_Of the Emperor_.
THE Emperor’s name in their tongue is Evan Vasilivich; that is as much as
to say, John, the son of Vasilie. And by his princely state he is called
Otesara, as his predecessors have been before; which, to interpret, is “A
King that giveth not tribute to any man.” And this word Otesara, his
Majesty’s interpreters have of late days interpreted to be an Emperor; so
that now he is called Emperor and Great Duke of all Russia, &c. Before
his father, they were neither called Emperors nor Kings, but only Ruese
Velike; that is to say, Great Duke. And as this Emperor, which now is
Ivan Vasilivich, doth exceed his predecessors in name—that is, from a
Duke to an Emperor—even so much by report he doth exceed them in
stoutness of courage and valiantness, and a great deal more: for he is no
more afraid of his enemies, which are not a few, than the hobby of the
larks.
His enemies with whom he hath wars for the most part are these:—Litto
Poland, Sweden, Denmark, Lifland, the Crimmes, Nagaians, and the whole
nation of the Tartarians, which are a stout and a hardy people as any
under the sun.
This Emperor useth great familiarity, as well unto all his nobles and
subjects, as also unto Strangers which serve him either in his wars or in
occupations: for his pleasure is that they shall dine oftentimes in the
year in his presence; and, besides that, he is oftentimes abroad, either
at one church or another, and walking with his noblemen abroad. And by
this means he is not only beloved of his nobles and commons, but also had
in great dread and fear through all his dominions, so that I think no
prince in Christendom is more feared of his own than he is, nor yet
better beloved. For if he bid any of his dukes go, they will run; if he
give any evil or angry word to any of them, the party will not come into
his Majesty’s presence again for a long time if he be not sent for, but
will feign him to be very sick, and will let the hair of his head grow
very long, without either cutting or shaving, which is an evident token
that he is in the Emperor’s displeasure; for when they be in their
prosperity, they account it a shame to wear long hair—in consideration
whereof they use to have their heads shaven.
His Majesty heareth all complaints himself, and with his own mouth giveth
sentence and judgment of all matters, and that with expedition; but
religious matters he meddleth not withal, but referreth them wholly unto
the Metropolitan.
His Majesty retaineth and well rewardeth all strangers that come to serve
him, and especially men of war.
He delighteth not greatly in hawking, hunting, or any other pastime, nor
in hearing instruments or music, but setteth all his whole delight upon
two things: first, to serve God, as undoubtedly he is very devout in his
religion; and the second, how to subdue and conquer his enemies.
He hath abundance of gold and silver in his own hands or treasury; but
the most part of his know not a crown from a counter, nor gold from
copper—they are so much cumbered (combred) therewithal; and he that is
worth two, three, or four groats is a rich man.
_Of their Religious Men_.
The Metropolitan is next unto God, Our Lady and St. Nicholas excepted;
for the Emperor’s Majesty judgeth and affirmeth him to be of higher
dignity than himself: “For that,” saith he, “he is God’s spiritual
officer, and I, the Emperor, am His temporal officer;” and therefore his
Majesty submitteth himself unto him in many things concerning religious
matters, as in leading the Metropolitan horse upon Palm Sunday, and
giving him leave to sit on a chair upon the Twelfth Day, when the river
Moscow was in blessing, and his Majesty standing on the ice.
All matters of religion are reformed by the Metropolitan: he heareth the
causes and giveth sentence as himself listeth, and is authorised so to
do. Whether it be to whip, hang, or burn, his will must needs be
fulfilled.
They have both monks, friars, and nuns, with a great number of great and
rich monasteries; they keep great hospitality, and do relieve much poor
people day by day. I have been in one of the monasteries called
Troities, which is walled about with brick very strongly, like a castle,
and much ordnance of brass upon the walls of the same. They told me
themselves that they are seven hundred brethren of them which belong unto
that house. The most part of the lands, towns, and villages which are
within forty miles of it belong unto the same. They showed me the
church, wherein were as many images as could hang about, or upon the
walls of the church roundabout; and even the roof of the church was
painted full of images. The chief image was of Our Lady, which was
garnished with gold, rubies, sapphires, and other rich stones abundantly.
In the midst of the church stood twelve wax tapers of two yards long, and
a fathom about in bigness. There stands a kettle full of wax, with about
one hundredweight, wherein there is always the wick of a candle
burning—as it were, a lamp which goeth not out day nor night.
They showed me a coffin, covered with cloth-of-gold, which stood upon one
side within their church, in which they told me lay a holy man, who never
ate nor drank, and yet he liveth. And they told me (supposing that I had
believed them) that he healeth many diseases, and giveth the blind their
sight, with many other miracles; but I was hard of belief, because I saw
him work no miracle whilst I was there.
After this they brought me into their cellars, and made me taste of
divers kinds of drinks, both wine and beer, mead and quassia, of sundry
colours and kinds. Such abundance of drink as they have in their
cellars, I do suppose few princes have more, or so much at once.
Their barrels or vessels are of an unmeasurable bigness and size, some of
them are three yards long and more, and two yards and more broad in their
heads. They contain six or seven tons apiece. They have none in their
cellars of their own making that are less than a ton. They have nine or
ten great vaults, which are full of those barrels, which are seldom
removed, for they have trunks which come down through the roof of the
vaults in sundry places, through which they pour the drink down, having
the cask right under it to receive the same, for it should be a great
trouble to bring it all down the stairs.
They give bread, meat, and drink unto all men that come to them, not only
while they are at their abbey, but also when they depart, to serve them
by the way.
There are a great number of such monasteries in the realm, and the
Emperor’s Majesty rideth oftentimes from one to another of them, and
lieth at them three or four days together.
The same monks are as great merchants as any in the land of Russia, and
do occupy buying and selling as much as any other men, and have boats
which pass to and fro in the rivers with merchandise from place to place
where any other of their country do traffic.
They eat no flesh during their lives, as it is reported; but upon Sunday,
Monday, Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday, it is lawful for them to eat
eggs, butter, cheese, and milk, and at all times to eat fish; and after
this sort they lead their lives.
They wear all black garments, and so do none other in all the land, but
at that abbey only.
They have no preachers—no, not one in all the land to instruct the
people, so that there are many, and the most part of the poor in the
country, who if one ask them how many gods there be, they will say a
great many, meaning that every image which they have is a god; for all
the country and the Emperor’s Majesty himself will bless and bow and
knock their heads before their images, insomuch that they will cry
earnestly unto their images to help them to the things which they need.
All men are bound by their law to have those images in their houses; and
over every gate in all their towns and cities are images set up, unto
which the people bow and bend, and knock their heads against the ground
before them. As often as they come by any church or cross, they do in
like manner. And when they come to any house, they bless themselves
three or four times before they will salute any man in the house.
They reckon and hold it for great sin to touch or handle any of their
images within the circle of the board where the painting is, but they
keep them very daintily, and rich men deck them over and about with gold,
silver, and stones, and hang them over and about with cloth-of-gold.
The priests are married as other men are, and wear all their garments as
other men do, except their night-cap, which is cloth of some sad colour,
being round, and reacheth unto the ears; their crowns are shaven, but the
rest of their hair they let grow as long as Nature will permit, so that
it hangeth beneath their ears upon their shoulders; their beards they
never shave. If his wife happen to die, it is not lawful for him to
marry again during his life.
They minister the Communion with bread and wine, after our order, but he
breaketh the bread and putteth it into the cup unto the wine, and
commonly some are partakers with them; and they take the bread out again
with a spoon, together with part of the wine, and so take it themselves,
and give it to others that receive with them after the same manner.
Their ceremonies are all, as they say, according to the Greek Church,
used at this present day; and they allow no other religion but the
Greeks’ and their own, and will not permit any nation but the Greeks to
be buried in their sacred burials or churchyards.
All their churches are full of images, unto the which the people, when
they assemble, do bow and knock their heads, as I have before said, that
some will have knobs upon their foreheads, with knocking, as great as
eggs.
All their service is in the Russian tongue, and they and the common
people have no other prayers but this, “Ghospodi Jesus Christos esine
voze ponuloi nashe.” That is to say, “O Lord Jesus Christ, Son of God,
have mercy upon us;” and this is their prayer, so that the most part of
the unlearned know neither Paternoster, nor the Belief, nor Ten
Commandments, nor scarcely understand the one-half of the service which
is read in their churches.
_Of their Baptism_.
When any child is born, it is not baptised until the next Sunday; and if
it chance that it be not baptised then, it must tarry until the second
Sunday after the birth. And it is lawful for them to take as many
godfathers and godmothers as they will; the more the better.
When they go to the church, the midwife goeth foremost, carrying the
child; and the godfathers and godmothers follow into the midst of the
church, where there is a small table ready set, and on it an earthen pot
full of warm water, about the which the godfathers and godmothers with
the child settle themselves. Then the clerk giveth unto every of them a
small wax candle burning; then cometh the priest, and beginneth to say
certain words which the godfathers and godmothers must answer word for
word, among which one is, that the child shall forsake the Devil, and as
that name is pronounced, they must all spit at the word, as often as it
is repeated. Then he blesseth the water which is in the pot, and doth
breathe over it; then he taketh all the candles which the gossips have,
and, holding them all in one hand, letteth part of them drop into the
water, and then giveth every one his candle again. And when the water is
sanctified he taketh the child and holdeth it in a small tub, and one of
the godfathers taketh the pot with warm water, and poureth it all upon
the child’s head.
After this, he hath many more ceremonies—as anointing ears and eyes with
spittle, and making certain crosses with oil upon the back, head, and
breast of the child; then, taking the child in his arms, carrieth it to
the images of St. Nicholas and Our Lady, &c., and speaketh unto the
images, desiring them to take charge of the child, that he may live and
believe as a Christian man or woman ought to do, with many other words.
Then, coming back from the images, he taketh a pair of shears and
clippeth the young and tender hairs of the child’s head in three or four
places; and then delivereth the child, whereunto every of the godfathers
and godmothers lays a hand. Then the priest chargeth them that the child
be brought up in the faith and fear of God or Christ, and that it be
instructed to cling and bow to the images, and so they make an end. Then
one of the godfathers must hang a cross about the neck of the child,
which he must always wear; for that Russian who hath not a cross about
his neck, they esteem as no Christian man; and thereupon they say that we
are no Christians, because we do not wear crosses as they do.
_Of their Matrimony_.
Their matrimony is nothing solemnised, but rather in most points
abominable, and, as near as I can learn, in this wise following:—
First, when there is love between the parties, the man sendeth unto the
woman a small chest or box, wherein is a whip, needles, thread, silk,
linen-cloth, shears, and such necessaries as she shall occupy when she is
a wife; and perhaps sendeth therewithal raisins, figs, or some such
things—giving her to understand that, if she do offend, she must be
beaten with the whip; and by the needles, thread, cloth, &c., that she
should apply herself diligently to sew, and do such things as she could
best do; and by the raisins or fruits he meaneth, if she do well, no good
thing shall be withdrawn from her, nor be too dear for her. And she
sendeth unto him a shirt, handkerchiefs, and some such things of her own
making. And now to the effect.
When they are agreed, and the day of marriage appointed, when they shall
go towards the church, the bride will in no wise consent to go out of the
house, but resisteth and striveth with them that would have her out, and
feigneth herself to weep; yet in the end two women get her out, and lead
her towards the church, her face being covered close, because of her
dissimulation, that it should not be openly perceived; for she maketh a
great noise, as though she were sobbing and weeping, until she come at
the church, and then her face is uncovered. The man cometh after, among
other of his friends, and they carry with them to the church a great pot
with wine or mead. Then the priest coupleth them together, much after
our order, one promising to love and serve the other during their lives
together, &c.; which being done, they begin to drink. And first the
woman drinketh to the man, and when he hath drunk he letteth the cup fall
to the ground, hasting immediately to tread upon it, and so doth she, and
the one who treads first upon it must have the victory and be master at
all times after, which commonly happeneth to the man, for he is readiest
to set his foot on it, because he letteth it fall himself. Then they go
home again, the woman’s face being uncovered. The boys in the streets
cry out and make a noise in the meantime with very dishonest words.
When they come home, the wife is set at the upper end of the table, and
the husband next unto her. They fall then to drinking, till they be all
drunk; they perchance have a minstrel or two. And two naked men, who led
her from the church, dance naked a long time before all the company.
When they are weary of drinking, the bride and the bridegroom get them to
bed (for it is in the evening always when any of them are married); and
when they are going to bed, the bridegroom putteth certain money—both
gold and silver, if he have it—into one of his boots, and then sitteth
down in the chamber, crossing his legs; and then the bride must pluck off
one of his boots, which she will, and if she happen on the boot wherein
the money is, she hath not only the money for her labour, but is also at
such choice as she need not ever from that day forth to pull off his
boots; but if she miss the boot wherein the money is, she doth not only
lose the money, but is also bound from that day forwards to pull off his
boots continually.
Then they continue in drinking and making good cheer three days
following, being accompanied with certain of their friends; and during
the same three days he is called a duke, and she a duchess, although they
be very poor persons. And this is as much as I have learned of their
matrimony; but one common rule is amongst them—if the woman be not beaten
with the whip once a week, she will not be good, and therefore they look
for it orderly; and the women say that if their husbands did not beat
them, they should not love them.
They use to marry there very young—their sons at sixteen and eighteen
years old, and the daughters at twelve or thirteen years, or younger.
They use to keep their wives very closely—I mean, those that be of any
reputation; so that a man shall not see one of them but at a chance, when
she goeth to church at Christmas or at Easter, or else going to visit
some of her friends.
The most part of the women use to ride astride in saddles with stirrups,
as men do, and some of them on sleds, which in summer is not commendable.
The husband is bound to find the wife colours to paint her withal, for
they use ordinarily to paint themselves; it is such a common practice
among them that it is counted for no shame. They grease their faces with
such colours that a man may discern them hanging on their faces almost a
fight-shot off. I cannot so well liken them as to a miller’s wife, for
they look as though they were beaten about the face with a bag of meal;
but their eyebrows they colour as black as jet.
The best property that the women have, is that they can sew well, and
embroider with silk and gold excellently.
_Of their Burial_.
When any man or woman dieth, they stretch him out, and put a new pair of
shoes on his feet, because he hath a great journey to go; then do they
wind him in a sheet, as we do; but they forget not to put a testimony in
his right hand, which the priest giveth him to testify unto St. Nicholas
that he died a Christian man or woman. And they put the corse always in
a coffin of wood, although the party be very poor—and when they go
towards the church, the friends and kinsmen of the party departed carry
in their hands small wax candles, and they weep and howl and make much
lamentation.
They that be hanged or beheaded, or such-like, have no testimony with
them; how they are received into heaven, it is a wonder, without their
passport.
There are a great number of poor people among them who die daily for lack
of sustenance, which is a pitiful case to behold; for there hath been
buried in a small time, within these two years, above eighty persons
young and old, who have died only for lack of sustenance; for if they had
straw and water enough, they would make shift to live; for a great many
are forced in the winter to dry straw and stamp it, and to make bread
thereof—or, at the least, they eat it instead of bread. In the summer
they make good shift with grass, herbs, and roots; barks of trees is good
meat with them at all times. There is no people in the world, as I
suppose, that live so miserably as do the poor in those parts; and the
most part of them that have sufficient for themselves, and also to
relieve others that need, are so unmerciful that they care not how many
they see die of famine or hunger in the streets.
It is a country full of diseases, divers and evil; and the best remedy is
for any of them, as they hold opinion, to go often unto the hothouses, as
a manner every man hath one of his own, which he heateth commonly twice
every week, and all the household sweat and wash themselves therein.
THE VOYAGES
OF
OHTHERE AND WULFSTAN
_To the White Sea and to the Mouth of the Vistula in the Time_
_of Alfred the Great_, _with Notes on the Geography_
_of Europe inserted by_
KING ALFRED,
_In his Translation of Orosius_.
KING ALFRED’S OROSIUS.
(_FROM_ “_ENGLISH WRITERS_.”)
ONE of King Alfred’s labours for the enlightenment of his countrymen was
a translation of the “Universal History of Orosius, from the Creation to
the year of our Lord 416.” This book had long been in high repute by the
familiar name of “Orosius” among students and teachers in the
monasteries; and it retained its credit so, that after the invention of
printing it was one of the first works put into type, and appeared in
numerous editions. The author was a Spanish Christian of the fifth
century. Born at Tarragona and educated in Spain, he crossed over to
Africa about the year 414, and received instruction from St. Augustine
upon knotty questions of the origin of the soul and other matters. In
Augustine’s works are contained the “Consultation of Orosius with
Augustine on the Error of the Priscillianists and Origenists,” and a
letter from Augustine to Orosius against them. Augustine sent Orosius to
consult Jerome, who was in Palestine; and in his letter of introduction
said, “Behold, there has come to me a religious young man, in catholic
peace a brother, in age a son, in rank a co-presbyter, Orosius—of active
talents, ready eloquence, ardent application, longing to be in God’s
house a vessel useful for disproving false and destructive doctrines,
which have killed the souls of Spaniards much more grievously than the
barbarian sword their bodies.” In Palestine, towards the latter half of
the year 415, Orosius attacked the Pelagians by writing against them a
treatise on Free Will, and presenting a memorial against them to the
Council of Diospolis. It was at the request of St Augustine that Orosius
wrote his History. The sack of Rome by Alaric having caused the
Christians of Rome to doubt the efficacy of their faith, Augustine, while
he himself wrote his “De Civitate Dei” to show from the history of the
Church that the preaching of the Gospel could not augment the world’s
misery, incited Orosius to show the same thing in a compendium of profane
history also. Orosius began his work in the year 410, when Augustine had
got through ten books of his, and he finished it about the year 416.
Like a good old-fashioned controversialist, he made very light of the
argument of terror from the sack of Rome by Alaric, so representing the
event that King Alfred, in his translation, thus abridged the detail:—
“Alaric, the most Christian and the mildest of kings, sacked Rome
with so little violence, that he ordered no man should be slain, and
that nothing should be taken away or injured that was in the
churches. Soon after that, on the third day, they went out of the
city of their own accord. There was not a single house burnt by
their order.”
In translating and adapting this book to the uses of his time, King
Alfred did not trouble himself at all with its old ecclesiastical
character, as what Pope Gelasius I. had called a book written “with
wonderful brevity against heathen perversions.” Looking to it
exclusively as a digest of historical and geographical information,
Alfred abridged, omitted, imitated, added, with a single regard to his
purpose of producing a text-book of that class of knowledge. Omitting
the end of the fifth book and the beginning of the sixth, and so running
two books into one, he made the next and last book the sixth instead of
the seventh, as it is in the original.
The “History of Orosius” itself is bald, confused; but it was enriched
and improved by Alfred’s addition to the first book of much new matter,
enlarging knowledge of the geography of Europe, which he calls Germania,
north of the Rhine and Danube. Alfred adds also to the same book
geographical narratives taken from the lips of two travellers. One was
Ohthere, a Norwegian, who sailed from Halgoland, on the coast of Norway,
round the North Cape into the Cwen-Sæ, or White Sea, and entered the
mouth of the river Dwina, the voyage ending where there is now Archangel,
the most northern of the Russian seaports. Ohthere afterwards made a
second voyage from Halgoland along the west and south coast of Norway to
the Bay of Christiania, and Sciringeshæl, the port of Skerin, or Skien,
near the entrance of the Christiania fjord. He then sailed southward,
and reached in five days the Danish port æt Hæđum, the capital town
called Sleswic by the Saxons, but by the Danes Haithaby. The other
traveller was Wulfstan, who sailed in the Baltic, from Slesvig in Denmark
to Frische Haff within the Gulf of Danzig, reaching the Drausen Sea by
Elbing. These voyages were taken from the travellers’ own lips. Of
Wulfstan’s, the narrative passes at one time into the form of direct
personal narration—“Wulfstan said that he went . . . that he had . . .
And then we had on our left the land of the Burgundians [Bornholmians],
who had their own king. After the land of the Burgundians we had on our
left,” &c. The narrative of the other voyage opens with the sentence,
“Ohthere told his lord, King Alfred.” These three additions to
“Orosius”—the Description of Europe, the two voyages of Ohthere, and the
voyage of Wulfstan—may be considered Alfred’s own works.
The Description is the king’s own account of Europe in his time, and the
only authentic record of the Germanic nations, written by a contemporary,
so early as the ninth century.
Ohthere was a man of great wealth and influence in Norway, as wealth was
there reckoned; for he had 600 reindeer, including six decoy-deer; but
though accounted one of the first men in the land, he had only twenty
horned cattle, twenty sheep, and twenty swine. The little that he
ploughed he ploughed with horses, and his chief revenue was in tribute of
skin and bone from the Finns. The fame of his voyages attracted to him
the attention of King Alfred. He said that he dwelt “Northmost of all
northmen,” in Halgoland; and wishing to find out how far the land lay due
north, and whether any man dwelt north of him—for the sake also of taking
the walruses, “which have very good bone in their teeth; of these teeth
they brought some to the king; and their hides are very good for
ship-ropes”—he sailed northward. Ohthere may have obtained some of his
wealth by whale-fishing. He says that “in his own country is the best
whale-hunting; they are eight-and-forty ells long, and the largest fifty
ells long;” of these he said “that he was one of six who killed sixty in
two days;” meaning, no doubt, that his vessel was one of six. He relates
only what he saw. “The Biarmians,” he says, “told him many stories both
about their own land and about the countries which were around them, but
he knew not what was true, because he did not see it himself.”
Wulfstan was perhaps a Jutlander, and his voyage was confined to the
Baltic. Neither his account nor that of Ohthere contradicts the opinion
then held, that Scandinavia was a large island, and the Gulf of Bothnia
or Cwæner Sea flowed into the North Sea.