families into species composed of various
individuals; or into greater and still greater families or groups.
Generalization is really the act of Classification, or forming into
classes all things having certain qualities or properties _in common_.
The corollary is that _all things in a certain generalized class must
possess the particular quality or property common to the class_. Thus we
know that all animals in the class of the _Carnivora_ must eat flesh;
and that all _Mammals_ possess breasts from which they feed their young.
As Halleck says: "We put all objects having like qualities into a
certain _genus_, or class. When the objects are in that class, _we know
that certain qualities will have a general application to them all_."
V. _Denomination._ Following closely upon the step of Generalization or
Classification, is the step of Denomination. By _Denomination_ we mean
"the act of naming or designating by a name." A name is the symbol by
which we think of a familiar thing without the necessity for making a
distinct mental image upon each occasion of thought. Or, it may be
considered as akin to a _label_ affixed to a thing. As in the case of
the algebraic symbols, _a_, _b_, _c_, _x_, and _y_, by the use of which
we are able to make intricate calculations easily and rapidly, so may we
use these word symbols much more readily than we could the lengthy
descriptions or even the mental images of the thing symbolized. It is
much easier for us to think "_horse_" than it would be to think the full
definition of that animal, or to think of it by recalling a mental
picture of the horse each time we wished to think of it. Or, it is much
better for us to be able to glance at a label on a package or bottle
than to examine the contents in detail. As Hobbes says: "A word taken at
pleasure to serve for a mark, which may raise in our minds a thought
like to some thought we had before, and which being pronounced to
others, may be to them a sign of what thought the speaker had or had
not, before in his mind." Mill says: "A name is a word (or set of
words) serving the double purpose of a mark to recall to ourselves the
likeness of a former thought and as a sign to make it known to others."
Some philosophers regard names as symbols of _our ideas of things_,
rather than of the things themselves; others regard them as symbols of
the things themselves. It will be seen that the value of a name depends
materially upon the correct meaning and understanding regarding it
possessed by the person using it.