[1] "Recherches sur le calcul intégral," _Mélanges de la Soc. Roy. de
Turin_ (1766-1769).
[2] "Plan de l'Ouvrage," _Oeuvres_, tom. i. p 1.
[3] Journal des savants (1850).
[4] _Méc. cél._, tom. v. p. 346.
[5] _Annales de chimie et de physique_ (1816), tom. iii. p. 238.
LAPLAND, or LAPPLAND, a name used to indicate the region of northern
Europe inhabited by the Lapps, though not applied to any administrative
district. It covers in Norway the division (amter) of Finmarken and the
higher inland parts of Tromsö and Nordland; in Russian territory the
western part of the government of Archangel as far as the White Sea and
the northern part of the Finnish district of Uleåborg; and in Sweden the
inland and northern parts of the old province of Norrland, roughly
coincident with the districts (_län_) of Norbotten and Vesterbotten, and
divided into five divisions--Torne Lappmark, Lule Lappmark, Pite
Lappmark, Lycksele Lappmark and Åsele Lappmark. The Norwegian portion is
thus insignificant; of the Russian only a little lies south of the
Arctic circle, and the whole is less accessible and more sparsely
populated than the Swedish, the southern boundary of which may be taken
arbitrarily at about 64° N., though scattered families of Lapps occur
much farther south, even in the Hardanger Fjeld in Norway.
The Scandinavian portion of Lapland presents the usual characteristics
of the mountain plateau of that peninsula--on the west side the bold
headlands and fjords, deeply-grooved valleys and glaciers of Norway, on
the east the long mountain lakes and great lake-fed rivers of Sweden.
Russian Lapland is broadly similar to the lower-lying parts of Swedish
Lapland, but the great lakes are more generally distributed, and the
valleys are less direct. The country is low and gently undulating,
broken by detached hills and ridges not exceeding in elevation 2500 ft.
In the uplands of Swedish Lapland, and to some extent in Russian
Lapland, the lakes afford the principal means of communication; it is
almost impossible to cross the forests from valley to valley without a
native guide. In Sweden the few farms of the Swedes who inhabit the
region are on the lake shores, and the traveller must be rowed from one
to another in the typical boats of the district, pointed at bow and
stern, unusually low amidships, and propelled by short sculls or
paddles. Sailing is hardly ever practised, and squalls on the lakes are
often dangerous to the rowing-boats. On a few of the lakes wood-fired
steam-launches are used in connexion with the timber trade, which is
considerable, as practically the whole region is forested. Between the
lakes all journeying is made on foot. The heads of the Swedish valleys
are connected with the Norwegian fjords by passes generally traversed
only by tracks; though from the head of the Ume a driving road crosses
to Mo on Ranen Fjord. Each principal valley has a considerable village
at or near the tail of the lake-chain, up to which a road runs along the
valley. The village consists of wooden cottages with an inn
(_gästgifvaregård_), a church, and frequently a collection of huts
without windows, closed in summer, but inhabited by the Lapps when they
come down from the mountains to the winter fairs. Sometimes there is
another church and small settlement in the upper valley, to which, once
or twice in a summer, the Lapps come from great distances to attend
service. To these, too, they sometimes bring their dead for burial,
bearing them if necessary on a journey of many days. Though Lapland
gives little scope for husbandry, a bad summer being commonly followed
by a winter famine, it is richly furnished with much that is serviceable
to man. There are copper-mines at the mountain of Sulitelma, and the
iron deposits in Norrland are among the most extensive in the world.
Their working is facilitated by the railway from Stockholm to Gellivara,
Kirunavara and Narvik on the Norwegian coast, which also connects them
with the port of Luleå on the Gulf of Bothnia. The supply of timber
(pine, fir, spruce and birch) is unlimited. Though fruit-trees will not
bear there is an abundance of edible berries; the rivers and lakes
abound with trout, perch, pike and other fish, and in the lower waters
with salmon; and the cod, herring, halibut and Greenland shark in the
northern seas attract numerous Norwegian and Russian fishermen.
The climate is thoroughly Arctic. In the northern parts unbroken
daylight in summer and darkness in winter last from two to three months
each; and through the greater part of the country the sun does not rise
at mid-winter or set at midsummer. In December and January in the far
north there is little more daylight than a cold glimmer of dawn; by
February, however, there are some hours of daylight; in March the heat
of the sun is beginning to modify the cold, and now and in April the
birds of passage begin to appear. In April the snow is melting from the
branches; spring comes in May; spring flowers are in blossom, and grain
is sown. At the end of this month or in June the ice is breaking up on
the lakes, woods rush into leaf, and the unbroken daylight of the
northern summer soon sets in. July is quite warm; the great rivers come
down full from the melting snows in the mountains. August is a rainy
month, the time of harvest; night-frosts may begin already about the
middle of the month. All preparations for winter are made during
September and October, and full winter has set in by November.
_The Lapps._--The Lapps (Swed. _Lappar_; Russian _Lopari_; Norw.
_Finner_) call their country _Sabme_ or _Same_, and themselves
_Samelats_--names almost identical with those employed by the Finns for
their country and race, and probably connected with a root signifying
"dark." Lapp is almost certainly a nickname imposed by foreigners,
although some of the Lapps apply it contemptuously to those of their
countrymen whom they think to be less civilized than themselves.[1]
In Sweden and Finland the Lapps are usually divided into fisher,
mountain and forest Lapps. In Sweden the first class includes many
impoverished mountain Lapps. As described by Laestadius (1827-1832),
their condition was very miserable; but since his time matters have
improved. The principal colony has its summer quarters on the Stora-Lule
Lake, possesses good boats and nets, and, besides catching and drying
fish, makes money by the shooting of wild fowl and the gathering of
eggs. When he has acquired a little means it is not unusual for the
fisher to settle down and reclaim a bit of land. The mountain and forest
Lapps are the true representatives of the race. In the wandering life of
the mountain Lapp his autumn residence, on the borders of the forest
district, may be considered as the central point; it is there that he
erects his _njalla_, a small wooden storehouse raised high above the
ground by one or more piles. About the beginning of November he begins
to wander south or east into the forest land, and in the winter he may
visit, not only such places as Jokkmokk and Arjepluog, but even Gefle,
Upsala or Stockholm. About the beginning of May he is back at his
njalla, but as soon as the weather grows warm he pushes up to the
mountains, and there throughout the summer pastures his herds and
prepares his store of cheese. By autumn or October he is busy at his
njalla killing the surplus reindeer bulls and curing meat for the
winter. From the mountain Lapp the forest (or, as he used to be called,
the spruce-fir) Lapp is mainly distinguished by the narrower limits
within which he pursues his nomadic life. He never wanders outside of a
certain district, in which he possesses hereditary rights, and maintains
a series of camping-grounds which he visits in regular rotation. In May
or April he lets his reindeer loose, to wander as they please; but
immediately after midsummer, when the mosquitoes become troublesome, he
goes to collect them. Catching a single deer and belling it, he drives
it through the wood; the other deer, whose instinct leads them to gather
into herds for mutual protection against the mosquitoes, are attracted
by the sound. Should the summer be very cool and the mosquitoes few, the
Lapp finds it next to impossible to bring the creatures together. About
the end of August they are again let loose, but they are once more
collected in October, the forest Lapp during winter pursuing the same
course of life as the mountain Lapp.
In Norway there are three classes--the sea Lapps, the river Lapps and
the mountain Lapps, the first two settled, the third nomadic. The
mountain Lapps have a rather ruder and harder life than the same class
in Sweden. About Christmas those of Kautokeino and Karasjok are usually
settled in the neighbourhood of the churches; in summer they visit the
coast, and in autumn they return inland. Previous to 1852, when they
were forbidden by imperial decree, they were wont in winter to move
south across the Russian frontiers. It is seldom possible for them to
remain more than three or four days in one spot. Flesh is their
favourite, in winter almost their only food, though they also use
reindeer milk, cheese and rye or barley cakes. The sea Lapps are in some
respects hardly to be distinguished from the other coast dwellers of
Finmark. Their food consists mainly of cooked fish. The river Lapps,
many of whom, however, are descendants of Finns proper, breed cattle,
attempt a little tillage and entrust their reindeer to the care of
mountain Lapps.
In Finland there are comparatively few Laplanders, and the great bulk of
them belong to the fisher class. Many are settled in the neighbourhood
of the Enare Lake. In the spring they go down to the Norwegian coast and
take part in the sea fisheries, returning to the lake about midsummer.
Formerly they found the capture of wild reindeer a profitable
occupation, using for this purpose a palisaded avenue gradually
narrowing towards a pitfall.
The Russian Lapps are also for the most part fishers, as is natural in a
district with such an extent of coast and such a number of lakes, not to
mention the advantage which the fisher has over the reindeer keeper in
connexion with the many fasts of the Greek Church. They maintain a half
nomadic life, very few having become settlers in the Russian villages.
It is usual to distinguish them according to the district of the coast
which they frequent, as Murman (Murmanski) and Terian (Terski) Lapps. A
separate tribe, the Filmans, i.e. Finnmans, wander about the Pazyets,
Motov and Pechenga tundras, and retain the peculiar dialect and the
Lutheran creed which they owe to a former connexion with Sweden. They
were formerly known as the "twice and thrice tributary" Lapps, because
they paid to two or even three states--Russia, Denmark and Sweden.
The Lapps within the historical period have considerably recruited
themselves from neighbouring races. Shortness of stature[2] is their
most obvious characteristic, though in regard to this much exaggeration
has prevailed. Düben found an average of 4.9 ft. for males and a little
less for females; Mantegazza, who made a number of anthropological
observations in Norway in 1879, gives 5 ft. and 4.75 ft., respectively
(_Archivio per l'antrop._, 1880). Individuals much above or much below
the average are rare. The body is usually of fair proportions, but the
legs are rather short, and in many cases somewhat bandy. Dark, swarthy,
yellow, copper-coloured are all adjectives employed to describe their
complexion--the truth being that their habits of life do not conduce
either to the preservation or display of the natural colour of their
skin, and that some of them are really fair, and others, perhaps the
majority, really dark. The colour of the hair ranges from blonde and
reddish to a bluish or greyish black; the eyes are black, hazel, blue or
grey. The shape of the skull is the most striking peculiarity of the
Lapp. He is the most brachycephalous type of man in Europe, perhaps in
the world.[3] According to Virchow, the women in width of face are more
Mongolian in type than the men, but neither in men nor women does the
opening of the eye show any true obliquity. In children the eye is
large, open and round. The nose is always low and broad, more markedly
retroussé among the females than the males. Wrinkled and puckered by
exposure to the weather, the faces even of the younger Lapps assume an
appearance of old age. The muscular system is usually well developed,
but there is deficiency of fatty tissue, which affects the features
(particularly by giving relative prominence to the eyes) and the general
character of the skin. The thinness of the skin, indeed, can but rarely
be paralleled among other Europeans. Among the Lapps, as among other
lower races, the index is shorter than the ring finger.
The Lapps are a quiet, inoffensive people. Crimes of violence are almost
unknown, and the only common breach of law is the killing of tame
reindeer belonging to other owners. In Russia, however, they have a bad
reputation for lying and general untrustworthiness, and drunkenness is
well-nigh a universal vice. In Scandinavia laws have been directed
against the importation of intoxicating liquors into the Lapp country
since 1723.
Superficially at least the great bulk of the Lapps have been
Christianized--those of the Scandinavian countries being Protestants,
those of Russia members of the Greek Church. Although the first attempt
to convert the Lapps to Christianity seems to have been made in the 11th
century, the worship of heathen idols was carried on openly in Swedish
Lappmark as late as 1687, and secretly in Norway down to the first
quarter of the 18th century, while the practices of heathen rites
survived into the 19th century, if indeed they are extinct even yet.
Lapp graves, prepared in the heathen manner, have been discovered in
upper Namdal (Norway), belonging to the years 1820 and 1826. In
education the Scandinavian Lapps are far ahead of their Russian
brethren, to whom reading and writing are arts as unfamiliar as they
were to their pagan ancestors. The general manner of life is
patriarchal. The father of the family has complete authority over all
its affairs; and on his death this authority passes to the eldest son.
Parents are free to disinherit their children; and, if a son separates
from the family without his father's permission, he receives no share of
the property except a gun and his wife's dowry.[4]
The Lapps are of necessity conservative in most of their habits, many of
which can hardly have altered since the first taming of the reindeer.
But the strong current of mercantile enterprise has carried a few
important products of southern civilization into their huts. The lines
in which James Thomson describes their simple life--
The reindeer form their riches: these their tents,
Their robes, their beds, and all their homely wealth
Supply; their wholesome fare and cheerful cups--
are still applicable in the main to the mountain Lapps; but even they
have learned to use coffee as an ordinary beverage and to wear stout
Norwegian cloth (_vadmal_).
Language.
Linguistically the Lapps belong to the Finno-Ugrian group (q.v.); the
similarity of their speech to Finnish is evident though the phonetics
are different and more complicated. It is broken up into very distinct
and even mutually unintelligible dialects, the origin of several of
which is, however, easily found in the political and social
dismemberment of the people. Düben distinguishes four leading
dialects; but a much greater number are recognizable. In Russian
Lapland alone there are three, due to the influence of Norwegian,
Karelian and Russian (Lönnrot, _Acta Soc. Sci. Fennicae_, vol. iv.).
"The Lapps," says Castren, "have had the misfortune to come into close
contact with foreign races while their language was yet in its
tenderest infancy, and consequently it has not only adopted an endless
number of foreign words, but in many grammatical aspects fashioned
itself after foreign models." That it began at a very early period to
enrich itself with Scandinavian words is shown by the use it still
makes of forms belonging to a linguistic stage older even than that of
Icelandic. Düben has subjected the vocabulary to a very interesting
analysis for the purpose of discovering what stage of culture the
people had reached before their contact with the Norse. Agricultural
terms, the names of the metals and the word for smith are all of
Scandinavian origin, and the words for "taming" and "milk" would
suggest that the southern strangers taught the Lapps how to turn the
reindeer to full account. The important place, however, which this
creature must always have held in their estimation is evident from the
existence of more than three hundred native words in connexion with
reindeer.
The Lapp tongue was long ago reduced to writing by the missionaries;
but very little has been printed in it except school-books and
religious works. A number of popular tales and songs, indeed, have
been taken down from the lips of the people. The songs are similar to
those of the Finns, and a process of mutual borrowing seems to have
gone on. In one of the saga-like pieces--Pishan-Peshan's son--there
seems to be a mention of the Baikal Lake, and possibly also of the
Altai Mountains. The story of Njavvisena, daughter of the Sun, is full
of quaint folk-lore about the taming of the reindeer. Giants, as well
as a blind or one-eyed monster, are frequently introduced, and the
Aesopic fable is not without its representatives. Many of the Lapps
are able to speak one or even two of the neighbouring tongues.
Witchcraft.
The reputation of the Laplanders for skill in magic and divination is
of very early date, and in Finland is not yet extinct. When Erik
Blood-axe, son of Harold Haarfager, visited Bjarmaland in 922, he
found Gunhild, daughter of Asur Tote, living among the Lapps, to whom
she had been sent by her father for the purpose of being trained in
witchcraft; and Ivan the Terrible of Russia sent for magicians from
Lapland to explain the cause of the appearance of a comet. One of the
powers with which they were formerly credited was that of raising
winds. "They tye three knottes," says old Richard Eden, "on a strynge
hangyng at a whyp. When they lose one of these they rayse tollerable
wynds. When they lose an other the wynde is more vehement; but by
losing the thyrd they rayse playne tempestes as in old tyme they were
accustomed to rayse thunder and lyghtnyng" (_Hist. of Trauayle_,
1577). Though we are familiar in English with allusions to "Lapland
witches," it appears that the art, according to native custom, was in
the hands of the men. During his divination the wizard fell into a
state of trance or ecstasy, his soul being held to run at large to
pursue its inquiries. Great use was made of a curious divining-drum,
oval in shape and made of wood, 1 to 4 ft. in length. Over the upper
surface was stretched a white-dressed reindeer skin, and at the
corners (so to speak) hung a variety of charms--tufts of wool, bones,
teeth, claws, &c. The area was divided into several spaces, often into
three, one for the celestial gods, one for the terrestrial and one for
man. A variety of figures and conventional signs were drawn in the
several compartments: the sun, for instance, is frequently represented
by a square and a stroke from each corner, Thor by two hammers placed
crosswise; and in the more modern specimens symbols for Christ, the
Virgin, and the Holy Ghost are introduced. An _arpa_ or divining-rod
was laid on a definite spot, the drum beaten by a hammer, and
conclusions drawn from the position taken up by the arpa. Any Lapp who
had attained to manhood could in ordinary circumstances consult the
drum for himself, but in matters of unusual moment the professional
wizard (_naid_, _noide_ or _noaide_) had to be called in.
_History._--The Lapps have a dim tradition that their ancestors lived in
a far eastern land, and they tell rude stories of conflicts with
Norsemen and Karelians. But no answer can be obtained from them in
regard to their early distribution and movements. It has been maintained
that they were formerly spread over the whole of the Scandinavian
peninsula, and they have even been considered the remnants of that
primeval race of cave-dwellers which hunted the reindeer over the
snow-fields of central and western Europe. But much of the evidence
adduced for these theories is highly questionable. The contents of the
so-called Lapps' graves found in various parts of Scandinavia are often
sufficient in themselves to show that the appellation must be a
misnomer, and the syllable Lap or Lapp found in many names of places can
often be proved to have no connexion with the Lapps.[5] They occupied
their present territory when they are first mentioned in history.
According to Düben the name first occurs in the 13th century--in the
_Fundinn Noregr_, composed about 1200, in Saxo Grammaticus, and in a
papal bull of date 1230; but the people are probably to be identified
with those Finns of Tacitus whom he describes as wild hunters with skins
for clothing and rude huts as only means of shelter, and certainly with
the Skrithiphinoi of Procopius (_Goth._ ii. 15), the Scritobini of
Paulus Warnefridus, and the Scridifinni of the geographer of Ravenna.
Some of the details given by Procopius, in regard for instance to the
treatment of infants, show that his informant was acquainted with
certain characteristic customs of the Lapps.
In the 9th century the Norsemen from Norway began to treat their
feeble northern neighbours as a subject race. The wealth of Ottar,
"northmost of the northmen," whose narrative has been preserved by
King Alfred, consisted mainly of six hundred of those "deer they call
hrenas" and in tribute paid by the natives; and the Eigils saga tells
how Brynjulf Bjargulfson had his right to collect contributions from
the Finns (i.e. the Lapps) recognized by Harold Haarfager. So much
value was attached to this source of wealth that as early as 1050
strangers were excluded from the fur-trade of Finmark, and a kind of
coast-guard prevented their intrusion. Meantime the Karelians were
pressing on the eastern Lapps, and in the course of the 11th century
the rulers of Novgorod began to treat them as the Norsemen had treated
their western brethren. The ground-swell of the Tatar invasion drove
the Karelians westward in the 13th century, and for many years even
Finmark was so unsettled that the Norsemen received no tribute from
the Lapps. At length in 1326 a treaty was concluded between Norway and
Russia by which the supremacy of the Norwegians over the Lapps was
recognized as far east as Voljo beyond Kandalax on the White Sea, and
the supremacy of the Russians over the Karelians as far as Lyngen and
the Målself. The relations of the Lapps to their more powerful
neighbours were complicated by the rivalry of the different
Scandinavian kingdoms. After the disruption of the Calmar Union (1523)
Sweden began to assert its rights with vigour, and in 1595 the treaty
of Teusina between Sweden and Russia decreed "that the Lapps who dwell
in the woods between eastern Bothnia and Varanger shall pay their dues
to the king of Sweden." It was in vain that Christian IV. of Denmark
visited Kola and exacted homage in 1599, and every year sent
messengers to protest against the collection of his tribute by the
Swedes (a custom which continued down to 1806). Charles of Sweden took
the title of "king of the Kajans and Lapps," and left no means untried
to establish his power over all Scandinavian Lapland. By the peace of
Knäröd (1613) Gustavus Adolphus gave up the Swedish claim to Finmark;
and in 1751 mutual renunciations brought the relations of Swedish and
Norwegian (Danish) Lapland to their present position. Meanwhile
Russian influence had been spreading westward; and in 1809, when
Alexander I. finally obtained the cession of Finland, he also added to
his dominions the whole of Finnish Lapland to the east of the Muonio
and the Köngämä. It may be interesting to mention that Lapps, armed
with bows and arrows, were attached to certain regiments of Gustavus
Adolphus in Germany during the Thirty Years' War.
The Lapps have had the ordinary fate of a subject and defenceless
people; they have been utilized with little regard to their own
interest or inclinations. The example set by the early Norwegians was
followed by the Swedes: a peculiar class of adventurers known as the
Birkarlians (from _Bjark_ or _Birk_, "trade") began in the 13th
century to farm the Lapps, and, receiving very extensive privileges
from the kings, grew to great wealth and influence. In 1606 there were
twenty-two Birkarlians in Tornio, seventeen in Lule, sixteen in Pite,
and sixty-six in Ume Lappmark. They are regularly spoken of as having
or owning Lapps, whom they dispose of as any other piece of property.
In Russian Lapland matters followed much the same course. The very
institutions of the Solovets monastery, intended by St Tryphon for the
benefit of the poor neglected pagans, turned out the occasion of much
injustice towards them. By a charter of Ivan Vasilivitch (November
1556), the monks are declared masters of the Lapps of the Motoff and
Petchenga districts, and they soon sought to extend their control over
those not legally assigned to them (Ephimenko). Other monasteries were
gifted with similar proprietary rights; and the supplication of the
patriarch Nikon to Alexis Mikhaelovitch, for example, shows clearly
the oppression to which the Lapps were subjected.
It is long, however, since these abuses were abolished; and in
Scandinavia more especially the Lapps of the present day enjoy the
advantages resulting from a large amount of philanthropic legislation
on the part of their rulers. There seems to be no fear of their
becoming extinct, except it may be by gradual amalgamation with their
more powerful neighbours. In Norway the total number of Lapps was
20,786 in 1891, and in Sweden in 1904 it was officially estimated that
there were 7000. Add to these some 3000 for Russian Lapland, and the
total Lapp population approximates to 30,000. In Sweden the Lapps are
gradually abandoning their nomadic habits and becoming merged in the
Swedish population. The majority of the Norwegian Lapps lead a
semi-nomadic existence; but the number of inveterate nomads can
scarcely reach 1500 at the present day. In Sweden there are about 3500
nomads.
AUTHORITIES.--G. von Düben, _Om Lappland och Lapparne_ (Stockholm,
1873), with list of over 200 authorities; C. Rabot, "La Laponie
suédoise d'après les récentes explorations de MM. Svenonius et
Hamberg," _La Géographie_, Soc. Géog. de Paris VII. (1903); S.
Passarge, _Fahrten in Schweden, besonders in Nordschweden und
Lappland_ (Berlin, 1897); Bayard Taylor, _Northern Travel_ (London,
1858); E. Rae, _The White Sea Peninsula_ (London, 1882), and _Land of
the North Wind_ (London, 1875); P. B. du Chaillu, _Land of the
Midnight Sun_ (London, 1881); S. Tromholt, _Under the Rays of the
Aurora Borealis_ (London, 1885); Y. Nielsen, _Det Norske geogr.
Selskabs Aarbog_ (1891); H. H. Reusch, _Folk og natur i Finmarken_
(1895); K. B. Wicklund, _De Svenska nomadlapparnas flyttningar till
Norge i älore och nyare tid_ (Upsala, 1908); see also SWEDEN. Among
older works may be mentioned Scheffer, _Lapponia_ (Frankfurt, 1673,
English trans. Oxford, 1674); Regnard, _Voyage de Laponie_, English
version in Pinkerton's _Voyages_, vol. i.; Leem, _Beskrivelse over
Finmarkens Lapper_ (Copenhagen, 1767), in Danish and Latin; see also
Pinkerton, loc. cit.; Sir A. de C. Brooke, _A Winter in Lapland_
(London, 1827); Laestadius, _Journal_ (1831).
As to the language, J. A. Friis, professor of Lapp in the university
of Christiania, has published _Lappiske Sprogprover: en samling lapp.
eventyr, ordsprog, og gåder_ (Christiania, 1856), and _Lappisk
mythologi eventyr og folkesagn_ (Christiania, 1871). See also G.
Donner, _Lieder der Lappen_ (Helsingfors, 1876); Poestion,
_Lappländische Märchen_, &c. (Vienna, 1885). Grammars of the Lapp
tongue have been published by Fjellström (1738), Leem (1748), Rask
(1832), Stockfleth (1840); lexicons by Fjellström (1703), Leem
(1768-1781), Lindahl (1780), Stockfleth (1852). Among more recent
works may be mentioned a dictionary (1885), by J. A. Friis; a reader,
with German translations (1888), by J. Qvigstad; a dictionary (1890)
and two grammars (1891 and 1897) of the Luleå dialect, and a
chrestomathy of Norwegian Lappish (1894), by K. B. Wiklund; a
dictionary of Russian Lappish, or the Kola dialect (1891), by A.
Genetz; readers of different dialects (1885-1896), by J. Halász; and a
grammar of Norwegian Lappish (1882), by S. Nielsen; further, a
comparative study of Lappish and Finnish by Qvigstad in the _Acts of
the Finnish Academy of Science_, vol. xii., 1883; the same author's
_Nordische Lehnwörter im Lappischen_ (1893); Wiklund, _Entwurf einer
urlappischen Lautlehre_ (1896); see also various articles by these
writers, Paasonen and others in the _Journal de la Société
Finno-Ougrienne_ and the _Finnisch-Ugrische Forschungen_; Qvigstad and
Wiklund, _Bibliographie der lappischen Literatur_ (1900).
The older literature on the Lapps received a notable addition by the
discovery in 1896, among the letters of Linnaeus preserved in the
British Museum, of a MS. diary of a journey made in 1695 to the north
of Swedish Lappmark by Olof Rudbeck the younger. On missionary work
see Stockfleth, _Dagbog over mine missions Reiser_ (1860); E. Haller,
_Svenska Kyrkans mission i Lappmarken_ (1896). It was not until 1840
that the New Testament was translated into Norwegian Lappish, and not
until 1895 that the entire Bible was printed in the same dialect. In
the Russian dialect of Lappish there exist only two versions of St
Matthew's gospel.