MOULDINGS
In Architecture the edges of projecting courses are softened into curved
profiles, sometimes enriched with details, which are technically known
as mouldings. These are invariably a stumbling-block to the beginner,
presumably due to want of appreciation of their purpose, which properly
understood, is indicative of their desirable employment.
[Illustration: No. 134. Forms of Mouldings.]
Mouldings are an important factor in effect, not only in Architecture,
but in structural form generally. In flat decoration they have to some
extent their corollary in borders, the proportionate widths of which are
governed by similar rules.
Of mouldings with curved profiles there are only six distinct forms,
though the individual character of these curves is subject to great
variation in treatment.
_Purpose_
As suggested, mouldings have a distinct purpose, are, in fact,
functional features, and may be defined as Sheltering or Crowning,
Bracketing or Supporting, and Binding.
In any composition where they may be necessary these functions should be
taken into consideration.
The profiles should always be concise whether the character of the curve
be refined or robust.
In classic architecture the relative proportions of the mouldings to the
other features are defined, and these proportions will be found useful
in other than purely architectural design.
_The Fillet_
Mouldings are divided from each other by narrow vertical bands or
Fillets, the employment of which is universal.
The Fillet in projection is equal to its height, and though strictly
divisional in its employment, is shown in conjunction with the curved
profiles to indicate relative proportion.
_Sheltering Mouldings_
There are two mouldings of curved profile in each category, the
Sheltering being the Cavetto and the Cyma Recta.
_The Cavetto_
The Cavetto is the culminating moulding of the Italian Doric cornice,
and is a concave curve, which may be the result of a quarter circle.
The Cavetto profile is used in other positions, which would appear to
challenge the previous statement, but reflection will confirm the
contention.
For instance, the vertical face of the Frieze in some instances
terminates with a cavetto curve which, though surmounted by the cornice,
is yet at the top of the frieze. The upper extremity of the column shaft
is similarly treated, and, it may be urged, so is the lower, but this,
though an exception to the rule, is at least an æsthetic necessity.
The projection of the Cavetto is equal to the height of the curve, and
the crowning Fillet may be from one-third to one-fourth the total
height, preferably the latter.
_Cyma Recta_
The other sheltering moulding, the Cyma Recta, is a curve of double
flexure with upper fillet. Its proper employment is as the crowning
member of the cornice, though, like the Cavetto, it is employed in other
positions, notably as a plinth moulding, when it appears in a reversed
position.
The projection is about equal to the height of the curved profile, the
height of the crowning fillet being from one-fourth to one-fifth of the
whole.
_Bracketing Mouldings_
The supporting mouldings are the Ovolo and the Cyma Reversa.
_The Ovolo_
The Ovolo is composed of a full convex curve, either a quarter circle or
slightly elliptic, which in height is equal to projection; and a fillet
at base one-fifth the total height. Frequently this lower member is in
the form of a half round bead of the same dimension as the fillet.
As a Bracketing moulding the Ovolo occurs in the capital of the Doric
column, and in the Ionic and Corinthian cornices under the corona or
facia, and is employed in other positions, where the sense of support is
justified.
_Cyma Reversa_
The Cyma Reversa, like the Cyma Recta, is a curve of double flexure, and
is headed with a fillet one-third to one-fourth the total height. The
projection is equal to the height of curved profile.
The Cyma Reversa is employed in the cornice of the Doric order as a
supporting moulding to the dentil course and below the culminating
Cavetto. It also occurs in the Capital of the column, where it forms the
upper member of the abacus. An apparent contradiction of the theory of
employment, which however is justified by the circumstance that the
column forms the support for the entablature.
It also occurs as a supporting moulding under the capping of the
pedestal, and is used in similar positions in the other orders.
_Binding Mouldings_
The Binding mouldings, the Torus and the Scotia, appear chiefly on
columns and pilasters, particularly the Scotia, which is essentially a
base moulding.
_The Torus_
The Torus is a convex curve composed of a full half circle, with upper
fillet one-fifth to one-sixth the total height. The projection is
decided by the curvature, which is based on a semi-circle with centre
slightly in advance of the vertical line of fillet.
The Torus varies in size according to position. For instance, in the
base of the Ionic column two are employed, the lower being the larger.
It is also invariably used on a smaller scale as a necking moulding
beneath the Capitals; in the small form it is commonly known as a bead
or astragal.
This employment of the Torus is distinctly appropriate and suggestive in
the sense of imparting strength by binding. When used in other positions
its purpose should be equally evident.
_The Scotia_
The Scotia in section is a deeply recessed concave curve with upper
fillet, and is generally used between the upper and lower Torii of the
base.
The upper fillet is of less projection than the lower extremity of
curved profile. The extreme projection being merely equal to the height
of curve and that of the upper fillet about one-half, the fillet being
about one-fifth the total height.
_The Facia_
The foregoing constitute the range of mouldings with curved profiles,
but there is another member, the Facia, that is an important feature in
composition.
The Facia, which is rectilinear in form with external face vertical or
slightly inclined, may be classed with the binding mouldings.
With regard to proportion, the height of the Facia should either exceed
or be less than that of the curved moulding with which it is invariably
surmounted. The projection being either considerably less or more than
its height.
When used in the cornice or in the capping of pedestals its under face
is generally recessed, this recess being equal to the height of the top
fillet of supporting moulding.
Only occasionally the Facia is furnished with an upper fillet (for
instance, when it occurs immediately below the Cyma Recta) to which it
is reconciled by a Cavetto curve.
The Facia is a divisional feature between the mouldings of curved
profile to which it is in valuable contrast.
_Decoration of Mouldings_
Mouldings may be plain or decorated, usually by carving, the details
probably being derived from the painted decoration of an early period.
When thus enriched the moulding is formed as to its profile, and the
details carved back from the face, leaving the highest parts in the
original surface. The carving being deeper and more sharply defined in
the case of mouldings that are in shadow. Such, for example, as the
Ovolo, and in lighter relief on those more exposed to direct light.
The decoration of mouldings ordinarily consists of the repetition of a
unit, composed on a central axis, in which curves are contrasted with
vertical features.
[Illustration: ENRICHMENT OF THE CYMA RECTA
ENRICHMENT OF THE FACIA
ENRICHMENT OF THE OVOLO
ENRICHMENT OF THE CYMA REVERSA
ENRICHMENT OF THE TORUS
No. 135.]
The principle involved is to base the detail on the sectional curvature
or profile line.
_Orthodox Details_
Thus the orthodox detail of the Ovolo, technically known as the “Egg and
Tongue,” consists of a framing curve, which is obtained by repeating the
profile on a centre line enclosing an ovoid shape. The angles between
the outer curves being occupied by a tongue or dart.
As previously stated, this moulding is deeply carved, the ovoid being
bold and well-rounded; the edges of the framing curves (in some
instances grooved or channelled) being left sharp and precise.
Frequently the “Bead and Reel” enrichment occurs at the base of the
Ovolo instead of the Fillet, this being the characteristic detail of the
Bead or Astragal.
The treatment of the Cyma Reversa is identical and results in the detail
known as the “Leaf and Dart”; but the carving is not so deep and the
relief, in consequence, comparatively slight.
_Angle Leaf_
When mouldings meet at mitral angles it is customary to employ a
covering leaf the midrib of which forms the angle.
The same principle is applicable to the Cyma Recta and the Cavetto,
though these mouldings are more often left plain; when decorated the
relief is comparatively slight.
The Scotia needs no decoration, the cast shadow resulting from its form
being sufficiently effective.
The Torus, though frequently left plain, can be decorated in various
ways.
The Guilloche is perhaps the most characteristic, but as suggestive of
its function, the Torus is at times carved in the form of a rope or
cable. Leaves suggestive of a wreath are used, also a reed band crossed
at intervals with ribbons, quite in keeping with the suggestion of
binding.
The Facia is generally plain, but the decoration, if used should,
following the principle, be rectilinear in character; such as vertical
flutings, or the key detail, both of which are used.
_Dentils_
Dentils, which form a distinctive feature in cornices, are a series of
rectilinear blocks, attached to a Facia, and may be placed in the
category of supporting members.
In their formation they are carved back from a facia of the requisite
projection.
In proportion they should be from one and a half to one and three
quarters their width in height, the intervals between being about half
the width.
The first Dentil at the angle, lines flush with the return face of
supporting Facia leaving a right angular interval between the two end
Dentils. This space is sometimes occupied by a pendant knob, acorn-like
in shape. The heads of intervals are often sloped backwards and
downwards, or occupied by a narrow fillet set back from face. Below the
Dentils the supporting Facia is displayed to about the height of a
fillet.
Considerable license prevailed in the later developments of the
Renaissance in the decoration of mouldings, license which is
permissible providing the general principle be borne in mind. The
concensus of opinion is in favour of repetition of a simple unit and
absence of variety. The vertical tendency resulting from the
bi-symmetrical character of the unit is desirable, and in happy contrast
to the horizontal direction of the moulding, while it also emphasises
the sense of structural support.
[Illustration: DETAIL OF THE DENTIL
No. 136.]
The profiles also are amenable to considerable variation, the curves
being the direct result of Geometry, or Freehand, either treatment being
a matter of attitude and discretion.
_Employment_
When employed in Architecture the forms and proportions given will be
found most suitable. In interior decoration and structural work, as in
furniture, considerable latitude is permissible.
It must be understood that the profiles of mouldings should not be
designed merely for the play of line, but for the effect resulting from
light and shade. In those close to the eye and in fair light, elliptic
curves will be more effective than more rounded sections, which are most
suitable to remote positions.
In composition, mouldings of curved profile should always be separated
by fillets or occasionally a facia, and the various members associated
with regard to their functional purpose. Obvious repetition of the same
dimension is to be avoided, and contrast should exist not only in the
shapes of profiles, but also in their respective heights.
[Illustration: MODIFIED PROPORTION DUE TO PERSPECTIVE
No. 137.]
_Attitude_
Attitude must be taken into account, as, for instance, in a cornice
which is above the eye level it is apparent that the mouldings will not
appear in elevation but in perspective; and not only the respective
heights will be visible, but also the projections.
When mouldings are decorated the details ranging above each other should
be so distributed as to fall in vertical alignment. This is particularly
necessary when the Ovolo enrichment occurs below dentils, or where it is
surmounted by Modillions as in the Corinthian cornice.
Panel mouldings cannot legitimately be considered as functional in the
foregoing sense, though in wood-work they are directly incidental to the
construction. Regarded as frames, their general purpose may be
considered as to bind or enclose.
In stone-work it may be at times desirable to introduce panel effects,
which may be obtained by boasting out or recessing parts, possible only
on a large scale. A comparatively simple and justifiable treatment is to
sink channels of moulded profiles framing the enclosed area, which is
left in the original plane. A treatment that is effective and
comparatively economical.
[Illustration: CHANNELLED MOULDING IN STONE
No. 138.]
_Wood Panelling_
Panelling in wood-work is not only legitimate, but structurally
necessary, as it is not practical to cover large areas except by some
method of building up.
Therefore, not only panelling, but doors and structural wood-work
generally are constructed of stiles
[Illustration: No. 139. Panel Mouldings in Wood.
A. Late Linen-fold Panel, with scribed mouldings on stiles and
rails.
B. C. Panels of Settleback and Chest, with framing with simple
moulded edges.
D. Early Jacobean Panelling, with stopped mouldings on stiles and
rails.
E. Later Jacobean Panelling.
F. Later Jacobean Section of applied mouldings of the Bolection
type.
]
and rails, forming framings; the spaces enclosed being occupied by the
panels.
The edges of the stiles and rails are moulded. In the late Gothic and
Tudor periods the mouldings were often simply scribed; but later the
profiles became more distinct in contour.
These early mouldings were narrow and simple in form, arrived at mainly
by softening or rounding the square edges of the frame.
_Applied Mouldings_
Applied mouldings were apparently employed in the Jacobean period, and
the sections became more elaborate. Worked independently, they were
frequently higher in relief than the framings. The facility with which
they could be worked and applied resulted at this period in a fashion
for complicated mitreing hardly justifiable from a constructional point
of view, though effective if not overdone.
[Illustration: No. 140. Applied Mouldings.]
In the composition of such mouldings it is desirable that the sizes and
contours employed should be contrasting, and that all curved sections be
divided by fillets.
As the width of the moulding throughout is uniform, it is obvious that
mitral angles must be perfect bi-sections of the meeting lines.
With regard to proportion, the width of mouldings may generally be
one-fourth to one-eighth that of the panel according to desired effect,
robust or refined.
[Illustration: No. 141. Part of Dresser.
Applied mouldings on drawer fronts.]
_Bolection Moulding_
When boldness in appearance is required the type known as the Bolection
Moulding may be used. This, in its orthodox form, is a species of inner
frame between the main framing of the stiles and rails, and the panels,
but was more commonly an applied moulding.
[Illustration: No. 142. Bolection Moulding.]
In any case, it is worked independently, and its outer edges lap the
framing, on which it is in relief, resulting in strong effect of light
and shade.
Panel mouldings may be decorated by carving with the orthodox
enrichments or variants based on them, but should always be in contrast
to the panels they enclose.
In furniture, mouldings play an important part, and in many positions
can be regulated by functional considerations. In horizontal positions,
such as in tables and sideboards, where personal contact is possible,
any moulded edges should be of softly rounded character for obvious
reasons.
[Illustration: TABLE TOP MOULDINGS
No. 143.]
_Plaster_
In plaster-work mouldings may be cast in a mould or run by the strigil.
When decorated, the former only is possible, and as such work is
originally modelled, it is permissible to introduce details of a plastic
nature, such as interrupting the run by imposed and enveloping floral or
other forms.
Mechanically produced mouldings cannot be undercut, though this is
practicable in plaster where the jelly mould is employed.
[Illustration: TURNED WOOD
No. 144.]
Mouldings are used for decorative and divisional purposes in various
materials, and to some extent their character is affected by the
formative process involved.
_Wood-turning_
Thus in wood-turning the general profiles are kept fairly soft, taking
usually, as in the case of stair rails and furniture legs, the baluster
form. As a rule there is little variation between the maximum and
minimum diameters.
The baluster shafts have bases and capitals of curved profiles, with
intervening fillets, which latter may be fairly sharp, as they are by
their position protected from damage.
_Metal Turning_
Turning is also employed in metal work, the stems and bodies of Dutch
candelabra, both standard and hanging, being originally cast as to
general form and finished in the lathe.
[Illustration: THROWN
MOULDED
THROWN & TURNED
POTTERY
No. 145.]
The general treatment is similar to that of wood-turning, except that
the material being much harder, the mouldings can be more sharply
defined and delicate in detail.
_Pottery_
The throwing of pottery is analagous to turning, but by this method
little more can be accomplished than thickened edges. The Greek vases
show some precision of profile, the result of turning on a lathe after
the vessel had been formed on the wheel.
[Illustration: No. 146. Moulded Vase in Terra-cotta.]
In moulded pottery more definition is possible than in thrown variety,
but the profiles are comparatively blunt and never attain the precision
due to turning.
_Metal Mouldings_
In metal, mouldings may be rolled or drawn. In the first they are formed
in the solid, but drawn mouldings are formed in plate or sheet metal and
are therefore hollow and of uniform thickness.
[Illustration: ROLLED METAL MOULDINGS
No. 147.]
By either method mouldings of any required section are obtainable
provided they are not undercut.
Both varieties are ordinarily obtainable in various sections and sizes
in iron, brass, bronze, and silver.
Where special sections are required, the cost of the tools necessary for
their production would have to be taken into account.
[Illustration: DRAWN METAL MOULDINGS
No. 148.]
_Wrought Iron_
Though the employment of rolled or drawn mouldings is usual in wrought
iron-work, the effect is somewhat mechanical and lacking in character.
Preferably only such forms as are attained by either swaging or building
up should be employed as being more characteristic of the material and
method of working.
[Illustration: No. 149. Wrought Iron Swaged Moulding.]
[Illustration: No. 150. Wrought Iron Built-up Mouldings.]
_Silver-work_
In silver-work drawn mouldings are usually formed by hand, the necessary
draw plates being made by the workman.
[Illustration: No. 151. Wrought Iron Built-up Mouldings.]
_Spinning_
Mouldings in metal are also formed by the process of spinning, in which
undercutting is not permissible.
[Illustration: SPUN METAL
No. 152.]
_Repoussé_
They are also possible in Repoussé work, but are soft in character, and
lack the precision that marks the mechanical production.