Transcriber’s Note
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THE
TURNER’S COMPANION:
CONTAINING INSTRUCTIONS IN
CONCENTRIC, ELLIPTIC, AND ECCENTRIC TURNING;
ALSO VARIOUS
Plates of Chucks, Tools, and Instruments:
AND
DIRECTIONS FOR USING THE ECCENTRIC CUTTER, DRILL, VERTICAL
CUTTER, AND CIRCULAR REST;
WITH PATTERNS,
AND INSTRUCTIONS FOR WORKING THEM.
PHILADELPHIA:
HENRY CAREY BAIRD,
INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHER,
No. 406 WALNUT STREET.
1868.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
Preface 11
History of the Lathe 18
Arc patterns described 105
—— ——, how worked 107
—— ——, observations upon 108
Balls, Chinese 68
Balls, how turned 111
Balls and hollow spheres 68
Black dye for ivory 64
Bleaching ivory 63
Boring collars 53
Boring tools 55
—— ——, how to use properly 56
Bottle 91
Box, how made 44
——, how polished 45
——, lined with orange-peel 124
—— —— —— tortoise-shell 124
Brass wheel 72
Catgut, advantage of 32
Cement for ivory 111
—— for turners 131
Circular rest 86
—— saw 38
Circles, how to begin 73
—— with eccentric chuck 97
Chain 111
Chisels 35
Chucks 39
——, to make in wood 42
——, choice of wood for 42
——, centering wood for 43
——, for work 46
——, traversing 52
——, how to use 53
Copper tools 36
Drill 80
——, shape and uses 80
——, description of tools belonging to 83
Eccentric turning 71
—— cutter described 74
—— ——, its uses 76
—— ——, its tools 76
—— —— patterns 77
—— —— chuck 94
—— —— ——, how to use 97
—— —— —— patterns 98
Eccentric cutter and chuck united 115
—— —— patterns worked with them 115
—— —— pillars 109
Elliptic machine 65
Flowers turned in ivory 69
Glue, to make 39
——, to use 39
Goneometer 85
Gouge 34
Hand saw 38
Handles of tools 37
Holly used for ivory 58
Hook and eye, how to use 32
Impressions of turning patterns 114
Ivory preferable to wood 63
——, how to polish 63
——, proper tools for turning 37
——, to cleanse from grease 64
——, to dye red 64
——, to dye black 65
Lathes 29
——, metallic and wooden 29
——, construction of 30
——, proper situation for 34
Lighter case 90
Lining patterns 73
Lines in ivory filled with ink 114
Mandrel described 31
Mastic, for turning ivory thin 128
——, to cleanse the ivory from 129
Milling tools 47
Moulding tools 37
Needle cases 90, 112
Overhead frame 74
Ornamented stoppers 92
Parallel rest 71
—— ——, how to use 72
—— ——, to move for side work 74
Pen-holder 81
Point tools 36
Polishing soft wood 45
—— hard wood 62
—— tortoise-shell 127
Printing in the lathe 69
Puppet 30
Rest 33
Regulating the chuck wheel 95
Right-side tools 35
Rings, to make 110
Snuff-box, lined with tortoise-shell 126
Saws 38
Scraping tool 36
Screws 48
——, tools for cutting 48
Spiral turning 112
Table of numbers 79
Tap 43
Tenon saw 38
Tools 34
——, proper method to sharpen 63
Tool rack 37
Tortoise-shell 124
Traversing mandrel 49
—— chuck 51
Turned temple 109
Turning patterns 77, 98, 105, 115
Twisted pillar, support for 133
Vertical cutter 88
Vandyke pattern 84
Varnish used in the lathe 129
Woods, English 57
——, foreign 58
——, to imitate mahogany 57
——, to stain red 60
—— —— yellow 61
—— —— black 61
—— —— purple 61
—— —— mahogany 32
PREFACE.
The primary object of the author, in offering THE TURNER’S COMPANION
to the notice of the public, is the hope of explaining, in a clear,
concise, and intelligible manner, the rudiments of this beautiful
art; an art immortalized by the pen of Virgil, practised by the
Greeks and Romans, and, as we are told, still existing in those
exquisite _chef-d’œuvres_ of former years, so much admired and sought
after in our century.
A short treatise on this subject is much wanted, and the author has
endeavoured to give such correct and comprehensive information
as will, he hopes, render the following pages useful as a book of
practical instruction to the beginner, and of reference to those
already advanced in the study of this beautiful science. The activity
of mind requisite for the attainment of perfect success in all
the various branches of Turning, by exercising the inventive and
reflective powers, cannot fail of producing a beneficial effect on
the character of youth, which must prove a lasting advantage; and the
minute accuracy necessary for handling the tools, serves to confirm a
steadiness of sight and hand that must, in after years, and in other
branches of science, be highly appreciated.
From a long experience in the endless sources of interest and
occupation derivable from this pleasing and salutary employment, the
author feels assured that whoever has once patience and perseverance
to overcome the first difficulties, will speedily, like himself,
become an enthusiast in the art. And why should not our fair
countrywomen participate in this amusement? Do they fear it is too
masculine and laborious for a female hand? If so, that anxiety is
easily removed; the rough work can be executed by any carpenter,
and when once prepared, what occupation can be more interesting and
elegant than ornamenting wood or ivory in delicate and intricate
patterns, and imitating, with the aid of the lathe, the beautiful
Chinese carving, so much and so justly admired? Besides, the taper
fingers of the fair sex are far better suited than a man’s heavier
hand, to produce the requisite lightness and clearness of effect. To
our charitable countrywomen, who employ so much of their time in
raising funds for the diffusion of Christianity in far distant lands,
and for augmenting the comforts of the poor in our own happy land,
the lathe will prove a most useful auxiliary, as well as to those who
are anxious to bestow beautiful and cherished remembrances on absent
friends.
Another very forcible argument in favour of the amusement of
Turning being cultivated by the ladies and gentlemen of our
free and independent country, and one which will, I am sure,
plead most strongly with all parents and guardians, is, that all
occupations within doors being usually of a sedentary nature, the
exercise attendant upon the use of the lathe must prove highly
beneficial to health; and one moment’s reflection will point out
the incalculable advantage to be derived from instilling the love
of useful employment in every youthful mind; or, when freed from
the irksomeness of graver study, may they not seek companions and
pursuits to whom they would ever have remained strangers, had their
idle hours not hung heavy on their hands?
Should this little work prevail upon any of my readers to commence
the study of this truly beautiful science, and should the occupation,
as no doubt it must, prove a source of pleasure by adding to their
amusement, it will amply repay the labour it has required, and bestow
sincere gratification on the Author.
THE LATHE.
“The pride of arts from fair Ambition springs,
And blooms secure beneath her fostering wings,”
Among all the many descriptions of the varied, beautiful, and useful
inventions that owe their discovery and perfection to the genius and
hand of man, inventions that in so wonderful a degree assist and
facilitate the operations of the mechanic, no one has ever written
the history of the Lathe. It seems strange that in a land where
mechanism is carried to its greatest extent, where science of every
kind is fostered and encouraged, the beautiful machinery, the easy
management, and wonderful precision obtained by the aid of the Lathe,
have never yet, in our language, found a pen willing to describe
them. And yet, to the architect, the mathematician, the astronomer,
and the natural philosopher, Turning is as useful, nay indispensable,
as to the watchmaker, the goldsmith, the joiner, and smith. And it is
not by these alone that its powers are appreciated; many of those who
by birth, station, and riches are not in a situation to require its
aid in their scientific and mechanical operations, still find this
art, from its great simplicity, from the perfect ease and accuracy
with which the most delicate and intricate workmanship is performed,
the agreeable occupation it gives to the mind, and the beauty,
elegance, and utility of its products, one of the most interesting
and healthful that can be followed.
The treasures of all lands are converted into various and beautiful
articles by the aid of the lathe. Gold and silver, brass, iron, and
copper,—the magnificent trees that grow in the deep forests of the
West, and those that flourish on the burning plains of Africa—the
ivory obtained from the tusks of the elephant and hippopotamus,—the
coal, jet, alabaster, and marble, dug from the bowels of the
earth—are all of the greatest value to the turner. A kind of cocoa
nut has also lately been brought from the West Indies, which, being
hard, white, and tough, renders it excellent for working in the
lathe; when polished, it has the appearance of a substance between
ivory and mother-of-pearl.
To the Greeks and Romans (for the exact place of its origin is
not known) the invention of this ingenious machine is ascribed;
and though, doubtless, in our time it has been greatly improved
and perfected, still the ancients, to whom we owe so much, first
discovered and used it; and by them its powers were so well
appreciated, that we are told it became a proverb among them to
say any thing was formed in the lathe to express its justness and
accuracy.
The Greek and Latin authors frequently mention it in their writings,
but they have not clearly handed down to posterity the name of the
first inventor; indeed, on this point there are many and varied
opinions. The Sicilian historian, Diodorus Siculus, informs us that
the first person who made use of the lathe was a nephew of Dædalus,
by some authors named Talus, by others Perdix. This youth, we are
told, invented the saw, compasses, and other mechanical instruments;
and to him we possibly are indebted for the lathe also, for we are
told, in ancient mythological history, so great were his ingenuity
and talent for invention, that his genius soon surpassed even that of
his uncle, who, enraged at his celebrity, and jealous of his rising
fame, scrupled not to sacrifice him to his feelings of rage and
hatred: some say he was poisoned; others, that he was precipitated
from a high tower in the citadel of Athens; and the same authors
assure us he was changed into a partridge.
Pliny, however, (and his words are great authority), ascribes
the invention of the lathe to Theodore, of Samos, an artist who
discovered the method of melting iron, of which he made statues. The
same author also mentions a man of the name of Thericles, who was
celebrated for his dexterity in Turning; and Virgil says—
“Lenta quibus torno facili superaddita vitis.”
These testimonies, of ancient poets and historians conjoined, prove
it to be an art of the greatest antiquity. Cicero also mentions it;
and it is affirmed that, with this machine, the Greeks and Romans
turned all kinds of urns and vases, and adorned them with ornaments
in basso relievo. If to Turning we really owe those treasures of
other days which are found buried among the ruins of Herculaneum
and Pompeii—treasures so valued by the antiquary as a memorial of
former ages; by the lover of the fine arts as beautiful and graceful
additions to his cabinet of curiosities; and by the rich and opulent
as ornaments superior to any that modern hands can produce;—surely
we must confess the workmanship of the lathes of our times is not
to be compared with that performed by the more simple machinery
of centuries ago. It seems, indeed, almost miraculous, that the
beautiful figures and elegant and graceful designs here spoken of
should be produced by a potter’s wheel, so was the lathe anciently
denominated; but the testimonies of so many learned historians agree
in declaring that to its aid we owe those exquisite productions, that
it is impossible for even the most skeptical to deny it. Before we
quit, what may not unaptly be denominated, the romance of the history
of the lathe, we will add, that the saw, which we have already said
was invented by Talus, is supposed to have been first made by him in
imitation of either the jaw-bone of a snake, or else the back-bone of
a fish; and in a painting still preserved among the antiquities of
Herculaneum, is a saw exactly resembling our frame saw, with which
two genii are dividing a piece of wood.
It is, however, certain, that could these Roman and Grecian
artificers see a modern lathe, examine its complex yet beautiful
mechanism, and the almost endless additions and improvements it has
undergone since the days of Virgil and Pliny, they would hardly
recognise it in its more finished state, and would be much puzzled to
discover in what manner to manage its machinery. Among the numerous
apparatus adjusted to it is a machine, by the aid of which medallions
have been executed; and in the British Museum is a profile in basso
relievo of Sir Isaac Newton, wholly worked in the lathe; but how
different from the turning of the ancients! The medallion machine
requires much labour and very expensive apparatus, while the potter’s
wheel cannot have possessed much mechanism or great quantities of
tools: most of those now in use being unknown in former days.
Having now established the great antiquity of the lathe as a useful
and classical employment, we will briefly mention a few of the
improvements it has undergone in latter years. The potter’s wheel is,
of all lathes, the most simple; it merely consists of an iron beam,
or axis, a small wooden wheel placed on the beam, and a larger one
fastened to the end of the same beam, which turns by a pivot on an
iron stand. With this simple contrivance the workman still forms the
body of the vessel of clay, but never attempts to turn the handles,
feet, mouldings or ornaments. In latter years, various and important
tools and improvements have been made; chucks have been invented,
which enable the turner to accomplish with speed and facility an
almost innumerable variety of circles, lines, ellipses, and arcs,
all so delicate and true in their form and design, that they cannot
fail exciting the admiration and wonder of all who contemplate them.
The screw also, once a formidable difficulty to the uninitiated, is
now rendered perfectly easy of execution by means of the traversing
mandrel; those, too, who are very learned in this art, can out of a
piece of ivory or mother-of-pearl, produce in the lathe beautiful
brooches, ear-rings, and studs, worked in raised flowers; chessmen in
imitation of carving, and ornamented vases full of detached flowers;
while fluted and spiral columns, delicate mouldings, and fanciful
beadings, are of comparatively easy execution.
To form patterns upon wood or ivory, various descriptions of chucks
are employed; one lathe serves for all, as they are made to screw on
to the nose of the mandrel. By the aid of the concentric or common
chuck, every article you turn is circular; the lines forming the
circle are enlarged or decreased as the tool approaches or recedes
from the axis. The oval chuck, as its name signifies, works designs
of an oval or spherical shape; the eccentric turns patterns of a
circular form, but its peculiar properties enable the workman to
alter the centre of his work at pleasure: the geometric and compound
eccentric produce beautiful geometric and carved designs; the oblique
and the epicycloidal also turn curious and intricate patterns, and
the straight line chuck performs all its work in direct lines. These
are the chucks most in use, but many of them are expensive and
complicated, and they only execute the ornamental work; the shape
and size of the object are accomplished by the lathe, without any aid
but that of a common chuck and common tools.
The curious and varied mechanism of the above-mentioned chucks are
truly wonderful, and the patterns they perform very beautiful; one
of peculiar form, and exceedingly intricate, has been invented for
bankers’ checks, to prevent forgery. There are also two rests, which
are necessary appendages to them; the sliding rest, that moves in
a direct line at any angle, and the circular rest, which enables
the turner to ornament balls, spheres, and round objects. We must
not omit, too, to mention the eccentric cutter, the drill, and the
universal cutter, all exceedingly useful, and enabling the turner to
execute a great variety of designs and patterns. The rose engine,
also, is much admired for all kinds of ornamental work, but it is
very expensive, and new inventions are daily adding to the machinery
of the lathe, and rendering its powers more extensive.
The wonderful discovery of voltaic electricity, by which
copper-plates, plaster casts, wood engravings, and medals may be
copied, can also be applied in various ways to turning, either in
wood or ivory. For instance, by its aid a wooden thimble may be
changed into the resemblance of gold, or a box take the appearance of
silver; thus, while your work retains its first beauty and delicacy,
the material is apparently of much value. It would be going beyond
the bounds of a work on turning, to give any directions for this
transmutation, particularly as there are so many already published
on the subject. We must also add, that by a careful and steady
management, the drill may be made almost to take the place of the
graver; by holding a plate of copper steadily against it, and using
various tools, (not letting the lathe go too quick,) portraits and
landscapes can be executed for printing.
Having now finished this short sketch, which we hope will not be
unacceptable to our readers, and will perhaps induce them to follow
this interesting and healthful occupation, we must beg that those
who peruse “The Turner’s Companion,” and follow the directions it
contains, will not be daunted by the first difficulties that assail
them, but will patiently persevere till experience enables them to
overcome and vanquish them, remembering that—
“The wise and active conquer difficulties,
By daring to attempt them. Sloth and folly
Shiver and shrink at sight of toil and hazard,
And make th’ impossibility they fear.”
LIST OF TOOLS NECESSARY FOR TURNING.
Gouges.
Chisels.
Scrapers.
Side tools.
Point tools.
Moulding tools.
Inside tools.
Planes.
Drills.
Hatchet.
Mallet.
Hammer.
Files.
Vice.
Hand Vice.
Gimlets.
Saws.
Screw-driver.
Pincers.
Compasses.
Rule.
Callipers.
T square.
Brace and Bits.
Screw tools.
Milling tools.
Oil-can.
Glue-pot.
Sand Paper.
Chalk.
Glue.
Isinglass.
Pumice Stone.
Nails.
THE
TURNER’S COMPANION.
The machines used for Turning, whether round or oval objects, are
called Lathes; they are of various shapes and sizes; some very
small, as those generally used by watchmakers; others very large
and powerful, for turning iron; and others, the kind I am going to
describe, of a middling size, for fashioning wood and ivory. The
large lathes, being too heavy to be worked with the foot, are usually
turned by a steam-engine, but the foot-lathe is the most convenient
for the turner in wood; it may be made of iron or wood: if of the
latter, it should be constructed entirely of very hard, well-seasoned
oak, or of mahogany. There are various opinions respecting the
advantages and disadvantages of metallic and wooden lathes; in the
former, it is impossible to obviate an elastic tremor, which is
unpleasant and injurious; but then, on the other hand, they are so
much more durable and compact; and they enable you to perform your
work with so much more accuracy and exactitude, that they are, on the
whole, perhaps, to be preferred. The drawing given in Plate 1 will
serve as a pattern for either an iron or a wooden lathe; but as the
workman could construct the latter for himself, we will suppose the
description we are about to give relates to a wooden one.
The bed of the lathe, B B, may be of any length required, and is
firmly fastened with bolts to the uprights O O, which form the legs
of the lathe, and to which the bed is strongly attached by bolts
passing through both; while the nuts that draw them tight, being what
is called _countersunk_, are of no inconvenience to the workman. The
feet and the two uprights must also be firmly fastened to the legs
O O; and to prevent the least unsteadiness or motion, they must be
screwed strongly to the floor, and must be of a sufficient size to
form a solid support to the lathe.
[Illustration: _Plate 1._]
The left hand puppets, C D, or, as they are sometimes called, the
headstock, should be of iron, and cast in one piece. The under
part fits tightly into the open space in the bed of the lathe, and
is fixed there with screws; while the two cheeks of the puppets rest
_on_ the bed itself. The mandrel E, to prevent, as much as you can,
any vibration, should be as long as possible; it runs in a metal
collar, through the puppets C D, and is of steel, turned perfectly
cylindrical; it is kept constantly oiled, by pouring a few drops of
oil upon it through holes made in each of the puppets. The screw
E, at the end, is called the nose of the spindle, and upon it the
chucks intended to receive the work are screwed. The back puppet, G,
is used to support long pieces of wood; it is moved backwards and
forwards on the bed of the lathe, so as to suit the work upon which
you are occupied, by loosening the screw L; within the upper part of
G is a steel spindle, J, which screws in and out of the headstock,
by turning the screw K. Care must be taken that the point of this
spindle be exactly on a line with the nose of the mandrel, E. The
point, J, takes out, and another nose, L, can be inserted in its
place, to receive the pointed end of any small work, should it be
more convenient.
Upon the spindle is a brass or a mahogany wheel, F; it has three
grooves in it, and the great wheel, K, has three similar grooves
turned in a V, so as more effectually to take hold of the band which
moves them round. The three different grooves in this wheel, and in
the small one, give different velocities to them. The band which
turns them is made of strong catgut, and passes under the lower and
over the upper wheel, working in the corresponding grooves of each;
it is joined with a hook and eye of iron, that have a screw in them.
Slightly taper off with a sharp penknife a little of each end of the
catgut, so that it will just enter the hook and eye; then hold the
band firmly in a vice with your left hand, and with your right take
up the hook or eye in a pair of pincers, and screw it upon the catgut
till quite firm. This is a far better means of joining the band than
any other that can be employed, as the hooks and eyes seldom give
way, and obviate the necessity of knots or joins, which are always
clumsy and inconvenient. Cord, too, gives way with the variations of
the atmosphere, so that it constantly requires shortening in dry,
and lengthening in rainy weather; catgut is so slightly influenced
by these changes, that its use is far preferable. The treadle, N,
when moved up and down with the foot, gives motion to the two wheels,
and thus the spindle, with the wood to be worked screwed upon it, is
turned round with a quick or slow movement. The axle of the great
wheel, S, works in two screws, Q; the crank, M, is connected at one
end with the axle, S, and at the other hooks into the treadle frame,
N. Plenty of oil should be given to the axle at Q to enable it to
work easily. The rest which supports the tools is represented at Fig.
1, and M; it is made of iron, and consists of three parts; the lower
has a forked foot, T, which rests upon the bed of the lathe, and
enables it to be drawn backwards and forwards, so as to accommodate
the workman; this foot is held in its place by a bolt, O, which,
passing through the bed of the lathe, is sufficiently broad to rest
upon each side of the foot, T, and is tightened by a screw that
passes underneath the lathe, P, through which it passes; the upper
part of the rest is a cross piece of iron with a cylindrical stem,
that fits into the socket, U, and is moved up and down, to the right
or the left, by loosening the screw, H. The workman should have
rests of different sizes, to suit various kinds of work, but they
must all fit into the same socket.
Having now given a clear description of a lathe, I need only add,
that it should be placed opposite a window, so as to have the benefit
of as much light as possible; a skylight above the head is also a
great advantage. As it is indispensably necessary for the learner
to exercise himself in plain turning, that is, in the formation of
different articles, so as to be able to turn them perfectly round,
oval, or hollow, as required, before attempting more difficult and
complicated work, we will now give a list of the most useful tools
for this purpose.
For the wood, the gouge, Fig. 1, plate 1, is first to be employed,
to reduce the unevenness of your work; its edge is rounded. To use
it, place the rest on a level with the axis of the work, and hold
the handle of the tool downwards so that its cutting edge is _above_
the axis. These tools are useful for making concave mouldings. In
using them, do not push them roughly against the wood till it becomes
tolerably even, or you will spoil their edge and chip the work; and
hold your hands very steady.
The chisel, Fig. 2, is next used, to give a smooth and polished
appearance to the wood. Its cutting edge is oblique. Elevate the rest
considerably _above_ the axis of the work, so that, though held with
a less inclination than the gouge, the edge of the chisel operates
on a higher part of the surface. Use this tool at first with great
caution, for it is much more difficult to manage than the gouge; with
an inexperienced hand, the point is apt to dig into the wood, quite
spoiling its surface, or else, by pressing it too firmly upon the
work, it cuts great pieces in an uneven manner. When skillfully used,
it should feel almost to work by itself, merely running steadily
along the wood, shaving off all its inaccuracies, and making it look
quite bright, smooth, and polished. All soft woods are entirely
turned with the gouge and chisel, of both of which you must have
several sizes.
Fig. 3 is called a right-side tool, and has two cutting edges, a side
edge and an end edge: so as at the same time to cut the bottom and
side of a cavity. The left-side tool cuts with the opposite side. In
using them, hold the bevel which forms the edge downwards.
Fig. 4 is a point tool, useful for making small mouldings, and much
employed in finishing the shoulders and flat ends of work.
Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, are inside tools, used to turn out hollows; also
to make cups, and various other articles.
Fig. 10 is a parting tool, used to cut off work, and to make
incisions.
Fig. 11 is used exclusively for very hard woods, as cocoas and
ebony, which chip if attempted to be smoothed with a chisel; also
for turning ivory, bone, or jet; one side and the end are sharp.
This tool is very strong, and requires some practice to use it well.
Be very careful, in sharpening it, to keep the front edge quite
straight, or else, in hollowing out boxes, the inner sides will not
be turned out evenly; that is, one part will be thinner than another.
This tool is held flat upon the rest, which must be on a level with
the axis of the work, or sometimes the tool, by raising the handle,
may be lowered so as just to scrape the wood. It is frequently called
a graver; in turning metals, it is the tool first used. Copper and
brass are easy to turn, and in case of necessity, it is useful to
have the proper tools, and to know how to manage them.
These tools all are indispensably necessary to the turner, and he
should exercise himself constantly in their use; for until he becomes
quite master of them, he will injure, spoil, chip, and destroy,
whatever he attempts to turn.
Figs. 12 and 13 are very useful to make mouldings of various kinds.
The handles of the tools must be made of very hard wood, and it is a
great convenience to have them all of nearly the same size; for the
hand, getting accustomed to them, manages them with more facility.
Drive the tool firmly into the handle, and hold it there by a broad
brass ring, as in No. 1.
To keep the tools in good order, that is, properly ground and sharp,
demands great attention. If they become chipped, grind them even on a
grindstone, taking care that the BEVELS retain their proper angles.
To avoid spoiling their edges, and to enable you to have them always
near at hand, a rack perforated with holes, into which they can slip,
is very useful. This rack may be fastened against the wall, near
the lathe. A screw-driver, two or three different-sized gimlets,
and nails of various kinds, must always form part of the turner’s
tool-box; also some files, and a hand-vice.
Before we leave the description of turning tools, we will mention
the saw, which is an indispensable addition to the tool-box. There
are many kinds, but the most useful are the hand-saw, the tenon saw,
and the circular saw. The first is about twenty-six inches long,
and is generally made with four teeth to an inch. It is used for
cutting wood across, and in the direction of its fibres. The teeth
at the lower end are smaller than the upper ones, by which means the
wood is not so much torn as if the teeth were all of an equal size.
The tenon saw is used for cutting across the fibres of wood; the
smallest saw of this kind is about fourteen inches long, the largest
about twenty inches. Circular saws are of all sizes; they are easily
fitted up with a spindle, which, being screwed on to the nose of the
mandrel, and supported at the other end by the back puppet, enables
the workman to turn them by the wheel of the lathe, while at the
same time he holds the wood or ivory firmly against them. Should a
larger circular saw be required, it is more advisable to fit it up
separately from the lathe, with a frame-work and wheel to itself.
Glue, which is very necessary for turners, requires some little care
in preparing; it must first be steeped for several hours in cold
water to soften it; if it swells without melting, it is good, and
must then be dissolved in water; the proper quantities are, a quart
of water to half a pound of glue. The heat should be just enough
to melt it, and the pan in which it is contained must be placed in
a larger copper vessel, filled with water; by this means, when the
water in the outer pan boils, the glue will be dissolved without any
fear of its burning, which would immediately spoil it. When you are
going to glue a piece of wood to a chuck, put very little glue thinly
and evenly over the surface of the latter, then press the wood upon
it firmly, and place a lead weight upon them to unite them perfectly.
CHUCKS.
[Illustration: _Plate 2._]
The chucks, upon which the material to be turned, whether of wood,
ivory, or metal, is always fixed, next demand our attention. They
are of every variety of size and form, and are all screwed upon
the mandrel of the lathe. Many are made of brass; others (the most
numerous, because the turner can make them for himself), are of
wood; but these latter should be used soon after they are made; for
if not constructed of very dry, hard wood, any great variation in
the weather will cause them to shrink, and thus the screw becomes
slightly altered, and will not fit tightly to the neck of the
mandrel. To avoid the expense of having many brass chucks, which
would be very great, if we procured them of the size and shape
requisite for all kinds of work, it is a good plan to have several
brass plates made about the size of half-a-crown, plate 2, A, with
a screw in them, to fit upon the mandrel, and four screw-nails
with which to fasten them to wooden chucks of any form. Thus, when
these chucks are worn out, unscrew the brass plates and screw them
on to others. In plate 2 are the drawings of several chucks, which
are useful for various purposes; they are all made of brass, with
a screw that fits upon the mandrel. B is a brass plate, about two
inches in diameter; from the middle projects a tapering screw,
about half an inch long. This is used to hold any thing that is
flat, as a stand, or candlestick base, or, with the aid of the back
puppet, to support a long piece of wood, while turning down to fit a
stronger chuck. For this purpose, bore a hole in the wood, and screw
it on to the chuck. C is the same shape, but has five iron points
projecting from its surface; upon them the wood must be firmly fixed
by hammering it on. It is better to use the back puppet, as the wood
is apt to become loosened by a sudden jar, or any unevenness in the
surface.
D is universally useful, either for large or small pieces of work.
The wood or ivory may be turned to the proper size to fit, on the
chuck B, and then driven firmly into the hollow cup with a wooden
mallet; or a piece of common wood may be made to fit it tightly, and
a hole turned in it to hold the object you intend to turn.
E is called a ring chuck, and is made of box wood. Drill a hole
through the centre, and then saw it across in six parts. By its being
turned smaller at one end than at the other, this chuck opens at the
_sawgates_; you then drive on to it, with a hammer, a ring of metal,
and the wood inserted in the hole will remain immovable.
F is called a square hole chuck, the hole in the middle having
several drills and bits to use with it, as in 3, 4, 5, 6. G is called
a die chuck: it is the same in shape as the cup chuck, only not so
deep, and it has several screws passing through its sides at equal
distances, and meeting in the centre, by which the work is held, so
that it serves equally for a large or a small object.
H is exactly the same in shape as G; with the addition of an _arm_,
No. 1, the use of which is as follows. If this chuck does not turn
the wood round properly, fasten to the latter what is called a
_carrier_, No. 2, the end of which, projecting further than the
chuck, rests upon the arm, 1, and causes all to turn together.
These appear to us to be the chucks most universally in use for
concentric turning; the ordinary ones the turner may make of wood,
and those for ornamental work we shall mention hereafter.
It may, however, be as well to describe the method of making the wood
chucks:—Select a piece of close-grained dry wood—box is the best;
having taken off the corners and made it tolerably round with a
chisel, or a small hatchet, you must then find the centre of the two
ends. To do this, lay the piece of wood on a bench; open a pair of
compasses to nearly half the diameter of the piece; fix one point of
the compasses firmly in the middle, and with the other draw a circle
as near the edge of the wood as you can. If you find the circle is
not exact, but further from the edge on one side than the other,
alter the position of the compasses, till they become right. Bore a
hole in the centre, when found, and screw the wood on to the chuck,
B. Place your rest _facing_ the work, and cut in the centre of it a
hole, the depth and NEARLY the size of the screw on the nose of the
mandrel. This done, take the piece of wood off the brass chuck, and
fasten it firmly in a vice; then screw into the hole a TAP, which has
been made on purpose to fit the screw of the mandrel. This tap cuts
a thread as you turn it round in the hole, so that when you unscrew
it, you have only to screw the wood to the nose of the mandrel,
taking care to make it fit quite close to the shoulder; it must then
be turned quite round and smooth with the gouge and chisel, and the
face of it also perfectly flat, which is seen by holding against it
the flat part of the T square, plate 1, R. If the square touches
all the face of the chuck, it is ready to receive the wood; but if
you can in any part see the light between them, take the chisel and
smooth it over again. The chuck being ready, cut a piece of wood,
we will say for a box, round it with a chisel, take some thin glue,
and fasten the wood to the chuck with it. When quite hard and dry,
begin to turn the sides even, then cut down the groove to receive
the lid, which should be glued on to another chuck. To hollow out
the box, turn the rest to the face of the work and use the gouge.
When of a sufficient depth, take the _callipers_, plate 1, K, push
the small ends down the box to the bottom, stretch them out as far
as they will, and set the screw, then pull them slowly out, so as to
measure the size of the top of the inside of the box; if not exactly
the same, turn out a little more of the bottom. Now begin to smooth
the outside and hollow out the lid, taking great care to make it fit
exactly the groove made in the bottom of the box; for this purpose
the callipers must be set, so that the forked end stretches to the
width of the circumference of the groove; you will then find that the
other end will be exactly the same width, and keep trying them to the
inside of the lid, till they enter it very tightly; then try the lid
on the bottom, and it will fit. By thus using the callipers, you are
saved much trouble in taking the work on and off the lathe, to fit
the parts together.
You must now cut the lid off the chuck, either with the parting tool,
or with a saw, and having it firmly placed on the bottom, smooth and
finish off the sides so that they look quite even, and as if there
was no separation between them. This done, move the rest to the front
of the lid, and finish it up the same, taking care not to leave the
slightest scratch or unevenness on the surface; then rub the whole of
the work well with sand paper, making the lathe turn very rapidly,
first one way, then the other, and finish by rubbing it over with a
drop of olive oil on a piece of rag, and the shavings of the wood.
The great beauty of turning consists in all the parts being exact,
shining, well finished off, and not too thick; to attain this latter
perfection, experience is necessary, and I should advise constant
practice in turning box-wood and holly, till the learner is able
to make his boxes fit properly, and also look neat and light. The
lid being finished, lay it aside, and saw off the bottom; then turn
its own chuck to a proper size to receive it, while you smooth and
polish the outer part. It is requisite to be very particular in the
manner of chucking work, such as boxes, thimbles, or any thing that
has been hollowed out; and remember always to make a chuck to fit
INTO THEM, instead of putting THEM into one. It is also better to
leave a shoulder that the work can rest against,—you are then sure
that it is supported evenly; if not, you may find that the slightest
inclination to one side or the other will cause you to turn one side
much thinner than the other; and if you are working, we will say
the top of a box, it will always look crooked, and if the bottom,
it will never stand steady. Should the box feel loose and fall
off the chuck before it is finished, a little chalk may be rubbed
upon the former, which will give it a firmer hold, and prevent the
slipperiness consequent on the friction of two pieces of wood; and
sometimes a thin piece of paper inserted between them is useful in
the same way; for although the work should fit close and firm on the
chuck, if the chuck be _too large_, so that you have to use force
to make them unite, you will most probably split your work all to
pieces. Great care also is requisite to get it off the chuck; insert
one of the small chisels between it and the shoulder of the chuck,
and move it slightly, first on one side, then on the other. Many
neat ornaments may be made on boxes with the smaller chisels, such
as lines and mouldings; and there are several useful and ornamental
tools, called _milling tools_, (see plate 5, Nos. 1, 2, 3), which
are not expensive, and give much effect to the work. They consist of
small wheels, upon which the pattern is cut. Place the rest so that
there is space for the wheel to turn between it and the work, push it
close up to the wood, hold the handle very firmly with both hands,
so that the tool cannot slip, and with a few quick turns of the
wheel of the lathe, the pattern will be clearly impressed upon the
wood. With these simple tools innumerable beautiful articles may be
finished; and though they require neither the application nor talent
that can be displayed in performing other ornamental work with the
eccentric chuck, cutter, and drill, still they possess two great
advantages—cheapness, and facility of management, and are easily
procured.
By a little attention and ingenuity, a great variety of elegant and
useful articles may be made on the lathe, with the assistance of
but a limited collection of tools,—such as thimbles, boxes, cups,
rings, stands, small vases, stilettos, pen-handles, pin-cushions,
needle-cases, and vinaigrettes.
THE SCREW.
We now come to the most difficult operation in turning, that of
cutting a screw; to perform it well and easily is a proof of the
workman’s skill and proficiency in the art. There are many ways of
doing it; we shall therefore give the best and least expensive.
The screw tools, figures 14 and 15, plate 1, must fit exactly one
into the other. Fig. 15 is an outside, Fig. 14 an inside tool. As
the threads may be required to be cut coarse or fine, according to
the work you are engaged upon, the small grooves in the tools are
made to suit. Having turned your box quite round, and hollowed it
out, cut the groove upon which the lid is to fit; place the rest
at a convenient distance, turn the wheel, not too fast, and move
the outside screw-tool along the rest with a regular horizontal
motion, and it will cut a screw, the threads of which will fill up
the space between the teeth of the tool. But care must be taken to
jerk the tool off when at the end of the space intended for the
screw; or if it be allowed to remain stationary, cutting the wood,
the threads will be destroyed, and become useless. When this is well
done, turn out the lid of the box till it nearly fits the bottom,
and in the same manner press the inside screw tool against the side
of the cavity, draw it out horizontally as the work moves round, and
if carefully managed, it will soon be made to fit upon the outside
screw. As, however, to accomplish this well, and with precision,
great practice is requisite, an invention, called a traversing
mandrel, is frequently used, particularly by beginners: we will
endeavour to give a description of its form and use.
At the end of the mandrel A, pl. 4, is a brass cylinder, I, which
fits upon the end, and is kept in its place by a nut, 2, which screws
firmly into it. Below this, fixed to a brass plate that rises and
lowers at pleasure by turning the screw-key, B, is attached the
screw-guide; (a brass plate cut into grooves of various sizes to
suit the thread you wish to cut, fig. 3;) this guide moves round on
a pin. To use this machine, unscrew the nut B, pull off the brass
cylinder, and in its place put on the guide, C, and screw the nut in
again; turn the other guide, 3, to the groove which corresponds with
it, and which is usually numbered, to avoid mistakes; turn the key B
till the lower guide meets the one you have just put on the mandrel,
and slips easily into it. You will now find that by only allowing the
fly-wheel to move _half round_ and back again, the mandrel will run
backwards and forwards, and thus have the exact motion requisite for
cutting a screw. Fix your rest, and hold your tool (which must have
the same sized thread as the guide then on the mandrel) quite steady
upon the rest, against the revolving wood, and in a few minutes the
screw will be produced. The inside screw is made in the same manner,
with the inside tool, by turning the rest in front of the work. Do
not press the tool too hard to the wood at first, till the threads
are slightly cut, so that the teeth may enter always in the same
place. About six different-sized screw guides and tools to fit will
be quite sufficient for an amateur turner. There is also another way
of cutting screws, by means of a traversing chuck. On the mandrel,
R, pl. 4, is screwed the chuck B, to which are screwed the chucks of
the lathe, R. On the outside of B is turned a screw, fitted to an
inside screw worked in the block C, from which extends an arm, D,
sufficiently long to allow the arm E to slide up and down it; a piece
of iron should be screwed to the circular block, C, of such a length
as to be capable of moving in a groove that may be cut in the collar;
it is intended to prevent the block C from turning quite round. The
rest, G, must not stand, as usual, parallel to the work in cutting
the outside screw, but at right angles, as when an inside screw is to
be cut, in order that the further arm of the rest, F, may be joined
to the end of the second arm, G. It is necessary that the second arm,
E, shall be capable of fastening firmly the first arm, D, to any part
of the rest, G, F, as also to have a joint at each end, to admit in
a horizontal plane its free action. Thus, as the lathe turns to or
from us, the arms must traverse forwards or backwards, which gives
a similar motion to the tool, H, that is screwed firm to the further
arm, F, of the rest, and thus you can cut a screw with a single point
tool. Of course any unsteadiness would spoil the screw. If you draw
the centre of the rest nearer to you, and thus bring the tool nearer
to the arm, E, a screw of a much larger-sized thread will be cut; for
as the rest, turning in its socket, moves on a centre, the further
the tool is from the centre, the greater will be the radius of the
circle described, and _vice versâ_.
It may, perhaps, be feared that a piece of wood so far from the
collar, K, may be apt to spring; but this is easily avoided, by not
making use of the chuck, B, till the screw is to be turned. Another
disadvantage would seem to arise from the impossibility of cutting
screws when the puppet head is made use of. But this may also be
obviated by lengthening the arm, E, to the part where the screw is to
be cut, and thus we have the same screw as the traversing one. The
socket, S, slides on the rest, and may be fastened to it by a screw,
the upper part that turns on a pivot admits the arm, E, to slide
through it, which arm is held firm with a screw.
At the commencement of the work, the rest stands at right angles with
the wood on which the screw must be cut; then, by bringing it back to
its original angle, and sliding forwards the tool to the last thread
of the screw that was just cut, we proceed to any length required.
When two or three threads are cut, the most unskillful turner will be
able to continue the screw with a common screw tool.
BORING COLLAR.
Fig. D, plate 4, is a boring collar, used to support any long slender
body which is required to be turned hollow. Without a support of
this kind it would be impossible to keep the wood in its place; and
it would either incline from the centre, thus causing the hollow to
be drilled out quite crooked, or it would spring from the chuck. To
obviate these two inconveniences, the two collars, figs. C and D,
plate 4, are employed. In the former one, which is made of iron or
brass, the holes are conical, and their centres are all precisely at
the same distance from the axis of the collar. In using it, remove
the right hand puppet, and provide a much lower one. Through it drill
a hole, the same size as that in the centre of the boring collar.
The centre of this hole must be in the same line with the centre of
the mandrel. The collar, when attached to it, faces the mandrel, and
is held firm by a screw. When fixed, the centre hole is opposite the
axis of the mandrel; and when the largest hole is used, it clears
the top of the headstock to which it is affixed. The end of the work
to be bored being placed in the hole which fits it, the tool is
held upon the rest against its centre, and the boring is easily and
accurately performed.
[Illustration: _Plate 3._]