HOUSING HYGIENE
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
=Site=
From a hygienic standpoint the building site bears a certain relation
to health and this should not be overlooked. This is in perfect
accord with the chiropractic philosophy as to the expression of life
in the body. The building site may be so unnatural as to create an
environment which would draw too heavily upon the adaptative forces
of the body. In this case Innate would find difficulty in maintaining
a state of coördination.
[Illustration: Model Site]
The artificial methods of living must be made to conform as nearly
as possible to the needs of the body. Damp surroundings might have
no ill effects upon the individual who was living a very active life
outdoors “roughing it,” but place that individual in a damp, poorly
lighted and poorly heated house where he is less active and his
expression of life will be materially affected. Innate requires a
proper environment, although not necessarily a perfect one, but it
must be such that an adaptation can be maintained.
[Illustration: Unsanitary building site.]
If the building site is damp it will require special methods to
prevent the dampness from entering the house. This is expensive
and if the site is too humid such a method will prove highly
unsatisfactory. If the location is cold the house is very likely to
be cold. The site should be well adapted to the needs of the building.
Aspect
The importance of the aspect should not be overlooked. A
southeasterly facing is generally considered best, because it is dry
and mild and has the morning sun and yet is not exposed to the hot
afternoon sun.
The main living rooms should be so arranged as to admit the
direct rays of the sun some time during the day. This can best be
accomplished when these rooms are on the southeast. Each room should
be so arranged with respect to window space that there will be ample
lighting and proper ventilation of the whole house. Care must be
exercised, however, that there is not too much window space which
will give excessive heat in summer or too much cold in winter.
In large dwellings there is a tendency for the halls and stairways to
be poorly lighted and poorly ventilated. This should not be. Ample
provision supplying light through windows, and ventilation from the
outside should be made to insure plenty of light and air.
Bedrooms should be well lighted and if possible direct sunshine
should be admitted some time during the day, preferably in the
morning.
Soil
The soil bears a close relation to health. The porous soils such as
sand and gravel are considered the most healthful because they are
driest. But there are objections to these, since they are easily
polluted by leaky drains and cesspools, and are capable of holding
a notable volume of ground water and ground air. Such air is almost
invariably impure. The rain percolates through the soil until it
reaches an impervious stratum which prevents it from penetrating any
further, and it is held in the interstices or interspaces of the soil
and forms the ground water.
Ground Water and Ground Air
There is a certain fluctuation of ground water and ground air. As the
water rises the air is forced out of the ground, and as it recedes
air is drawn in to occupy its place. There are other factors which
influence the ground air, such as the perflating action of the wind
and certain climatic changes. Thus the ground may be spoken of as
breathing.
If the ground water is near the surface the ground air will be
noticeably moist and will produce a dampness of the atmosphere
which will result in a decided cooling of the air by evaporation.
If the ground water is deep the ground air will be comparatively
dry, although the ground near the surface is generally moist owing
to the capillary attraction and evaporation from the surface of the
ground water. For this reason it is important that damp soils be
properly drained to permanently lower the level of the ground water.
This may be accomplished by properly laid tile. This will reduce the
fluctuation of the ground water since it will be carried off when it
rises to the level of the drains. In this way the ground air will not
be forced out into the breathing zone to pollute the atmosphere.
The ground air is impure due to the organic matter in the soil. This
organic matter is decomposed by microörganisms that feed upon such
material and break it up into simpler combinations, carbonic acid,
ammonia and water. These processes of fermentation and decay result
in a purifying action converting the complex organic matter into
products which growing vegetation is capable of assimilating. The
presence of oxygen, moisture and warmth is essential to the proper
execution of these processes. We can thus see that ample provision
has been made for the natural purification and utilization of animal
and vegetable matter. Nature provides the oxygen in the ground air,
the necessary moisture is derived from the ground water and the
temperature of the earth is generally sufficient to supply the needed
warmth for this natural process of purification.
If the ground water rises too near the surface or if the building
site is water-logged, the water may be drawn off by means of a
subsoil drainage. This will also prevent fluctuation of ground
water, for as this water rises the ground air is forced out and
causes the atmospheric air to become damp. This brings about a
cooling of the air. The moisture will ascend by capillary attraction
into the walls of the houses; in the evaporation from the inner
surfaces, heat will be absorbed from the surrounding objects and this
will cause the houses to become damp and cold.
This drainage may be accomplished by placing unglazed porous tiles
with the ends in apposition, but not jointed in the subsoil. The
fluctuation of ground water is of little consequence in itself; but
we can see that in this way the water in wells may become polluted,
impure ground air may be forced into houses, and dampness may thus be
produced.
Stagnant Water
Stagnant water favors the breeding of mosquitoes and the development
of certain dis-eases, malaria and cholera for example; hence the
necessity for proper drainage. Trees are sometimes planted in such
districts and they, together with the subsoil drainage, render the
conditions more healthful. The trees and other vegetation in hot
climates absorb the water from the ground and then it is evaporated
from the leaves and in this way soil is made drier.
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
Foundation
In the building of a house the foundation must receive just
consideration. As the foundation holds the entire structure, such
material must be used as to give adequate support to this weight.
Care must be exercised in the evacuations that the basement be
protected from dampness and that the entire site beneath the
foundation be properly drained. The ground water should be ten feet
beneath the surface of the site.
It is recommended by some hygienists that the basement floor be of
cement six inches thick to prevent the entrance of ground air and
moisture. This should be covered with a wood floor.
The preparation of the foundation is comparatively easy where the
ground is solid, but if the site be water-logged, marshy, quicksand,
or entirely under water, its preparation then becomes a problem that
may baffle the best engineers. Artificial foundation beds may have
to be resorted to. These are accomplished in several ways. One very
common method is to drive wooden piles into the ground, saw off the
tops and construct the foundation on these piles. Another method is
that of the cofferdam.
The foundation having been properly prepared, care must be taken that
the footings or base course of the walls are of sufficient strength
to bear the weight of the superstructure. The footings should be of
stone or concrete and should be a little thicker than the walls.
Precautions for a dry basement must also be considered. This subject
will be discussed under House Dampness.
The air of the basement must be kept pure by proper ventilation,
since it is being constantly drawn up into the house. This will
receive some attention in the chapter on Ventilation.
Walls
The walls of the house may be of brick, stone, timber or concrete.
The method of construction will depend upon the material used. If
timber is utilized the security of the walls will be governed by
the timber posts, sills and plates. The materials used should be as
little absorbent of moisture as possible. All wood should be well
seasoned.
Floors
In order to meet all sanitary requirements the “floors must be secure
and proof against air, dust, sound, vermin, fire and water.” But
it is not often that the floors meet all these sanitary demands.
Ordinary floors are made of hard boards tongued and grooved, tightly
fitted and laid upon joists placed about one foot apart; the under
surface is lathed and plastered to form the ceiling of the room
below, or some sort of patent ceiling may be used. However, there
is great objection to the space thus left between the floor and the
ceiling, as it becomes a receptacle for dust and greatly endangers
the spread of fire.
It is better, according to sanitary demands, to have the floor of
reinforced concrete, or the space within filled with mineral wool
or asbestos; or the floor may be made of steel beams encased in
terra-cotta with interspaces made of concrete.
Roof
For roofing some non-absorbent material is best. Wood shingles are
possibly the most common in this country, although they are rapidly
being replaced with composition shingles. The wood shingles are
somewhat absorbent and are inflammable. Slate and tile are also
used. The slate is a good conductor of heat, and is hot in summer
and cold in winter. Tiles are heavy but are warm in winter and cool
in summer. Lead, zinc and copper have all been used, but they are
good conductors of heat and for various other reasons are not exactly
desirable. The best method of preventing too rapid conduction of heat
is to have an air space between the roof and the ceiling of the top
floor.
House Dampness
Great care should be exercised to prevent the entrance of moisture
into the house. A damp house is very objectionable. In a newly
constructed building there is always more or less dampness coming
from green lumber, mortar and plaster. This is known as building
water. Before a new house is occupied it should be thoroughly dried
by a fire in stoves or furnaces. Dampness from building water is only
temporary and easily eliminated.
Moisture in houses from damp sites, leaky drains, porous building
material which admits rain and other similar causes, require the
attention of an engineer who understands water-proof construction.
Moisture from the ground water may ascend the walls of the building
by capillary attraction. This may be prevented by properly draining
the site and by placing a horizontal water-proof course in the walls.
This may consist of asphalt one-half inch thick or a course of slate
or other material through which the moisture will not penetrate.
The ill effects of a damp house upon the health of the occupants can
hardly be overestimated. Such houses are cold, being difficult to
heat and ventilate. The bodily heat is too rapidly withdrawn. This
necessitates adaptative action on the part of Innate Intelligence and
requires an unnecessary expenditure of internal energy.
Aside from a damp house having an ill effect upon health by creating
an environment which is not conducive to the expression of life
indoors, the dampness tends to produce moulds and otherwise injure
the furniture and hangings. This results in a musty odor and creates
a condition conducive to the development of cockroaches and water
bugs. These conditions are repulsive to the finer sensibilities.
It is a recognized fact that Innate Intelligence is able to adapt the
body to various conditions and people who appear to be in a state of
comparatively good health may be found in such environments, but why
should we force Innate to adapt the body to such adverse conditions
when we may educationally improve the surroundings and make them
more healthful? The educated mind is the expression of the same
Innate Intelligence that is adapting the body to the environment,
so it is only reasonable that the educated mind should be used in
as intelligent a manner as the Innate mind. It is the function of
the educated mind to bring about an educated adaptation to the
environment through the educated body and to study the laws of
nature and adapt them to the needs of the body.
So it is in perfect accord with chiropractic philosophy that a proper
dwelling be provided wherein the condition is such that there may be
perfect adaptation to all the needs of the body. This is as much a
part of the chiropractor’s work as is any other part of his duties
and obligations to the sick. He need not be able to do all these
things, but he should know what conditions are conducive to the
expression of life in the body and why others are not.
Fireproofing
The expression, fireproof, is a misnomer. There are no materials
that are absolutely fireproof, but there are many that, are fire
resisting. A material may be ignition-proof but not capable of
resisting high temperatures. Some metals will withstand higher
temperatures than others.
Fire protection is important from the standpoint of hygiene, since
it is a factor in preventing loss of life and property. It will also
be observed that fire-resisting material and fireproof construction
is more sanitary than soft absorbent materials and improper house
construction.
Three methods are used in reducing the danger from fire: First,
by the use of fire-resisting building material; second, by proper
fireproof construction; third, by providing ample fire escapes and
fire extinguishers.
In a fireproof building all inflammable materials are eliminated and
such materials as brick, reinforced concrete, stone and burnt terra
cotta are used. As has been stated before, these materials are not
fireproof but only fire-resisting. They will all be affected by fire
if the intensity is great enough.
In the construction of fireproof buildings, only fire-resisting
materials are used. No wood nor other combustible materials are
utilized. All spaces, air wells and air shafts are eliminated as far
as possible. The floors are constructed of rolled wrought iron on
steel floor beams, or of Portland cement. The roofs are made of burnt
terra cotta, rolled wrought iron or cement.
The stairways and landings are of brick, stone, cement, iron or
steel, all wood being eliminated even for windows and doors. The
partitions are constructed of fireproof material such as hollow tile.
Every building should be provided with ample fire escapes to furnish
plenty of exits in case of fire. This is accomplished by providing
wide stairways and by furnishing sufficient fire escapes on the
outside of the building. These fire escapes should be constructed of
metal or some fire-resisting material.
House Plumbing
A system of house plumbing consists of pipes carrying the water into
the house, the fixtures or receptacles which are used to receive
the waste and refuse from the household and the processes that are
performed in the house. The latter includes the fixtures of the
bathroom—the stool, bath tub, lavatory and foot tub; those of the
kitchen such as the sink; those of the laundry; and the system of
pipes which carry the refuse from the house into the main sewer.
Between the pipes which carry the water into the house and those
which carry the sewage out are placed the house fixtures. There is a
pipe leading to each fixture which carries the water to dilute the
sewage, and a pipe leading from each of these fixtures carrying the
sewage to the main house drain. The admission of sewer gas into the
house through the fixtures is prevented by the trap which contains
water known as the seal. The trap is of no value unless it is
properly sealed. The trap is simply a bend in the pipe, as shown in
the illustration, in which water is contained. This water keeps the
sewer air from coming back into the house.
A system of house plumbing, in order to meet the requirements of
hygiene, must be properly trapped. There is a small trap for each
fixture and in some cities an additional outside trap is required
which protects the entire system.
[Illustration: bowl and trap]
When some fixture loses its seal then there is great danger of
sewer air coming into the house. The main causes for traps becoming
unsealed are: the forcible ejection of the seal by the momentum of
the flush; loss of seal through siphon; the evaporation of the water
when the fixture is not in use; and by capillary attraction as when
waste paper or some similar material is left in the trap and projects
through. Siphonage is caused by a large volume of water passing down
through a vertical pipe with which the fixture is connected.
The loss of the seal by evaporation may be prevented by frequent
use of the fixture, or if the fixture is not to be used for some
time the trap may be filled with oil or some substance that will
not evaporate. The loss of the seal from momentum may be averted by
providing proper flushing tanks, while the protection from capillary
attraction may be effected by not allowing anything to remain in the
trap which will exert this capillary attraction on the water in the
trap.
Prevention of siphonage is accomplished by providing proper
ventilation for each trap so there may be a column of air which may
be drawn upon in lieu of the seal.
Care should be taken that the seal does not become foul. The fouling
of the seal is the result of back pressure from the sewer and may be
avoided by providing a vent pipe through which the air may pass from
the sewer and thus relieve the pressure on the seal.
The sewage is carried from the house by the house sewer into the
street sewer, from the street sewer into the district sewers, and
then into the large trunk sewers. There are also relief sewers, storm
sewers, under drains, and intercepting sewers. The entire system is
known as the sewerage system.
The amount of water required to carry away the sewage varies in
different cities. In the smaller towns it may be as low as fifty
gallons a day per capita, while in some of the larger cities it may
be as much as 200 gallons per capita per day.
At one time the sewer gas was considered the greatest menace to
workmen in the sewers. But it has been found that there is little
danger from this gas. Sewer air is very objectionable because of the
very foul odor, but even those who contend that germs cause dis-ease
maintain that there is little danger of contracting dis-ease from
breathing sewer air.