SOME MILITARY TERMS.
Before we proceed, we must clearly understand some terms which are used
in war. In reading newspapers we frequently meet with the term army
corps. A modern army is made up of a certain number of _army corps_,
each of which is a complete army in itself. At the beginning of a
campaign we may reckon an army corps to consist roughly of 40,000 men of
all arms, under the command of a general.
An army corps is divided as a rule into two _divisions_, and each
division is also a complete little army in itself.
Study this little table, and you will see the composition of a British
division.
Total Officers No. of No. of Guns, No. of Vehicles,
and Men. Horses. including including
Machine those of
Guns. the Artillery.
1 Headquarters 82 54 -- 7
3 Infantry Brigades 12,165 741 24 309
1 Headquarters
Divisional
Artillery 22 20 -- 2
3 Field Artillery
Brigades 2,385 2,244 54 240
1 Field Artillery
(Howitzer)
Brigade 755 697 18 67
1 Heavy Battery
and Ammunition
Column 198 144 4 19
1 Divisional
Ammunition
Column 568 709 -- 110
1 Headquarters
Divisional
Engineers 13 8 -- 3
2 Field Companies
of Engineers 434 152 -- 102
1 Signal Company 162 80 -- 53
1 Cavalry Squadron 159 167 -- 9
1 Divisional Train 428 378 -- 176
3 Field Ambulances 702 198 -- 72
18,073 5,592 100 1,169
Such a division on the march would cover from head to tail about 15¾
miles.
The supreme head of all the army corps which form an army is a
commander-in-chief, or generalissimo, who is assisted by what is called
the supreme general staff. The commander-in-chief and his staff are the
brain and driving force of the army as a whole. It will interest you to
learn how the commander-in-chief and his staff are linked up with every
part of the army.
The commander-in-chief and his staff occupy what is called the general
headquarters of the army, which is stationed in some town behind the
area in which fighting is actually going on. Battles are now waged over
so many miles that a commander-in-chief cannot possibly see for himself
what is happening all along his line. He has to rely upon others, who
bring him or send him information by telegraph, telephone, motor car,
motor cycle, or aircraft. All day, and all night too, a constant stream
of information as to the movements of the enemy, the position of his own
troops, the progress of the fighting, and so forth, arrives at the
headquarters of a commander-in-chief, and officers are set apart to
receive this information and arrange it so that he may have a clear and
full knowledge of all that is going on. Large maps are spread out on
tables, and officers are constantly engaged in marking the movements
of each side by means of flags or coloured chalks, so that at a glance
the situation at any given moment may be seen. It is by the study of
these marked maps that the commander and his staff decide what movements
the army shall make to resist or attack the enemy.
[Illustration: This picture represents the headquarters of a French
division in a village. Notice the cavalry and cyclist scouts and the men
receiving messages by telephone. Notice also the officers writing orders
and poring over maps.]
Each army corps, division, and brigade has a similar headquarters, where
the same kind of work is done and information is gathered up to be sent
to the general headquarters, or the G.H.Q., as soldiers call it.
As the army moves backwards or forwards, general headquarters is moved
from one place to another; but it is always far enough in the rear not
to be disturbed by the guns of the enemy, and in such a position that it
can easily be in touch with every part of the fighting line. It often
happens that the commander wishes to be in closer touch with the
operations that are going on, or perhaps he desires to meet his generals
in order to consult with them, and to receive their reports in person.
For this purpose he has report-centres, or what are called _postes de
commandement_, nearer the front than general headquarters. Between the
general headquarters and the headquarters of army corps officers
constantly travel to and fro in motor cars. They carry messages to the
various generals, and, if necessary, explain the commander's wishes to
them more fully than could be done in writing.
[Illustration: In Trenches.
These trenches have been occupied for a considerable time, and much has
been done to make them habitable. Notice the parapet behind which the
men stand to fire, and the dug-out in which they take refuge when the
trench is heavily shelled.
Photopress.]
Behind each army corps, and some way in front of general headquarters,
but also sufficiently far from the turmoil of the fighting, are the army
corps headquarters, which are exactly like general headquarters, though
on a smaller scale. Here are stationed the corps commanders and their
staffs. They, too, have _postes de commandement_ nearer the front, and
officers who go to and fro with messages and orders.
The headquarters of each _division_ is pushed as far forward as
possible without coming within range of the enemy's artillery. In the
neighbourhood of divisional headquarters we first see signs that
fighting is going on. The soldiers themselves we cannot see, because
they are hidden away in villages, in woods, or in folds of the ground.
But we shall probably see houses wrecked by the enemy's shells, and
strings of wagons moving along the roads with food and ammunition for
the fighting men.
Still nearer the fighting line are the _brigade_ headquarters, which are
usually within range of the enemy's guns. Four or five hundred yards
farther on is the irregular line of trenches, occupied by the men
engaged in firing on the enemy, or by the supports which are rushed up
when the attack becomes too hot for the defenders. When the hostile
forces have been facing each other in trenches for some time, the ground
which they occupy is seamed with dug-outs, burrows, and holes of all
sorts. The line of trenches is fringed with barbed wire, and is broken
here and there by what are called "saps"--that is, by narrow trenches
which are dug forward from the main trench towards the enemy's trenches.
Between the trenches of the hostile forces is a No Man's Land, strewn
with the dead of both sides. When darkness falls, a patrol or a solitary
"sniper" creeps out of his trench without a sound, and crawls along this
dread space until he reaches some point from which he can, while
concealed, examine the enemy's position, or fire with advantage on his
foes. All that he can see in the light of the moon is a fringe of wire
and long rows of low mounds marking the trenches occupied by the enemy.
Frequently in front of the firing line a secret position is found, which
enables an officer or man to observe the enemy's movements. From these
observation posts to the headquarters of the battalion, thence to those
of the brigade, and onward to the divisional headquarters and the
general headquarters, runs a long trail of telegraph wire, through which
information is constantly being sent or orders are being transmitted.
Away in front of the trenches this wire lies half hidden in the mud by
the roadside; farther back it is looped from tree to tree or along the
hedges. Still farther back it is carried on slender black-and-white
poles, and finally it reaches the general headquarters on permanent
posts.
These telegraph wires, you will observe, are just like the nerves which
branch out from your brain to the uttermost parts of your body. Along
them comes all the information which your brain can receive from
outside. Your brain decides what action you will take, and messages
flash along the nerves to the muscles which set the various parts of
your body in motion. If you think of the commander and his staff as the
brain of the army, and of the telegraph, telephone, motor car, motor
cycle, and aircraft as the nerves of the army, you will have a good idea
of how hundreds of thousands of men are moved and controlled by one
master mind.
* * * * *
Another important term which you continually meet with is the word
_communications_. Every army moves forward from what is called its
base--that is, the place where its ammunition, food, and general
supplies are stored. These stores must be continually brought up to the
army as it needs them; otherwise it would starve. There must, then, be a
speedy and safe road or system of roads and railways between the army
and its base. As the army advances this _line of communications_ becomes
longer and longer. It must be kept safe from the attacks of the enemy:
for if a part of it between the _base_ and the _army_ were to be
captured, the army would be cut off from its food and stores; and if it
could not find a new line of communication, it would very soon be forced
to surrender. Large numbers of soldiers are required to guard these
lines of communications. You may think of them as the air-tube which
supplies a diver with air. If by any means the air-tube should be cut or
stopped up, the diver must immediately come to the surface, or perish.
Along the lines of communication there is a constant coming and going.
Food, ammunition, general supplies, and new bodies of men are
continually passing from the base to the front, and the wounded and the
empty trains are continually being moved from the front to the base.
When an army so spreads out that it has a wide front, it must have
several parallel lines of communication, so as to keep itself supplied
with the necessities of war.
So vastly important are these lines of communication that the opposing
generals strive to cut them, and by so doing deprive their enemy of his
supplies of food and ammunition.
Another important way in which a general seeks to overcome his enemy is
by breaking through the line opposed to him in one or more places. If he
succeeds in doing this, he has no longer a strong, united force opposed
to him, but two or more fragments which he can overcome separately with
his own united and unbroken force.
There are two ways of breaking an enemy's line. The first way is by
holding the enemy all along his line, and suddenly bringing against one
part of it a large, powerful force. If this force breaks through, it
divides the opposing army, and can beat it in detail. Such an attack is
known as a _frontal attack_. Napoleon tried it at Waterloo, but could
not break through the "thin red line" of Wellington's heroes.
The other way of breaking the enemy's line is to _outflank_ it, and then
_envelop_ or surround his forces. I have already used the word _flank_
several times in these pages. It simply means the side or wing. If a man
attacks you when you are sideways, you cannot well resist him. In order
to do so you must turn your face towards him. So it is with an army. If
it is attacked on its side or wing, it cannot properly resist until it
forms a line facing the attacker. While it is doing this it runs the
risk of being thrown into confusion, and perhaps destroyed.
Look at the diagram on p. 216. Let A-F be a British force, and _a-f_ a
German force equal in strength. While these forces are fighting front to
front, suppose a new British force, G H I, should appear, and attack the
flank _a_. It is clear that the soldiers at _a_ can only defend
themselves if they swing round to meet the attack of G H I. If they
remain where they are, they will very soon have the foe behind them as
well as in front of them, and they will then be between two fires, in
which case they can hardly escape destruction.
[Illustration]
Suppose they swing round the two bodies _a_, _b_, as in Figure 1 (p. 217)
to meet G H I, what happens? The German line is weakened. Instead of
having six bodies to meet six bodies, they have now only four to oppose
the six of the attacking force. Immediately E F will try to take _f_ in
flank, and soon the line will assume the position shown in Figure 2 (p.
217). You can easily see that the line of the enemy's communications is
now in danger, and that if the movement continues the whole force will
be surrounded. You will remember that the Germans managed to surround a
large French army at Sedan and force it to surrender.[183] When a
general finds himself being outflanked by a superior force, he is bound
to retreat and straighten out his line again, if he is to save himself
from disaster.
[Illustration: Fig. 1.]
[Illustration: Fig. 2.]
In reading war news you will often meet with the word _strategy_, which
means the art of generalship, of moving and arranging great bodies of
troops in order to put the enemy at a disadvantage, and so overcome him.
I have given you some examples of strategy above.
Do you play draughts? When you do so, you and your opponent resemble the
generals of two opposing armies. You think out every move of the game,
and your object in making the move is to capture all your opponent's
men, or to hem them in so that they cannot move without being taken.
This is _strategy_, but the strategy of war is a far more puzzling
business. In the game of draughts all the men are of the same value at
the beginning, and you can only move them along certain fixed paths laid
down by the rules. All the moves are open and above board, and if you
and your opponent are equally skilful at the game, neither of you ought
to be taken by surprise. The better strategist will win, or, if you are
equally good, the game will end in a draw.
In the great game of war the opposing generals have to deal with men of
flesh and blood, and not with wooden pieces. These men are bodies of
infantry, cavalry, and artillery, which do different kinds of work on
the battlefield, and move at different speeds. Before the general can
make his first move--which may be the successful move or the fatal
move--he must study the map of the country in which he is to operate,
and must choose the line or lines of his advance, always taking care to
have good and well-protected communications in his rear. Though he may
fix on his plan of campaign beforehand, he must always be ready with
another, to suit altered circumstances. Then he must calculate carefully
the time which each "arm" will take to come into its required position,
and in order to do this he must know the kinds of roads over which the
men are to march, and the state they are in. And at the same time he
must get all the information possible about the strength and movements
of his enemy. He must form an idea of what the opposing general is
aiming at, and must make arrangements to thwart him. He must make his
moves as silently and secretly as possible, and whenever he can he must
put his enemy on a false scent, so that he may fall upon him unawares.
You can easily understand from this very imperfect account of a
general's duty that he must be a man of great powers of mind and of much
experience in war.
The commander-in-chief along with his staff settles the strategy, but
the commanders of divisions, and battalions, and squadrons, and
batteries must carry his plans into effect. The art of doing this is
known as _tactics_. The way in which the battle line is formed at a
particular place, the manner in which cavalry or artillery are used for
a particular purpose, and generally the methods by which marches are
conducted, camps are laid out, fortifications are made, and the actual
fighting is done, come under the head of _tactics_. It has been well
said that the art of strategy consists in getting two men to a place
where only one man is ready to oppose them. The arrangements by which
the two men would best attack the one man when they meet him, or by
which the one man could resist the two, belong to the art of tactics.
[Footnote 183: See p. 109.]