COLUMBUS AND THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA.
=7. Commercial Activity in the Fifteenth Century.=--In southern Europe,
the last half of the fifteenth century was a period of great commercial
activity. Then, for the first time, many voyages of exploration were
made in various directions, to find new riches, new markets, or new
routes of travel and transportation. Merchants were turning their
attention more and more to enterprises in far-off regions beyond the
seas.
Venice and Genoa became rivals for the vast and valuable trade of India.
With other Italian cities they grew rich and powerful. They kept great
fleets of merchant vessels plying back and forth across the
Mediterranean.
They sent out to India large quantities of copper, iron, pitch, wool,
hides, and the like, and brought back cargoes of drugs, spices, silks,
pearls, and other luxuries. But the path of this commerce between the
Mediterranean and India required both ships and caravans; and whether by
way of the Isthmus of Suez and the Red Sea, or by Damascus and the
Persian Gulf, or by the Black Sea and the Caspian and thence across the
eastern plains, the journey was long, tedious, costly; always hazardous,
and often, by reason of the Turkish wars, positively dangerous.
And so it became important, especially for the merchants of Spain and
Portugal, the would-be rivals of Venice and Genoa, to find a shorter and
safer route. In many a country, people were asking, "Is there no easier
way to get to India?"
In the attempts to solve this problem Portugal took the lead. Her
sailors boldly ventured farther and farther down the coast of Africa
until, about twenty years before Columbus discovered America, they
crossed the equator. But it was not till five years after the memorable
exploit of Columbus, that Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese captain, rounded
the Cape of Good Hope and crossed the broad Indian Ocean to India. Two
years later he returned home with his vessels full of rich merchandise
from that country.
=8. The Shape of the Earth--Spherical or Flat?=--The learned men of that
age, for the most part, believed the earth to be round like a ball. But
the common people, and doubtless many of high rank, thought the land
surface to be flat, with a flat ocean flowing around it on every side.
Now if the earth were really a sphere, and no larger than was commonly
supposed, it would seem that the easiest way to get to India, unless
unforeseen obstacles intervened, would be to strike out to the west and
sail straight across the "Sea of Darkness," as the sailors called the
Atlantic. To embrace so startling a theory and deliberately to risk his
life in testing its truth, required a man of keen sagacity, of lofty
faith, of unbending resolution, and of the most heroic daring. Such a
man was Christopher Columbus.
=9. Columbus; his Early Life as a Sailor.=--He was born at Genoa, in or
about the year 1445. He was the son of a poor wool-comber, and while yet
very young he helped in his father's daily toil. We find him a studious
boy, early able to write a good hand and to draw maps and charts for
mariners visiting his home. He loves the sea, listens eagerly to old
sailors' "yarns," weaves their fancies and legends into his day-dreams,
and is fired with ambition to go in search of strange lands. How shall
he realize his visions? Who will believe in him?
At the age of fourteen he becomes a sailor. He sails south along the
African coast, and north as far as England, and even to Iceland. Always
observing, studying, planning, the ardent, thoughtful boy grows up an
earnest, thoughtful man. He is convinced that the earth is a globe, and
that, if he sails west far enough, he will reach India by a route
shorter than any to the east. Nothing can shake his faith in this
belief. It becomes the inspiration of his life.
But like that of many learned men of his day, his estimate of the
distance is widely wrong. He supposes it to be only a few thousand
miles, requiring but a few weeks' sail. Little does he imagine that
directly in his westward path lies a vast continent, and beyond this
rolls an ocean far wider than the Atlantic!
=10. Curious Things from the Unknown West.=--To reflecting minds many
facts gave hints of lands in the distant west. Curiously carved wood had
been washed ashore by westerly gales; far out on the sunset sea an old
pilot had picked up a quaintly wrought paddle; cane stalks of tropic
growth, and huge pines that could not have come from the east, had
drifted to the Azores. It was believed that these articles, strange to
European eyes, had floated across the broad ocean from the eastern coast
of Asia.
Meditating much upon all these and kindred facts, and upon the teachings
of science, Columbus conceives himself to be divinely commissioned to
open up this new route to India, incidentally discovering unknown lands
and showing that the earth was round. But this stupendous project calls
for ships, men, and vast sums of money. He is poor, and he has no rich
patrons.
=11. Columbus seeks Aid from Foreign Governments.=--For ten years Columbus
tried to persuade some European government to send him on this voyage
across the Atlantic. First he sought help from his own people, the
republic of Genoa; then from Venice, and afterwards from Portugal. For
seven years he had patiently and persistently endeavored to interest
Ferdinand and Isabella, the king and queen of Spain, in his scheme of a
shorter route to India than that which their rivals, the Portuguese,
were hoping to find by sailing down the western coast of the dark
continent. After years of waiting and seeking, the long-sought help at
last came. Isabella had faith in Columbus, and proved herself a firm
friend. She listened patiently to his plans; and she finally decided to
fit out an expedition at the expense of her own kingdom of Castile.
By the terms of the agreement, Columbus was to be admiral of all the
oceans he sailed and viceroy of all the lands he discovered, and to have
one-eighth of all the profits of the expedition--the pearls, diamonds,
gold, silver, and spices.
It was hard work to get a crew willing to go on this long voyage into
the mysterious western seas. It was indeed a strange and hazardous
project, and prudent sailors, though stout-hearted, might well shrink
from taking the risk. Some, badly in debt, consented to ship on
condition that their debts should be paid. Others, convicted culprits,
promising to join the expedition, were released from jail.
=12. Columbus sails on his Wonderful Voyage.=--Finally, in August, 1492,
after a delay of several months, three vessels with ninety men sailed
from Palos, a little port of Spain, on the most wonderful voyage the
world has ever seen--the voyage which ended in the discovery of the
great New World. What a heroic venture,--to sail out into an unknown
ocean!
[Illustration: VESSELS OF COLUMBUS CROSSING THE OCEAN.]
Every day and every hour took them farther from home. Onward and still
onward they were sailing, across the trackless and boundless deep, with
nothing in sight but sky and ocean.
No wonder they became angry with themselves for having started upon what
seemed so foolhardy an enterprise. When at first the land sank from
sight on the eastern horizon, many of them lamented their sad fate, and
cried and sobbed like children. Columbus, fearing trouble, took the
precaution to keep two different reckonings as to the distance sailed, a
true one for himself and a false one for his men.
To add to their fears, the needle of the compass no longer pointed, as
usual, a little to the right of the north star, but began to sway toward
the left. Columbus did not know what to make of this variation of the
compass needle, but by giving an ingenious astronomical explanation he
managed to satisfy his men.
"This day we sailed westward, which was our course," were the simple but
grand words which the brave commander wrote in his journal day after
day. The sailors, in despair and rebellion, threatened to throw him
overboard; but he stood firm in his hope and courage, gazing almost
incessantly towards the ever-receding western horizon.
=13. The Great Problem at last solved.=--Many times the eager sailors
thought they saw land, and many times they were disappointed. At last
birds began to circle around the ships. A bush covered with fresh red
berries floated by, and a piece of carved wood. Presently the birds were
seen to fly southward. By these signs Columbus felt sure that they were
approaching land. "We shall see land in the morning," he said to his
men. All was excitement and activity. No one could sleep. All waited
impatiently for the dawn.
The day broke, and a beautiful island appeared before them. Columbus was
the first to step upon the beach; the others followed; all knelt as the
great discoverer kissed the ground and gave thanks to God. He rose from
his knees, drew his sword, unfurled the great flag of Spain, gorgeous
with its red and gold, and in the name of Spain he took possession of
the land, calling it San Salvador. From his sublime purpose the mighty
navigator had not swerved a hair's breadth! He had solved the great
problem! He had earned a name that should never die!
[Illustration: COLUMBUS'S FIRST VIEW OF THE NEW WORLD.]
=14. The New World and its Strange People; the Homeward Voyage.=--The
island on which Columbus first landed was one of those we now call the
West Indies, the name given by him. The voyagers were wild with delight
at the new country. They gazed in wonder at the rare and lovely flowers,
the bright-colored birds flashing through the sunlight, the lofty palms,
the strange trees bearing abundant fruits; but most of all at the
singular people, whom of course they called Indians.
[Illustration: MAP OF COLUMBUS'S ROUTE ON HIS GREAT VOYAGE ACROSS THE
OCEAN.]
Not less were the natives astonished. They thought the strange visitors
divine beings from the sky, and the ships unearthly monsters from the
deep. Columbus found the natives kindly and generous with gifts. Maize
or Indian corn, potatoes, cotton, and tobacco were found; but neither
gold nor diamonds.
Columbus felt sure that this land was some part of Asia. After a stay of
twelve weeks he decided to sail back to Spain with the news of his great
discovery. He took with him a number of the natives and a vast store of
curiosities. On the voyage a terrific storm raged for four days, and it
seemed as if the frail vessels must be destroyed. The peril being very
great, Columbus wrote upon parchment two brief accounts of his
discoveries; each of these he wrapped in a cloth, enclosed it in a large
cake of wax, and securely packed it in a tight cask. One of these kegs
was flung into the sea, and the other was lashed to the vessel.
The two frail vessels, however, rode out the storm and at last put into
one of the Azores to refit. On the homeward way another storm overtook
the weary voyagers, and Columbus was glad to reach at last a port in
Portugal. From thence in March, 1493, he arrived safe in the harbor of
Palos.
=15. Columbus receives a Royal Welcome on his Return.=--A royal welcome
was given Columbus on his return. The man who had been laughed at for
his strange theories, now returning from a newly discovered world beyond
the sea, was regarded as the greatest of men. Ferdinand and Isabella
received him with royal pomp and asked him to tell them his story.
Marvelous it must have seemed, and all who heard it must have listened
with breathless attention. The highest honors were bestowed upon him.
His discovery of course excited intense interest throughout the
civilized world.
But the high honors paid to him aroused the jealousy of the courtiers.
Once, while sitting as a guest of honor at table, one of the courtiers
said with a sneer that it was not such a great thing after all to
discover the New World; any one else could have done it. By way of reply
Columbus took an egg from a dish before him, and handing it to the
courtier, asked him to make it stand on end. The man tried but could not
do it. Others tried but failed, and the egg came back to Columbus. He
struck it upon the table with slight force, cracking the shell a little,
and then it stood upright.
"Oh, any one could do that," said the courtier. "So any one could
discover the Indies after I have shown the way," was the reply of
Columbus.
[Illustration: COLUMBUS REBUKING THE COURTIERS.]
=16. Columbus sails on Other Voyages across the Atlantic.=--In spite of
the joy among the Spanish people over the great discovery, there was
general disappointment that Columbus brought back no gold or precious
stones. It was believed that another voyage might bring better success.
Accordingly he soon prepared to sail again across the ocean. There was
no trouble now in obtaining crews; multitudes wished to go.
In September, 1493, he started--this time with seventeen ships and
fifteen hundred men! He landed among the Caribbean Islands. The natives
were frightened at the horses which were brought over, thinking the
rider and the steed all one; they were doubly terrified to see the man
dismount and the strange being come to pieces, making two separate
animals!
Columbus coasted along the south side of Cuba, and being sure it was
India, tried to find the mouth of the Ganges! Seeing traces of a gold
mine that had once been worked, he concluded that in that region must
have been found the gold of Ophir, which had been used for Solomon's
temple, and that probably the great temple itself was not far off!
=17. Queen Isabella proves a Friend.=--After a great deal of trouble
during his absence of nearly three years, Columbus returned home in
1496. Serious disputes followed his arrival. Much disappointment was
felt that he had found no gold or diamonds; many denounced "the foreign
upstart" as a fraud and a tyrant, saying that he cost more than he was
worth. Jealousy, intrigue, disappointed greed, hatred for fancied
slights, every motive to hostility took shape against him. Yet as
Isabella was still his friend, and as he hoped for better fortune in
another trial, he prepared for a third voyage. In May, 1498, with six
vessels and two hundred men he again set sail.
On this voyage Columbus touched the mainland of South America and passed
the mouth of the river Orinoco. The broad flow of the great river, the
magnificent scenery, and the charming climate delighted him. "This must
be the river," he said, "that flows through the Garden of Eden."
Meanwhile, many of the Spaniards that had been left on the islands
rebelled against him. Evil-minded officials in Spain sent out a sort of
inspector to examine into the rebellion. Prompted by malice, he exceeded
his authority and caused Columbus to be chained as a criminal. With
stern fortitude the stout-hearted mariner endured the cruel irons, and
he was thus taken back to Spain. The captain of the vessel offered to
free him from his chains. The brave discoverer answered sadly but
proudly: "No: I will wear them as a memento of the gratitude of
princes!"
=18. The Fourth and Last Voyage.=--His firm friend, the queen, justly
indignant, received him with tears. Then the much-enduring old man broke
down, and with sobs and weeping threw himself at her feet. The
great-hearted Isabella encouraged him to go on still another expedition.
In May, 1502, with four vessels and one hundred and fifty men, he sailed
on his fourth and last voyage.
He skirted the south side of Cuba, touched at Honduras, and coasted
along the northern shores of South America. Many of his men were killed
by the Indians, his company was short of food, his ships began to leak,
the vessel on which he sailed was wrecked, and the voyage was every way
disastrous. In November, 1504, old, feeble, and broken-hearted, Columbus
returned to. Spain. His royal patron and best friend, Isabella, was
dead. His constitution was shattered by the labors and perils he had
undergone. His last year was passed in sickness and poverty. In 1506 he
closed his eyes in death.
=19. Columbus and his Mighty Achievement.=--After all his four eventful
voyages, this prince of explorers died in the belief that he had reached
the eastern shores of Asia, and that, too, by the best and most direct
route. He never imagined that he had found a new continent. Although
self-deceived as to the true nature of his discoveries, he yet well
deserved all the honors that have crowned his memory. His own time was
not worthy of him; but after-ages have paid him due and ever-increasing
reverence. His name will forever be linked with lofty ideas and
magnificent achievements.
Columbus was a man of noble and commanding presence, tall, and
powerfully built. He had long-waving hair, a fair, ruddy complexion, and
keen blue-gray eyes that easily kindled and glowed. He inspired strong
affection and deep respect. He always carried himself with an air of
authority, as became a man of great heart and lofty thoughts.
Why was this continent not named for Columbus? Let me tell you. Because
in his life it was not known as a new world, and hence had no need of a
new name. It already had the names India and Cathay (China). In 1501
Americus Vespucius, a Florentine merchant and a mariner already familiar
with the western waters, sailed on his third voyage far southward along
the eastern coast of South America. The vast size of that country thus
became partially known. He wrote an account of his voyages to the "New
World," and in his honor it was named "America." Gradually this name was
applied to the northern continent also.
[Illustration: LANDING OF COLUMBUS.]
=20. The Cabots and their Voyages.=--We need not be told that these
expeditions made a great sensation in Europe, and that many bold
mariners started out from Portugal and Spain. The sovereigns of other
nations, too, as England and France, soon sent navigators to make claims
for their own countries. Among the most notable of these were the
Cabots, John and his son Sebastian. Though natives of Genoa, they lived
in England and had entered the service of King Henry VII. They had
permission from him to sail across the Atlantic and to take possession,
in his name, of any lands which were not known to Europeans.
In May, 1497, with one ship and eighteen men, John Cabot with his son
Sebastian left England. The first land he saw is supposed to have been
either Cape Breton Island or the shores of Labrador. He did not remain
long on that cold and dismal coast, but returned home to England after
an absence of about three months. John Cabot was probably the first
European since the days of the Northmen to set foot upon the mainland of
North America.
On his return he was received with much honor by the king. He was called
"The Great Admiral," and he went about the streets richly dressed in
silk, followed by a crowd of admirers. The next year the Cabots set out
upon a second voyage. This took a wider range. The exact limits of these
explorations are not clearly known; but it is believed that they
discovered the coast of Labrador, sailed along to Newfoundland, thence
probably as far south as Cape Cod, and perhaps to Cape Hatteras.
Inasmuch as Columbus never set foot upon the mainland of North America,
the Cabot discoveries are of importance. It is claimed that they gave
England a right to the settlement and ownership of this northern
continent.
Sebastian lived to be a very old man, and to the last was full of
enthusiasm about the new-found world He was known as "The Great Yeoman."
It was said of him: "He gave England a continent--and no one knows his
burial place!"
=21. A Spanish Knight seeks the Fountain of Youth.=--A singular expedition
was that of Ponce de Leon, a brave knight who had sailed with Columbus
on his second voyage. The Spaniards had heard somewhere in eastern Asia
the old, old legend, of a fountain whose water gave perpetual youth to
any one who drank of it. In 1513 Ponce de Leon sailed from Porto Rico,
where he had been governor, with three vessels, in search of this
wonderful "Fountain of Youth."
On Easter Sunday (which in Spanish is Pascua Florida, flowering Easter)
he first came within sight of a coast to which he gave the name
Florida, partly in honor of the day and partly because it was indeed a
region of flowers. He took possession of it in the name of the King of
Spain. Never before had he seen so beautiful a region. It seemed the
land of eternal summer.
He landed not far from what is now St. Augustine, and followed the coast
south to its western shore; but he went back disappointed. If he or any
one else ever saw this spring of magic power, it was only in dreams. In
1521 our romantic knight sailed again in search of the hoped-for
fountain; but by reason of a severe wound from an Indian arrow he was
forced to return to Cuba. There he died of his painful injury.
=22. How De Soto sought in Vain for Gold.=--Another adventurous Spanish
knight was Ferdinand de Soto. He attempted to explore and conquer the
country across the waters to the north of Cuba. In 1539, with nine
vessels and five hundred and seventy men, he left Havana. Landing on the
eastern coast of Florida, De Soto marched north to the Savannah River,
thence going westward. Dangers beset him on every side. Sometimes the
natives, who had learned to fear and hate the Spaniards, sent poisoned
arrows flying through the air. Sometimes they purposely led their greedy
foes into swamps in the search for gold. The Spaniards in turn treated
the Indians with extreme cruelty.
[Illustration: DE SOTO'S FIRST VIEW OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER.]
A number of dreadful battles were fought in which De Soto lost many men.
Through tangled forests and swamps the Spaniards, suffering from hunger
and sickness, plodded on their weary march. De Soto would not turn back.
He was determined to find gold. The proud Spaniard could not endure the
thought of failure. He had promised his followers an abundance of
treasure, and he resolved to keep that promise.
At last they reached the banks of a mighty river. Compared with other
streams it was like the sea. It was the great Mississippi. De Soto was
probably the first white man that ever gazed upon it. Under his
direction the men built rafts, crossed the "Father of Waters," and
pushed far on to what is now Arkansas and Missouri, in search of the
fabled land of gold. They never found it. Instead of gems and gold, they
found hunger, sickness, and death.
=23. Death of De Soto.=--At last, a little group exhausted and emaciated,
they turned their steps southward and toward the great river again. De
Soto was broken-hearted. A fever seized him, and he soon died.
The Indians stood in great awe of De Soto. They called him a "child of
the Sun," and believed he would never die. His men therefore wished to
conceal the fact of their leader's death. They wrapped his dead body in
a mantle and sank it at night beneath the waters of the Mississippi. The
wretched remnant of his followers managed to build a few boats, and in
these they floated down the stream. A few of them at last reached
friends to whom they told the story of their failure.