we have no fault to find with the method and no sentiment but
that of admiration for the fine powers of observation displayed
in these articles. There seems to be nothing in the form of the
eye that escapes his attention. The slightest variations in the
form of the lids, in the positions of the eyeball, he notices
Page 90 and assumes that they were made the vehicles of expression.
Similarly the forehead, the mouth, the chin, the hair are most
attentively studied as vehicles of expression. Surely few, even
trained archæologists, can read these pages without having
their powers of observation quickened. By far the greater
portion of workers in the field of Greek sculpture are
concerned at the present time with the morphology of art for
the sake of its history. The analysis of forms is utilized to
ascertain an historical series, to discover schools, to
establish dates. Here we find scarcely a mention of schools or
artists, no reference to history and not a date. The analysis
of form leads to the interpretation of monuments and the
establishment of ideals. It is the physiology, not the history
of art. The publishers, who are gaining a world-wide reputation
for their photo process reproductions, have added to this book
a series of fine phototype plates.
A.M.
Page 91
ARCHÆOLOGICAL NEWS.
SUMMARY OF RECENT DISCOVERIES AND INVESTIGATIONS.
PAGE | PAGE | PAGE
ALGERIA, 113 | BABYLONIA, 131 | PERSIA, 134
ARABIA, 131 | CAUCASUS, 146 | SYRIA, 140
ARMENIA, 146 | CHINA, 127 | THIBET, 127
ASIA (CENTRAL), 128 | ETHIOPIA, 111 | TUNISIA, 114
ASIA MINOR, 147 | HINDUSTAN, 118 |
AFRICA.
EGYPT.
TEXTS OF THE PYRAMIDS.--_Biblia_ for November, 1892, contains
an article by Dr. Brugsch on "The Texts of the Pyramids." It
mentions the opening of one of the smaller pyramids of the
Sakkarah group in 1880 by Mariette Pasha and the discovery of a
number of hieroglyphic inscriptions beautifully chiseled into
the walls of the inner aisles and chamber, which gave the name
of the maker of the pyramid as Pepi, and fixed its date at the
VI Dynasty or about 3,000 B.C. Prof. Brugsch then gives an
account of his own work at the request of Mariette upon a
second pyramid opened by Mariette's men at Sakkarah, where the
walls of the chamber were covered with hieroglyphic
inscriptions. A granite coffin, also, was found adorned with
hieroglyphics repeating in different places the name of the
King. The inscriptions on the walls had been destroyed in a
number of places by treasure hunters.
Maspero, Mariette's successor, opened a number of pyramids of
the same group and found a great quantity of inscriptions. As a
result, new texts were discovered in a number of pyramids of
which three belonged to the royal houses of the V and VI
Dynasties. Maspero then published a copy of all these
inscriptions together with their translation as far as this was
possible.
These discoveries establish the important point in the study of
the language, that its "iconographic phrase" dates from the
most ancient times and goes back even to Menes the first king.
The grammar, vocabulary and the construction of words and
sentences betray the awkward stiffness of a language in its
first literary beginnings, but it is shown in all its youthful
strength and pregnance.
A reciprocal comparison of all the texts found establishes the
fact that they belong to a collection of texts known as "the
Book." This "book" contained all the formulas and conjurations
Page 92 used after death, is a guide for the deceased in the unknown
future, and a book of charms, in which guise the Egyptian faith
made its appearance in the most ancient period of culture,
although containing nothing of the philosophy or history of the
ancient Egyptians, it gives us much interesting information
relating to mythology, geography, astronomy, botany and
zoology.
For the ancient Egyptians believed that their earthly
districts, cities and temples had heavenly counterparts of the
same name; in fact, the whole geography of this world was
duplicated in the world to come. The celestial inhabitants
consist of the immortal company of the "shining" with the solar
god at their head. Each constellation is designated as the
abode of the soul of one god benificent or maleficent. In his
wanderings the soul of man came in contact with these abodes of
the evil gods and the book which covered the walls of his
mortuary chamber provided charms which made him proof against
harm.
The texts of the pyramids promise to the departed the enjoyment
of a new life which he continues to live in the earth, in the
body, in heaven, in the spirit. The soul had power to reunite
itself to the body at will. We find in the texts mention of
Egyptian political institutions at the remotest period, the
existence of a high type of civilization. Agriculture was
highly developed. All the domestic animals, with the exception
of the horse and camel, are introduced, the arts of cooking, of
dressing and of personal adornment, all find mention.
The texts of the pyramids then, though they fail to give us any
information with regard to the life or history of the kings
whose chambers they adorned have still much significance for
the universal history of civilization.
THE MARRIAGE OF AMENOPHIS IV.--The Amarna tablets show that
Amenophis married other Babylonian princesses besides Thi his
first wife who bore the title of "Royal mother, Royal wife, and
Queen of Egypt." A large tablet on exhibition at the British
Museum with two others in the museum at Berlin and one at Gizeh
gives a very entertaining correspondence between Amenophis and
Kallima-Sin, king of Chaldea and brother of one of Amenophis'
wives and father of two others. The tablet in the British
Museum is relative to the alliance with Lukhaite the youngest
daughter of the Chaldean king.
Kallima-Sin is reluctant to give his daughter to the Pharaoh
and advances various reasons for his indisposition while
Amenophis smoothly explains away the various impediments.
Matters take a new turn in the Berlin letter where we find the
Babylonian requesting a wife of the Egyptian monarch, the
request is curtly refused, whereupon Kallima-Sin replies,
Page 93 "Inasmuch as thou hast not sent me a wife, I will do in like
manner unto thee and hinder any lady from going from Babylon to
Egypt." Another letter however shows that Kallima-Sin finally
consented on condition of large emolument to send Lukhaite to
Egypt, and this very mercenary and diplomatic alliance was
finally made.--_Biblia_, V, pp. 108, 109.
THE DATE OF THE FOURTH EGYPTIAN DYNASTY.--Mr. Petrie's
statement in _Medum_ as to the passage-angle of Senefru's
pyramid completes a chain of astronomical evidence proving the
commencement of the IV Dynasty to have been very approximately
3700 B.C.
The entrance passage of the Medum pyramid has a polar distance
(allowing for the azimuth error of the passage) of about 45,
and, if intended for observation of a circumpolar star, fixes
the date of the structure within not very wide limits. Between
4900 and 2900 B.C. no naked eye star was within this distance
of the pole, except the sixth magnitude star 126 Piazzi (XIII)
which was so situate about 3820 to 3620 B.C., its minimum
distance being about 36'. Allowing an uncertainty of a few
minutes of arc, a date fifty years on either side of these
extremes would satisfy the requirements of the case.
The passage-angle of the Great Pyramid is 3° 30' below the pole
(3° 34' in the built portion, the latest). The Second Pyramid
passage has also an angle of about 3° 31' polar distance
(Smyth's measures--Perring and Vyse, whose angle measures are
not accurate, give 4° 5'). Finally the northern "trial-passage"
east of the Great Pyramid has the polar distance 3° 22' + or -
8'. Now at the date 3650 B.C. the star 217 Piazzi (somewhat
brighter than that last named) was at a distance of 3° 29' from
the pole, increasing to 3° 34' by 3630 B.C.
East of the Great Pyramid there are certain straight trenches
(one at the N.E. corner) running respectively 13° 6', 24° 22',
and 75° 58' east of North and west of South. At about the date
named these trenches pointed very nearly to Canopus at setting
and to Arcturus and Altair at rising, the average error of
azimuth being less than a degree.
But even these differences of half a degree or so are accounted
for. Refraction at the horizon amounts to about 35' of arc; if
we assume that the Egyptian (?) astronomers took it roundly at
30', and that they intended to observe the stars on the true
and not the apparent horizon, we find the azimuths would have
been (3645 B.C.):--
Canopus 13° 3' (W. of S.), Trench 13° 6'
Arcturus 24° 23' (E. of N.), " 24° 22'
Altair 76° 0' ( " ), " 75° 58'
These figures speak for themselves. The dates 3645 B.C. for the
trenches and external works, and 3630 B.C. for the completion
Page 94 of the entrance passage, with an interval of fifteen years,
accord with the probabilities of the case. It should be
remembered that they are deduced quite independently.
The net result is that the three reigns of Senefru, Khuffu, and
Kaffra may be definitely assigned to the century 3700-3600
B.C.--G.F. HARDY, in _Academy_, Oct. 29.
THE PETRIE PAPYRI.--A paper was read by Prof. Mahaffy at the
Oriental Congress upon "The Gain to Egyptology from the Petrie
Papyri."--The first part of the papyri placed in his hands by
Mr. Flinders Petrie consisted of classical documents which had
already been printed by the Royal Irish Academy in the
Cunningham Memoirs. Of these a large volume had appeared, which
was exciting vehement controversy in Germany. But in addition
to these there was a great mass of private papers which had not
yet been printed, but which had been deciphered partly by Prof.
Sayce and partly by himself. These papers were in two
languages-Greek and demotic, or the popular language of the
Egyptians. These were in part hieroglyphs done into cursive. Of
these demotic fragments a large quantity had been sent to the
British Museum. The Greek papyri still remain in his own hands.
Strange to say, only one of these texts is bilingual. These
interesting documents might be divided into--(1) legal
agreements, of which some were contracts, others receipts,
others again taxing agreements; (2) correspondence, partly of a
public and partly of a private character. In the former were
official reports, petitions, complaints. The private
correspondence was especially interesting in showing the
condition of society at that date. A large number of
Macedonians and Greeks were settled in the Fayum under the
second Ptolemy, about 270 B.C. In addition there was a large
number of prisoners from Asia, who must have been brought into
Egypt after the great campaign of the third Ptolemy, about 246
B.C. This mixed body were the recipients of large grants of
land in the Fayum. It was interesting to find that many of
these grants were as large as 100 acres, and the occupiers are
thus called [Greek: ecatontaronroi]. The farms were divided into
three classes of land. First, there was what was called the
Royal land, probably fruitful land was meant; the second class
was called [Greek: abrochos], or land still in need of
irrigation; and the third [Greek: aphoros], or land which would
bear nothing. This latter was also called [Greek: almuris], or
the salt marsh, which was still common in Egypt. These
recipients or allottees of land were called by a name familiar
to all readers of Greek history--[Greek clerouchoi]. Prof.
Mahaffy had found no native landowner mentioned in the papyri.
Page 95 But in many cases the natives had an interest in the crops on
something like a _metayer_ system. Among the crops grown were
the vine, olives, wheat, barley, rye. There was evidence in the
legal papers that alienation of these farms was not allowed.
Among the contracts are many between Greeks and natives. The
principal officers of the Nome were the Strategos, the
Oeconomos, and the [Greek: epimeletes], or overseer. The
commissioner of works had charge of drainage and irrigation
works. It was amusing to find that two currencies were
prevalent at that period, silver and copper. This discovery
disposed of the current theory that the copper currency only
came in under the late Ptolemies. The phrases for the rate of
exchange had long been known--[Greek: chalcos ou allage], but he
had now got hold of a later term, [Greek: isonomos] which might
be translated 'at par.' These documents were also valuable, as
being transcriptions from Egyptian into Greek, with respect to
our knowledge of the Egyptian language. As the Egyptians did not
write down their vowels, the vocalisation of the language was
hardly yet known. But results of much importance were
gained--first, of a palaeographical, and, secondly, of a
linguistic character. We now know exactly how they wrote in the
third century B.C., and we have also learnt what was the Greek
used by the respectable classes of that epoch. The Greek was
far purer and better than that of the Septuagint would lead us
to expect. There was still a large number of papers to be
deciphered, and a large addition to our knowledge might be
expected.--_Academy_, Sept. 24.
A GREEK PAPYRUS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT.--At the Orientalist
Congress in London a most interesting document was submitted by
the Rev. Professor Hechler. It is a papyrus manuscript
discovered a few months ago in Egypt, and is supposed by some
authorities to be the oldest copy extant of portions of the Old
Testament books of Zachariah and Malachi. These pages of
papyrus when intact were about ten inches high and seven inches
wide, each containing 28 lines of writing, both sides of the
sheet being used. The complete line contains from fourteen to
seventeen letters. The sheets are bound together in the form of
a book in a primitive though careful manner with a cord and
strips of old parchment. The Greek is written without intervals
between the words. The papyrus is in fair preservation, and is
believed to date from the third or fourth century. It thus
ranks in age with the oldest Greek manuscripts of the
Septuagint version of the Old Testament in London, Rome and St.
Petersburg. The differences in this papyrus tend to the
conclusion that it was copied from some excellent original of
the Septuagint, which was first translated about the year 280
B.C. The first summary examination has shown that it has
several new readings which surpass some of the other Septuagint
Page 96 texts in clearness of expression and simplicity of grammar. It
would also appear that it was copied from another Septuagint
Bible and was not written, as was frequently the case, from
dictation. A second scribe has occasionally corrected some
mistakes of orthography made by the original copyist. These are
still to be distinguished by the different color of the ink.
Professor Hechler said it was sincerely to be hoped that this
papyrus of the Bible, probably the oldest now known to exist,
would soon be published in fac-simile.
THE DATE OF THE AEGEAN POTTERY.--Quite a discussion has been
carried on between Mr. Flinders Petrie and Mr. Cecil Torr on
the subject of the period of the Aegean pottery in Egypt which
Mr. Torr regards as having been assigned to too early a date by
Mr. Petrie. The recent discovery of such fragments in the ruins
of the palace of Khuenaten at Tell-el-Amarna, which existed for
little over half a century in the xiv century B.C., would
appear to prove beyond doubt the correctness of Mr. Petrie's
position.--See _Classical Review_ for March; Academy, May 14
and 21, etc.
A PROFESSORSHIP OF EGYPTOLOGY.--Miss A.B. Edwards has left
almost the whole of her property to found a professorship of
Egyptology, under certain conditions, at University College,
London, The value of the chair will amount to about $2,000 a
year. Mr. W.M. Flinders Petrie has been appointed to this
chair, and no better selection could have been made.
EXCAVATIONS BY DR. BRUGSCH, COUNT D'HULST AND M. NAVILLE.--Dr.
H. Brugsch has been excavating during the past spring in the
Fayoum. At Hawara he has discovered a considerable number of
painted portraits. At Illahun he opened a tomb of the eleventh
dynasty, which had not been entered since the mummy was
originally deposited in it. Unfortunately the roof fell in
before it could be properly cleared out. At Shenhour he came
across the remains of a small temple. Since leaving the Fayoum
he has been working on the site of Sais.
Count d'Hulst has been excavating at Behbet, near Mansourah, on
behalf of the Egypt Exploration Fund. The ruined temple there
is Ptolemaic, but the cartouche of Ramses II has been found in
the course of the excavations.
Mr. Naville has returned to Europe. His excavations at Jmei
el-Amdîd, the supposed site of Mendes, have been unfruitful,
and he has fared no better at Tel el-Baghliyeh.--_Athenaeum_
May 16.
Page 97
EXCAVATIONS BY LIEUT. LYONS AT WADY HALFAH, ABUSIR,
MATUGAH.--Lieut. H.G. Lyons has been continuing exploration at
_Wady Halfah_. He has cleared out the sand from one of the
temples, and found there eleven slabs with figures of a king
making offerings to the god Horus of Behen or Wady Halfah in a
chamber in front of the Hall of Columns. The names in the
cartouches have been erased, and it is, therefore, impossible
to identify the king. A second temple, with sandstone pillars
and mud brick walls, is inscribed in many places with the name
of Thothmes IV. This building had been flooded and filled to a
depth of 2 ft. with fine sand. The third temple of Wady Halfah
was completely surrounded by a line of fortifications, the
flanks of which rest on the river, but of these works only the
foundation remains. The discovery of them is, however,
decidedly important, for in them we must see beyond doubt the
great frontier fortress which marked the limit of the rule of
Egypt on the south.
About five miles beyond the rock of _Abusir_, Lieut. Lyons has
excavated the large space, about two hundred yards square,
which is mentioned in Burckhard's 'Travels in Nubia,' and upon
which stand the ruined walls of what has been variously
described as a Roman fort or a monastery. He has come to the
conclusion that the building is undoubtedly Egyptian, and has
traced the site of the ancient stone temple inside it.
He reports that he has discovered old Egyptian fortresses at
Halfa and at Matuga, twelve miles south, the latter containing
a cartouche of Usertesen III: and has opened three rocktombs at
Halfa.--_Academy_, July 16 and Aug. 6.
NOTES BY PROF. SAYCE.--Besides Tel el-Amarna, I have visited
El-Hibeh and the little temple of Shishak, which was uncovered
there last year. It is, unfortunately, in a most ruinous
condition. One of the natives took me to a recently-found
necropolis at a place under the cliffs called Ed-Dibân, some
two miles distant, which is plainly of the Roman age, and its
occupants belonged to the poorer classes.
In the White Monastery near Sohâg, I found a stone with the
cartouche of Darius, which had formed part of the ancient
temple of Crocodilopolis.
I picked up some fine flint spear-heads near the line of Roman
forts on the north side of the Gebel Sheikh Embârak, where I
discovered an enormous manufactory of flint weapons and tools
three years ago.
Lastly, I may add that at the back of the Monastery of Mari
Girgis, about three miles south of Ekhmim, I found that another
cemetery of the early Coptic period has been discovered, and
Page 98 that it is providing the dealers with fresh supplies of ancient
embroideries.--A.H. SAYCE, in _Academy_, Feb. 27.
PRESERVATION OF MOHAMMEDAN MONUMENTS.--The Soc. for the
Protection of Ancient Buildings has protested, through Sir
Evelyn Baring, against the so-called restoration of the mosque
El-Mouyayyed and the mosque of Barkouk. It is proposed to
rebuild the domed minaret of Barkouk's mosque and the
suppressed bell-tower of the Sultan's mosque, which is to be
replaced by a bulbous roof.--_Chron. des Arts_, 1892, No. 31.
ABU-SIMBEL.--The Council of Ministers has granted £1,000 for
the preservation of Abu-Simbel, which is in danger of partial
destruction. The rock above the four colossi on the façade,
which is of sandstone with layers of clay, had become fissured,
threatening an immediate fall. A party of sappers from the army
of occupation have been sent to the temple, who, after binding
with chains the falling rock, will break it up. Further
examination will be made to ascertain whether additional work
is required for the protection of this temple.--_Academy_,
March 5.
ASSOUAN.--DAM.--A huge dam is to be thrown across the Nile at
Assouan: its height will raise the water to the level of the
floors of the ruins at Philae, enhancing rather than detracting
from their picturesque grandeur. It is said that the structure
of the dam will harmonize with the ancient architecture of
Philae. The material already cut and lying in the quarries of
Assouan will be almost sufficient to complete the
dam.--_Biblia_, V. p. 109.
TOMBS.--Some new tombs have been opened, one by the Crown
Princess of Sweden and Norway, the other by Mr. James. One of
them belonged to the reign of Nofer-Ka-Ra; and, in an
inscription found in it, Prof. Schiaparelli has read the name
of the land of Pun, which accordingly, was already known to the
Egyptians in the age of the dynasty.--PROF. SAYCE in _Academy_.
CAIRO (NEAR). DESTRUCTION OF AN ANCIENT CHRISTIAN CHURCH.--Rev.
Greville J. Chester writes (_Acad._ March 19). Permit me to
draw public attention to an almost incredible act of vandalism
which was perpetrated during the last year in Egypt, close to
the capital. The finest Roman ruin in Egypt was the fortress of
Babylon, south of Cairo, known also as Mus'r el Ateekeh and
Dayr esh Shemma. One of the most interesting sights in that
Dayr was the Jewish synagogue, anciently the Christian Church
of St. Michael, but desecrated by being handed over in the
Page 99 middle ages by an Arab Sultan to the Jews, and thenceforward to
the present time used by them as a place of worship. The
building was of much architectural interest. The old Christian
nave and aisles were preserved intact; but the Jews had
destroyed the apse which must have existed, and had replaced it
by a square Eastern sanctuary, and over the niche, within which
were preserved the Holy Books of the Law, had adorned the wall
with numerous Hebrew texts executed in gesso, forming an
interesting example of Jewish taste and work in the middle
ages. Some of the ancient Christian screenwork of wood was
preserved, but was turned upside down, probably because
gazelles and other animals formed part of the design. Behind
this building, in a sort of court, the very finest portion of
the original wall of the Roman fortress was visible, and, what
is more important, the inner and most perfect circuit of one of
the Roman bastion-towers, which outside looked out on the
desert.
All this is now a thing of the past. The Jews have razed the
ancient church and synagogue to the ground, and in its place
have erected a hideous square abomination, supported internally
on iron pillars. Of the fine Roman wall which bounded the
property, and with it the bastion-tower, with its courses of
brick at regular intervals, and its deeply-splayed windows, not
a vestige now remains.