DESIGN AND TRADITION
“They are the elect to whom beautiful things mean only Beauty.”--_Oscar
Wilde._
[Illustration: Sketch Design for Equestrian Statue, by E. A. Rickards,
F.R.I.B.A.
This drawing is remarkable as an anticipation of eventual appearance.
Thoroughly impressionistic in treatment, all irrelevant detail is
omitted.]
UNIVERSAL ART SERIES
EDITED BY FREDERICK MARRIOTT
DESIGN AND
TRADITION
A SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE
PRINCIPLES AND HISTORIC
DEVELOPMENT OF ARCHITECTURE
AND THE APPLIED
ARTS
BY
AMOR FENN
[Illustration: colophon]
LONDON
CHAPMAN AND HALL, LTD.
1920
[Illustration]
THE WESTMINSTER PRESS
HARROW ROAD
LONDON
AUTHOR’S PREFACE
It may be urged with some reasonable basis of truth that much of the
modern art work fails to attain the level of that of the past. It must
be conceded, however, that demand and appreciation is more general and
widely diffused. As social conditions have developed, interest in
environment has been stimulated. Improved processes resulting in more
economic production have rendered possible an indulgence by those of
moderate means, attainable only at earlier periods by the wealthier
class.
As a result of this more general appreciation the professional services
of the artist are necessarily in greater request, thus affording a
sphere of work not only lucrative but temperamentally attractive.
At the present time the facilities available to the prospective artist
are considerably greater than at any previous period. In every district
and important centre, there are schools specialising in the Arts and
Crafts, giving opportunities for training at fees that are purely
nominal. Most of these deal with the various phases of artistic
expression on logical and sound lines, but the knowledge and experience
essential to a successful artistic career is invariably acquired in
professional work to which the art school training is preparatory.
To those specialising in design, the study of Historic Style is of
paramount importance. Intelligent investigation will show that in all
the varying phases, the underlying factors are much the same, and
appreciation of these will be found invaluable in personal work.
Necessarily brief, this book has been prompted by the memory of early
bewilderment and difficulties, when a guiding hand would have saved much
valuable time and mis-directed energy.
A considerable amount of the available space is devoted to Architectural
features, with the conviction that a knowledge of these will be found
helpful in the formation of methods, logical and constructive.
Attention is directed to the frontispiece, a typical example of the
extraordinary genius of E. A. Rickards, F.R.I.B.A., the original of
which is in the possession of Philip Connard, A.R.A., to whom
indebtedness for its use is acknowledged.
The author’s thanks are also due to Miss Dora Bard and Mr. C. E. Bernard
for the reproduction of drawings made by them during their tenure in
successive years of the “Travelling Studentship” of the Society of
British Decorators.
For the use of the following photographs the author desires to make
acknowledgment to the Authorities of the Victoria and Albert Museum,
South Kensington, as holders of the Crown copyright:
Nos. 257.
258.
259.
265.
271.
272.
273.
274.
275.
281A.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER.....PAGE
I Introductory.....1
Human Limitations, p. 1--Inspiration--Process and Material, p. 2--Early
Training, p. 4--Art and Existence, p. 5--Natural Taste--Commercial
Production, p. 6--“Ornaments,” p. 7--Modern Development--Public Apathy,
p. 8--Elementary Pattern, p. 9--Early Impressionism--Personal
Production, p. 10--Early Social Conditions, p. 11--Influence--Commercial
Intercourse, p. 12--Effect on Design, p. 13--Ethical side of Art, p.
14--Desire for Novelty, p. 15.
II Historic Review.....16
Style, p. 16--Intercommunication--Climate and Material, p. 17--Phases in
Style, p. 18--The Lintel, p. 19--The Arch, p. 20--Egyptian Art, p.
22--Chaldean Art, p. 25--Greek Art, p. 28--Roman Art, p. 35--Vaulting,
p. 36--Greek Influence, p. 37--Roman Development of Ornament, p.
38--Græco-Roman Painted Decoration, p. 39--Byzantine Dome, p. 43--Early
Christian Art, p. 46--Byzantine Metal Work, and Enamel, p. 47--Roman
Influence Abroad--Romanesque Style, p. 49--Church Development, p.
50--Dark Ages, p. 53--Crusades, p. 56--Origin of the Pointed Arch, p.
58--Gothic Style, p. 59--Phases of Gothic--Early Pointed, p.
60--Decorated Gothic, p. 64--Perpendicular Gothic--Glass Windows, p.
67--Civic Influences, p. 70--Effect of Commerce--Classic Tradition in
Italy, p. 71--Foreign Influence in England--The Dwelling House, p.
72--The Reformation, p. 74--The Renaissance, p. 75--Early Florentine
Exponents, p. 76--Rome, p. 78--Venice, p. 80--Venetian Influence, p.
81--Painted Decoration, p. 82--Græco-Roman Influence, p. 83--Early
French Renaissance, p. 85--Native Exploitation, p. 87--English
Renaissance, p. 88--Italians in England, p. 89--Study of Classic
Style--Thomas Thorpe, p. 91--Flemish Influence, p. 92--Jacobean Work, p.
93--Development in Dwellings, p. 98--Evolution of Professional Designer,
p. 101--Inigo Jones, p. 102--Louis XIII, p. 103--Louis XIV, p.
106--“Boule” Work--Mirrors, p. 109--Louis XV, p. 110--Régence--Rococo,
p. 111--Lacquer “Vernis Martin”--Later English Renaissance, p. 113--Sir
Christopher Wren, p. 114--Classic Treatment of the Spire, p. 116--Dutch
and French Influences, p. 118--Queen Anne Period--Early Georgian, p.
120--Furniture Design, Chippendale, p. 121--Mayhew--Robert Adam, p.
123--Hepplewhite, p. 126--Sheraton--Louis XVI, p. 127--Riesener and
Gouthière, p. 133--Empire--Empire in England--Later English
Architecture, p. 135--French Influence on Europe, p. 136.
III Mouldings.....138
Purpose--The Fillet--Sheltering Mouldings--The Cavetto, p. 139--Cyma
Recta--Bracketing Mouldings--The Ovolo, p. 140--Cyma Reversa--Binding
Mouldings, p. 141--The Torus--The Scotia--The Facia, p. 142--Decoration
of Mouldings, p. 143--Orthodox Details--Angle Leaf, p. 145--Dentils, p.
146--Employment of Mouldings, p. 147--Attitude, p. 148--Panel
Mouldings--Woodwork, p. 149--Applied Mouldings, p. 151--Bolection
Moulding, p. 152--Mouldings in Plaster Work--Wood Turning, p. 153--Metal
Turning--Pottery, p. 154--Mechanically produced Metal Mouldings--Wrought
Iron, p. 155--Silver Work, p. 156--Sheet Metal, Spinning, and Repoussé,
p. 157.
IV Architectural Proportions.....158
Introduction, p. 158--System of Proportion, p. 159--The Order, p.
160--Doric Order, p. 161--Ionic Order--Corinthian Order, p. 163--Doric
Entablatures--Mutules, p. 164--Ionic Entablature, p. 169--Corinthian
Entablature, p. 171--The Column, p. 172--The Capital--Doric Capital, p.
173--Ionic Capital--Ionic Volute, p. 175--Corinthian Capital, p.
178--The Base, p. 180--Doric Base, p. 181--Ionic Base, p.
182--Corinthian Base--The Arch, p. 184--Doric Impost, p. 185--Doric
Archivolt--Ionic Impost, p. 186--Ionic Archivolt--Corinthian
Impost--Corinthian Archivolt--The Keystone, p. 187--The Pedestal, p.
188--Doric Pedestal, p. 189--Ionic Pedestal--Corinthian Pedestal, p.
190--The Baluster, p. 191--Spacing of Balusters--Balustrading, p.
193--Use of Columns, p. 194--Disposition and Spacing in Colonnades, p.
195--Orders above Orders, p. 197--The Pilaster, p. 199--Arcades, p.
200--The Subsidiary Order, p. 202--Treatment of Superimposed Orders, p.
204--Rustication, p. 205--The Basement, p. 207--The Attic, p. 208--The
Pediment, p. 209--Doors, p. 211--Windows, p. 213.
V Division of Surface.....216
Wall Treatment, p. 216--Ceilings, p. 218--Jacobean--Carolean and
Georgian, p. 221--Adam Ceilings, p. 222--Vaults and Domes, p. 224--The
Cove, p. 225--The Frieze, p. 226--Borders, p. 227--Geometric
Elements--The Undulate Line, p. 230--Repetition and Alternation, p.
233--Treatment of Angles, p. 234--Pilaster Treatment--Panelled
Pilasters, p. 235--Capitals and Bases--Treatment of Panels, p.
236--Juxtaposition, p. 238--The Growth Line in Composition, p.
241--Grouping and Massing of Detail--Division of Area, p. 242--Human and
Animal Life in Composition, p. 244--Forms in the Round, p. 245 Supports
and Balusters--Standards, p. 246--Proportion, p. 247--Vase Forms and
Treatment, p. 248--Working Drawings, p. 249--The Segment or Stretch out,
p. 250.
VI Development of Conventional Ornament.....254
Outline Drawing, p. 254--Undesirable Realism, p. 255--Craft
Restrictions, p. 256--Materialistic Influence, p. 258--Early Renderings,
p. 261--The Anthemion, p. 262--Greek Sculptured Ornament, p. 263--The
Acanthus Leaf, p. 264--Roman Development--The Scroll, p.
266--Græco-Roman--Byzantine, p. 267--Romanesque--Gothic--Italian
Renaissance, p. 268--The Husk Leaf, p. 269--The Rosette, p.
270--Tendrils, p. 271--Nature Influence--Inconsistent employment of
Symbolic Elements, p. 272--Consistency in Growth--Branching, p.
273--Treatment and Employment of Leaves, p. 275--The start in Ornament,
p. 276--Italian Renaissance Influence--Jacobean, p. 280--French
Renaissance--Henry II, p. 281--Louis XIII, Louis XIV, Régence--Louis
XV, p. 283--Rococo--Louis XVI, p. 284--Grinling Gibbons School of
Carving--Adam Style, p. 285--Empire--System of the Acanthus Leaf, p.
286.
VII Treatment in Design.....288
Natural Attraction, p. 288--Decorative Materials, p. 289--Justification
of Treatment, p. 290--Undesirable Imitation, p. 291--Technical
Considerations--Methods of Expression, p. 292--Treatment of Leaves, p.
293--Surface Interest--Painted Decoration, p. 294--Stencilled Work, p.
295--Mechanical Production--Printed and Woven
Fabrics--Needlework--Appliqué, p. 296--Lace-Wood Inlay--Intarsia, p.
297--Veneer--Marquetry--“Boule” Work, p. 298--Mosaic, p. 299--Byzantine
use of Marble--Book Decoration, p. 300--Bindings--Relief Work--Economic
Result of Method--Desirable Treatment in Carving, p. 301--Backgrounds,
p. 303--Reproduction Processes--Metal Repoussé, p. 304--Cast Metal, p.
306--Character of Cast Work, p. 307.
VII Mythology and Symbolism.....310
Early Symbolic Ornament, p. 310--Customs, p. 311--Origin of
Mythology--Nature Myths, p. 312--Light and Darkness--Melanesian Legend,
p. 313--Darkness as a Devouring Monster--Season Myths, p. 314--Sun
Myths--Belief in Natural Phenomena, p. 315--Greek and Roman Deities, p.
316--Scandinavian Mythology, p. 317--Rising and Setting Symbolised, p.
318--Winds Personified--Predestination, p. 319--The Fates--Propitiation
and Sacrifice, p. 320--Early Burial Customs--Taboo--Roman Lares, p.
322--Mediæval Legend--Early Spiritual Belief, p. 323--Prehistoric
Treatment of Epileptics--Prohibition, p. 324--Belief in Magical
Qualities, p. 325--The Shirt of Nessus--Swords, p. 326--Invulnerability,
p. 327--Belief in Numbers--The Muses, p. 328--Sacred Trees and Flowers,
p. 329--Sacred Animals--Evangelist Symbols, p. 331--The Serpent--The
Dragon, p. 332--Poetic License in Tradition, p. 333--Animals in
Christian Art, p. 334--Association of Human and Animal
Qualities--Totemism--Cannibalism, p. 336--The Sphinx--Assyrian Winged
Monsters, p. 337--Pegasus--The Harpy--Sirens, p. 338--Pan--The
Nymphs--The Centaur, p. 339--Symbolism of the Circle, p. 340--Symbols of
the Trinity--The Wand, a Symbol of Authority--The Hand, p. 341--The
Caduceus--The Thyrsus, p. 342--The Trident--The Cross, p. 343--The
Pastoral Staff, p. 344--Symbols of Martyrdom--Symbolism of Gems and
Colours, p. 345--Masks--Symbols of Time, p. 346--Secular
Symbols--Trophies, p. 347--Heraldry--Interest and Meaning in Modern Art,
p. 348.
IX Ways and Means.....350
Perception, p. 350--Accepted Conventions, p. 351--Influence of
Fashion--Harmonious Consistency, p. 352--Natural Suggestion--Colour
Scheme, p. 353--Early Training--Nature Study, p. 355--Aspect and
Attitude, p. 356--Treatment of Studies, p. 358--Drawings for
Reproduction, p. 359--Opaque Colour--Method of Enlarging or Reducing
Drawings, p. 360--Textile Designs, p. 361--Wall Papers, p.
362--Architectural Drawings--Structural Design, p. 363--Lucid
Arrangement of Details, p. 364--Mathematical Equipment, p. 365--Use of
the Ruling Pen--Proportional Compasses, p. 367--Tracings--Conclusion, p.
368.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Sketch Design for Equestrian Statue, by E. A. RICKARDS,
F.R.I.B.A. _Frontispiece_
ARCHITECTURE, HISTORIC No. Page
Egyptian Temple, Section and Plan of 10 23
Temple, Entrance Façade 11 24
Capital from Philæ 12 24
Persian Capitals from Persepolis 16 27
Greek Doric Temple, The Parthenon 21 30
Ionic, The Erectheum 22 31
Corinthian, The Choragic Monument 23 32
Vase paintings of Doric and Ionic Orders 19 29
House about 100 A.D. Bas-relief in British Museum 20 29
Roman, The Pantheon, Rome 26 36
The Coliseum, Rome 27 37
The Arch of Titus, Rome 28 38
Byzantine St. Vitali Ravenna, Section and Plan 35 44
Capitals 36 (Plate)
Interior, Ravenna 39 (Plate)
Romanesque Capitals 42 50
Tower 43 50
Plan, Cathedral at Worms 44 51
Bay of Cathedral at Worms 45 52
Window, St. Alban’s Abbey 46 52
Church Interior with Triforium 47 52
Doorway, Kilpeck Church 49 54
Gothic Buttresses 53 58
Early Pointed Pier 54 60
Early Pointed Bay of Church 55 61
Early Lancet Windows 56 62
Early Pointed Windows, Plate Tracery 57 62
Early Pointed Arch Mouldings 58 62
Early Pointed Capital 59 63
Early Pointed Tracery Windows 60 63
Early Pointed Spire 61 64
Decorated, Tracery Windows 62 64
Decorated, Carving 63 65
Decorated, Arch Mouldings 64 65
Decorated, Capital 65 66
Decorated, Capital 66 66
Decorated, Spire 67 66
Perpendicular, Bay of Church showing Development
of Clerestory 68 67
Perpendicular, Windows 69 68
Perpendicular, Fan Vaulting 70 69
Perpendicular, Tower 71 69
Domestic Tudor, Window 75 74
Renaissance, Italian, Strozzi Palace 76 76
Italian, Pandolfini Palace 77 77
Italian, St. Peter’s, Rome 78 79
Italian, Farnese Palace 79 80
Italian, Vendramini Palace 80 81
Italian, Library of St. Mark 81 82
English, Banqueting House, Whitehall 05 1031
French, Louis XIII. Luxembourg 06 1041
French, Louis XIII. Barocco Detail, Ste. Marie, Nevers 07 1051
French, Louis XIV. Louvre 09 1061
French, Louis XV. Pantheon 12 1101
English, St. Paul’s Cathedral 18 1151
English, Spire, St. Mary le Strand 19 1161
Tomb of Tantalus in Lydia 5 19
Tomb of Beni Hassan 17 28
Tomb at Kyanea-Jaghu 18 28
ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES
Arch, The Principle of the 6 20
Balusters, Details of 170 192
Cornice, Treatment where Order is not employed 180 209
Doors, General Proportion of 182 211
Treatment of 183 212
Frieze, Roman 198 226
Frieze, Roman 199 227
Gothic Vault, Section of 7 20
Vaulting 9 21
Cross Vaulting 48 53
Lintel, The 4 19
Lintel, The, Joggled Joints 8 21
Orders, General Proportions of the 154 162
Order, The Doric 153 160
The Doric Entablature, Vignola 155 165
The Doric Entablature, Mutular 156 166
Order, The Doric Capital 159 173
The Doric Base 165 181
The Doric Pedestal 169 189
The Doric Archivolt 168 186
The Doric Impost 168 186
The Doric Arcading 174 201
The Doric Arcading with Pedestal 175 202
The Doric Column and Pilaster 173 200
The Ionic Entablature 157 168
The Ionic Capital 160 174
The Ionic Capital (Angular Volutes) 161 176
The Ionic, Detail of Angular Volute 162 177
The Ionic Base 166 182
The Ionic Pedestal 169 189
The Ionic Archivolt 168 186
The Ionic Impost 168 186
The Corinthian Entablature 158 170
The Corinthian Capital 163 179
The Corinthian Capital 164 180
The Corinthian Base 167 183
The Corinthian Pedestal 169 189
The Corinthian Archivolt 168 186
The Corinthian Impost 168 186
The Superimposed 172 198
The Subsidiary 176 203
The Subsidiary, Detail of Entablature 180 209
Pediment, The 181 210
Pilaster The, Capital 209 236
The, French Renaissance 208 236
Rustication, Types of 178 206
In Arcades 179 207
Spacing of Columns 171 196
Windows 184 214
Three-Light 185 215
DECORATIVE FEATURES
Acanthus Leaf, Brush Work 235 264
Development 251 281
Development 252 282
Construction of 253 287
Anthemion, Greek, Relief Treatment 232 262
Greek, Vase Painting 231 261
Border, The Geometric, Key or Labyrinth 200 228
Border, The Geometric, Interlacing 201 229
The Scroll 204 232
The Evolute Scroll 207 234
The Vertebrate 244 274
Branching, Types of 243 274
Inlay, Wood, Geometric 260 297
Wood Borders 261 297
Wood Panel 262 297
Wood Panel 263 298
Wood, Italian Intarsia 264 298
Metal “Boule” Work 266 299
Metal “Boule” Work 267 299
Inlaid Floor, Italian Renaissance 188 219
Lace 259 (Plate)
Marquetry 265 (Plate)
Mosaic Work, Spandril, Byzantine 40 (Plate)
Borders 268 (Plate)
Border, Roman 269 (Plate)
Border, Roman 270 (Plate)
Panel, Roman 271 (Plate)
Needlework 257 (Plate)
Appliqué 258 (Plate)
Relief Ornament, Prehistoric 2 (Plate)
Greek Stone Carving 218 (Plate)
Roman Stone Carving 237 (Plate)
Roman Stone Carving 29 39
Byzantine Stone Carving 37 46
Byzantine Stone Carving 38 47
Byzantine Stone Carving 216 244
Romanesque Stone Carving 217 244
Gothic Stone Carving 238 268
Gothic Stone Carving 239 269
Gothic Stone Carving 219 (Plate)
Renaissance, Italian 248 278
Renaissance, Italian 249 279
Renaissance, French 88 86
Renaissance, French 250 280
Renaissance, French 90 88
Jacobean Gouge Work 276 302
Jacobean Wood Carving 277 303
Jacobean Wood Carving 95 94
Louis XIV. Wood Carving 275 (Plate)
English Wood Carving 274 (Plate)
Relief Ornament, French Wood Carving 113 111
French Wood Carving 279 306
French Wood Carving 212 239
French Wood Carving 211 238
French, Part of Ceiling 210 237
French Wood Carving 133 134
Icelandic Wood Carving 280 306
English 18th Century 273 (Plate)
English, Modern 213 240
Analysis of Composing Lines 214 241
Rosettes, Types of 241 270
Scroll, The, Greek Stone Carving 233 262
The Evolute, Archaic 229 259
The Evolute, Savage Art 230 260
Scroll, The, Wrought Iron 234 263
Brush Work 236 265
As a Growth Line 202 230
Italian Renaissance 240 270
Start, The, Nest or Cup Leaf 246 277
Half Figure 247 277
Tendril, Roman 242 272
Terminals, Branch and Scroll 245 275
Textiles, 14th Century Woven Fabric 3 13
14th Century Woven Fabric 51 56
Sicilian Tapestry 52 57
14th Century Tapestry 205 232
Turkish Brocade 203 231
French Brocade 206 233
Details of Inhabited Pattern 256 295
Tooled Book Binding 272 (Plate)
FURNITURE
Egyptian 13 25
Egyptian 14 26
Assyrian Seat 15 27
Greek 24 33
Roman Couch 30 39
Roman Sella or Seat 31 39
Romanesque Chair 50 55
Gothic Chair 72 70
Gothic Bedstead 73 71
Italian Renaissance 86 84
Italian Renaissance 87 85
Italian Renaissance 92 89
French Renaissance 91 88
English 17th Century 99 98
English 17th Century 100 99
English 17th Century 101 100
English 17th Century 102 100
English 17th Century. Baluster 221 246
French Louis XIII 108 105
French Louis XIV 111 108
French Louis XV 265 (Plate)
English late 17th Century 116 113
English late 17th Century 117 114
Dutch and Queen Anne Chairs 121 119
English 18th Century 122 122
French Louis XVI 132 133
INTERIOR FEATURES
Ceilings, Italian Renaissance 187 218
Italian, General Plan 189 220
Italian Renaissance, Painted, 83 (Plate)
Italian Renaissance, Painted, 85 (Plate)
Tudor 190 221
Jacobean 191 222
Jacobean 192 223
Carolean 193 224
Robert Adam 194 225
Chimney Pieces, Gothic 13th Century 74 71
Italian Renaissance 93 90
French Renaissance 89 87
Jacobean 96 95
Domes and Vaults, Italian Renaissance:
St. Peter’s, Rome 197 (Plate)
Villa Madama 196 (Plate)
Ducal Palace, Venice 195 (Plate)
Doors, Jacobean 97 96
Jacobean 98 97
French Renaissance 278 305
French Renaissance, Louis XV 114 112
English Renaissance 120 117
French Renaissance, Louis XVI 130 132
Frieze, The Jacobean, Carved Wood 94 93
French, Louis XVI 131 133
Interior Decoration, Græco-Roman 32 40
Interior Decoration, Wall Division 186 217
Italian Renaissance 84 (Plate)
French Renaissance, Louis XIV 110 107
English “Adam” 123 124
English “Adam” 124 125
French Louis XVI 126 128
French Louis XVI 127 129
French Louis XVI 128 130
French Louis XVI 129 131
METAL WORK
Græco-Roman 33 41
Græco-Roman 34 42
Byzantine Tradition 41 48
Wrought Iron 282 307
Wrought Iron, Venetian 283 307
Repoussé 103 101
Repoussé 281 (Plate)
Cast 104 102
Cast, Louis XV 115 113
Sheffield Plate 125 126
Filagree Jewellery 228 257
Cast Iron (Modern) 222 247
Surface Decoration of 284 308
METHOD
Of Enlarging and Reducing Drawings 286 361
MOULDINGS
Profiles of 134 138
Enrichment of 135 144
Detail of the Dentil 136 147
Aspect of 137 148
Stone, Panel Effect 138 149
Wood Panels 139 150
Wood Panels, Applied 140 151
Wood Panels, Applied 141 152
The Bolection 142 152
Table Top 143 153
Turned Wood 144 153
Pottery 145 154
Pottery 146 154
Rolled Metal 147 155
Drawn Metal 148 155
Wrought Iron, Swaged 149 156
Wrought Iron, Built up 150 156
Wrought Iron, Built up 151 156
Spun Metal 152 157
VASE FORMS
Primitive Pottery 1 (Plate)
Greek Pottery 25 34
Greek Pottery, Painted Details 19 29
Effect of Perspective 220 245
Segments of Contoured Surfaces 226 251
Segments of Contoured Surfaces 227 252
Stretch-out of the Cylinder 224 249
Stretch-out of the Cone 225 250
Types of Vase Decoration 223 248
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTORY
It is an article of faith that to design entails the possession of the
creative faculty, which may be taken for granted with the proviso, that
the creative faculty is concerned rather with the association of
elements common to all than with invention pure and simple.
_Human Limitations_
To be more explicit, the human imagination is limited to personal or
acquired experience. At no period has any form been created that is not
traceable to some process of production, or natural suggestion; for
instance, the artistic conception of an angel is merely a combination of
human and bird form, and is in no sense an original creation.
The term originality is indeed generally misunderstood, and for the
reasons already advanced it is impossible to be original. The real
interest in artistic production of any kind is the expression of
personality, in other words, the individual point of view of the artist;
which is more or less interesting, as it is more or less personal in
idea and expression.
In the training of the designer it is essential that the imagination be
carefully cultivated and trained to accept suggestion from any possible
source.
Design is distinct from any phase of realistic expression inasmuch as
the subject does not exist in any concrete form, but has to be mentally
visualised.
“_Inspiration_”
Too much importance is attached to what is believed to be inspiration,
but obviously if inspired, design is rather in the nature of an accident
than of the deliberate intention it should be and cannot be credited to
the individual exponent. What at first sight suggests inspired thought
may be accounted for by sub-consciousness, which is really responsible
for the evolution of an idea or the solution of some problem.
It would be beneficial to reject once and for all the idea of
inspiration with its tendency to encourage the “artistic temperament” in
the belief that it “does not feel like it.”
The designer must be ready to respond at any time, and this implies a
logical and balanced mind, capable of grasping essentials, and
conditions, and of evolving some desirable solution.
Another superstition is that a design is a drawing, and it only requires
a facility in this form of expression to produce a design. This is a
fallacy, as though many designs are for convenience expressed through
this medium, any such drawing must be made with a knowledge of the
technical details of the final method of production, to be a practical
design.
_Process and Material_
Design is therefore inseparable from consideration of material and
process, with which the designer must be acquainted; without this
technical knowledge it is impossible to take full advantage of the
method of production either in the direction of economy or effect.
Other considerations are utilitarian and æsthetic, the former having
regard to purpose, the latter to appearance.
That mere utility is not in itself sufficient is evident; the common
enamelled saucepan and the medicine bottle are certainly utilitarian,
but no one would assert that they are satisfying from the æsthetic point
of view.
An important consideration in design is the “market” which is governed
by popular or individual demand.
Those who pay the piper call the tune, and the designer has often to
work to prescribed conditions.
This apparently implies restriction of individuality, but the designer
who refuses to conform will probably find the market even more
restricted.
It also implies that he must be well versed in the various styles or
historic tradition, so that his work, if desirable, may be in harmony
with existing environment; but in these circumstances it is quite
possible to produce work that is individual and distinctive.
Designers, craftsmen and manufacturers are all dependent upon public
demand, which must be taken into account, and their business is as far
as possible to raise the general standard of taste, by producing of
their best. Any attempt on their part to insist on what shall or shall
not be done would undoubtedly result in failure.
To sum up, the designer must not only be an accomplished draughtsman
well versed in traditional ornament and style, but it is necessary that
he should cultivate the imaginative and perceptive faculties; and, in
addition, the commercial qualities of promptness and business insight.
_Early Training_
The question is often raised, can design be taught? If by this it is
understood, can the designing faculty be created in the ordinary
student, the answer is distinctly in the negative; but undoubtedly
students can be directed through a course of training that will enable
them to produce at least work that is good, though it may not be
personally distinctive.
An intelligent study of the elements and basis of pattern and of
traditional styles should result in the ability to produce work on safe
traditional lines that will be in harmony with environment. Such work it
may be claimed would only attain the level of mediocrity; how much
farther the student will go depends largely upon application and natural
faculty.
Natural faculty is fairly common, while genius is rare and can look
after itself. The teacher is concerned with the rank and file, and the
training and development of the natural faculty should be the aim.
Where this exists it should be carefully nursed, involving great
responsibility in the choice and direction of the courses of study.
The able exponent does not always make the best teacher, as students are
apt to be influenced by a strong personality and to be imitative.
Influence in the early stages is quite natural, and to some extent
beneficial, but if permanent, the student becomes one of the crowd in
failing to develop the personality, which is the sole interest, and is
the teacher’s responsibility to preserve as far as possible.
Negative criticism is not teaching, and in any suggested modifications
reasons should be given, so that the teaching be constructive; to which
end it is desirable that the teacher be capable of analysis and
possessed of method.
Popular taste as a factor that has to be considered has already been
suggested, but it is evident that the average member of the public has
little knowledge of Art, and still less of design.
_Art and Existence_
That Art is necessary to existence may be questioned, as life would be
possible--if not very interesting--if regulated only by considerations
of utility. In a less cultivated state we are satisfied with the
gratification of merely physical wants; so in a more cultivated state
Art becomes one of the mind’s necessities.
The dictionary definition of Art is “practical skill guided by rules,”
and that of an artist as “one who practises an Art.”
Possibly the former might be better expressed by the statement that “Art
is an appeal to the emotions by colour, form, rhythm and sound.”
Art exists not only in that which appeals to the vision, but also in
that which is transmitted to the aural sense, as in declamation, oratory
and music.
The dictionary particularises the fine arts of Painting, Sculpture and
Architecture, but to what extent is the possession of examples of these
possible to the public at large except in the most general sense?
What is invariably lost sight of is that the personal environment, the
furniture and domestic surroundings of the individual constitute the
actual field for artistic expression.
It is questionable whether our present system of Art instruction is
sufficiently far-reaching, devoted to the training of would-be artistic
exponents rather than in the cultivation of the public at large.
“_Natural Taste_”
There is still a superstitious belief in “natural taste,” and whereas
the individual member of the public would immediately, in the ordinary
affairs of life, consult a specialist, yet in a matter of artistic
selection there is profound confidence in personal exercise of judgment.
It is not contended that taste may not be inherited, but taste may be
good or bad.
Good taste is invariably our own; bad, the selection of others, but it
is surely irrational to assume that we all naturally possess a knowledge
which indisputably takes many years to acquire and cultivate.
_Commercial Production_
It is often stated that the common inartistic environment is the result
of commercial output, and it is true that the ordinary member of the
public is restricted in choice to what is on the market; but it can be
urged that the object of the manufacturer is to sell, and that he makes
it his business to study and supply existing demand. The manufacturer’s
standard is therefore regulated by the evidence of public taste, and as
this is improved so will the artistic quality of production be raised.
The buying public is influenced by what it believes to be the fashion of
the moment rather than any conscious appreciation of fitness and
purpose, or perception based on artistic education.
“_Ornaments_”
This is evidenced by a casual survey of the contents of shop windows in
any neighbourhood, and it will be noticed that preponderance is given to
the class of objects generally known as ornaments; objects that have no
possible utility and intended solely for display.
It is conceded that many objects fall into this category, and the
display of old brass candlesticks and Italian drug pots, for instance,
may be excused as examples of a period when such utensils, strictly
utilitarian, were incidentally made beautiful.
Modern furniture frequently offends--being too often constructed with
less regard to utility than to external effect.
The present tendency is to hide in cupboards and remote regions the
actual things we use, and to display objects that are only moved at the
perennial spring-cleaning; one honest piece of furniture remains in the
modern house--the kitchen dresser, of which we are apparently ashamed,
as also of the dinner service with which it is occupied. To some extent
the reason may be found in short tenancies, and the three years’ lease
may have much to answer for. It is usually felt to be more convenient to
move than to put up with the nuisance of re-decorating; and consequent
on frequent change of environment, is a lack of interest in furniture
and other personal belongings.
_Modern Development_
The advent of the motor car is also to some extent a factor, resulting
in the town flat and country cottage, which means the abandonment of the
large house and its interests and responsibilities; bringing about a
change in domestic life, with the growing tendency to entertain at
hotels and restaurants.
This tendency to more public life naturally results in even less
interest in personal possession and environment; still further fostered
by the hire-furnish system which enables its patrons to indulge in
frequent change of style and locality.
_Public Apathy_
Lamentable as it may seem from the artistic point of view, it certainly
appears that the general public are at least apathetic, and that Art
appeals less to them than the facilities for change and personal
indulgence; still there is plenty of scope for the designer and producer
if they adapt themselves to the everchanging conditions and
requirements.
The earliest design was probably due to materialistic causes, imperfect
implements and difficulties and accidents turned to account.
It is conceivable that primitive man in his early essays in pottery
found extreme difficulty in obtaining a smooth surface, which,
notwithstanding all endeavours, would be, in the unbaked state,
sensitive to scratches and other damage. This difficulty may have
suggested intentionally covering the surface with such scratches, etc.,
more or less arranged, thus making a virtue of necessity.
_Elementary Pattern_
Examination of early pottery will reveal simple patterns scratched or
incised, consisting mainly of straight lines arranged in zigzag or
herringbone form; in some instances the pattern is apparently the result
of pressure of some simple implement, resembling what is known in
plastering as trowel point.
Such details are simply those that could be produced by means of some
form of point, stone, stick or finger nail, and are not representative
of any known form; and it is not till a much later period that any
indication occurs suggestive of a growth line or natural type.
Curves seldom occur, certainly not in the scroll form, though rings
singly or concentric are among the early details; but these could easily
be the result of pressure by the ends of hollow reeds.
The evolute wave and scroll that figures so largely in later ornament
was presumably in imitation of wire-work, forms which the material would
readily suggest, particularly the continuous line of the evolute.
Development in the direction of relief ornament in primitive pottery is
indicated in the decoration consisting of incrusted pellets and slithers
of clay.
There is ample evidence that human appreciation and desire for
expression in art is natural and instinctive, as is demonstrated by the
marvellous work of the Paleolithic etchers and bone carvers, who may
well be considered the first impressionists.
_Early Impressionism_
They could have only studied many of their subjects at a respectful
distance, and this adds to the merit of the successful embodiment of
characteristics.
The work is invariably realistic, that is, imitative of natural form,
and is evidence of insight and appreciation that for the time and
working condition is quite extraordinary, and is in distinct contrast
with the earlier ornament, which is not in any way imitative of, or
traceable to, any natural suggestion.
On investigation it will be found that artistic expression has generally
three phases; the first where purely inorganic details are employed such
as directly arise from the process and material involved.
The second phase is realistic or imitative of natural form, and the
third--conventional, where the details are probably derived from natural
suggestion but are treated with restraint; the last being the result of
cultured appreciation of process and æsthetic considerations.
_Personal Production_
It is essential to assume that originally it was customary to personally
produce whatever was considered necessary in the way of pottery or
weapons, but that eventually certain workers would devote themselves
more or less exclusively to producing for the community, being
compensated by immunity from other labour, and that this developed in
course of time into patronage, and the producer being entirely supported
by his craft.
Appreciation from would-be possessors stimulated
[Illustration:
ANCIENT POTTERY
No. 1.
A. Cup, Barrow, Denzell, Cornwall.
B. Cinerary Urn, Barrow, Stanlake, Oxon.
C. Sepulchral remains, Nilgiri Hills, Sth. India.
D. Jug, German sepulchral mounds, Bronze Age.
E. Sepulchral remains, Nilgiri Hills, Sth. India.
F. Early English puzzle jug.
G. Cinerary Urn, Barrow, Bloxworth Down, Dorset.
H. Food Vessel, sepulchral mounds, earliest Bronze Age, Ireland.
]
[Illustration:
No. 2. A. B. Palaeolithic Bone Carvings.
C. Etching on Bone.
]
the primitive craftsmen who, in proportion to their individual skill,
would be rewarded, and this naturally led to the establishment of the
professional worker and artist.
To appreciate the evolution of art it is necessary to consider the early
social conditions.
The primitive life was insular and nomadic, the family or tribe staying
in any locality only so long as food was available for themselves and
herds; such communities were necessarily pastoral and predatory.
The simple requirements under these conditions would be vessels for
storage, conveyance, or cooking, probably pottery; weapons, and
doubtless jewellery or objects of personal adornment.
Later by necessity and under favourable conditions they would develop
agriculture, which would result in fixity of abode; and this would
entail precautionary measures for protection from predatory tribes.
The original camp or stockade for this purpose in time led to the
fortress or castle for the protection of the town, and the more
substantial nature of these gave rise to architecture.
With comparative security more pacific conditions would prevail, and the
simple communal life develop into more complex social distinctions.
_Early Social Conditions_
The military class established for protective reasons would be dependent
upon the general community for their upkeep, thus imposing taxation on
the various workers, and necessitating a system of government and of
officials for effective collection and distribution. Social
distinctions would be drawn between the various classes, governing,
administrative, military, and non-combatant; the latter would furnish
the bulk of the workers and be further divided into craftsmen,
agriculturists and traders.
In process of time from the executive class would develop the nobility,
priestly and legal classes.
_Influence_
Art was originally local, that is, confined to the community, but later
was subjected to various influences--Political, Religious, and
Commercial.
Political, by treaty or intermarriage, when imported taste or
interchange would result, or by conquest.
Judging by the past, the conquered have invariably imposed their taste
on their conquerors, as instanced in the Greek conquest of Persia; that
of the Romans of the Greeks, and later the perpetuation of the Roman
influence after their subjugation at the hands of the Goths.
The Crusades resulted in the importation of fabrics of Eastern and
Sicilian origin, and may be classed as a religious influence; an earlier
example of which may be cited in the edict of Pope Leo III in A.D. 726
in response to the iconoclastic movement, by reason of which the
Byzantine art workers, deprived of their living, emigrated to the Rhine
district.
_Commercial Intercourse._
The establishment of commercial intercourse had great influence on the
arts, and did much to modify local character, as it was found necessary
to study market conditions in order to secure sales; and goods were
therefore made to suit foreign requirements and taste, thereby resulting
in confusion and difficulty in defining the original source.
[Illustration: No. 3. 14th Century Textile showing Heraldic influence.]
Notable, for instance, were the Sicilian weavers, who, contrary to their
local traditions, introduced heraldry into the patterns of their
fabrics, so as to conform to the taste of the crusaders.
The Phœnicians were the early merchant adventurers, and traded in
work of Tyrian and Sidonian production with remote parts of Europe,
taking back local produce in exchange. Later on, through the medium of
the Hanseatic league, brass work from Flanders and cast-iron fire-backs
from Sussex were distributed through-out the area of their operations;
of which surviving examples demonstrate that local taste and requirement
were considered and embodied.
_Effect on Design_
Apart from this cause of loss in local character, Art production was
further influenced by the rise in social position of the worker.
When the craftsman remained the sole factor, his design and work was
invariably true to materialistic conditions; but with increasing
emolument incidental to appreciation and patronage, the designer emerged
as a professional.
In the early times the craftsman was independent to a great extent of
architectural influence, but later he was compelled to study the
architectural environment and adapt his designs in accordance.
Even then he was true to his craft conditions until the designing was
taken out of his hands by the newly evolved professional who, in many
instances had little knowledge of, or was indifferent to the technical
side of the craft.
Possibly the greatest offender in this respect was the French designer
of the Rococo period, whose woodwork design is regardless of
constructive detail, and it is to the everlasting credit of the workmen
that they overcame the difficulties thrown in their way, and that so
much of this work is still in existence.
_Ethical Side of Art_
Art is also reflective of the ethics and morals of the time; compare,
for instance, the robust character of Gothic work with the lack of
meaning and insincerity of the later Renaissance, degenerating into the
license of the Rococo.
Much that is commonly regarded as ornament in traditional work was
originally invested with symbolic meaning, in later times lost sight of,
with resultant loss of character and interest.
The study of traditional work is essential to the designer, not merely
for reproduction but on account of its value as reflective of the
experience and point of view of past exploiters.
_Desire for Novelty_
The present is marked by a feverish anxiety to be new, but the old
worker had a more humble spirit and was content to carry on a tradition
a little further if possible.
Much that appears to be new will on investigation prove to be an old
friend in disguise, and in venturing on what is apparently a new idea it
may be well to reflect as to whether it may not have occurred to others,
and whether it is worth doing.
“Novelty,” a detestable word, should have no place in artistic
considerations. That which is really good should be good for all time;
but the sporadic outbreaks that occur from time to time in so-called new
phases, have their little day and relapse into the limbo of the
forgotten. In the meantime tradition still goes on, sometimes
progressing, now and then retrogressing, but at all times unbroken.
History as written is misleading, dealing as it does with personalities
and conquests; the real history of the world can be read in its artistic
development.