CHAPTER XIX

The Constellations[394]

Curious to say, Al-Sufi rated the Pole Star as 3rd magnitude; for it is

now only slightly less than the 2nd. At present it is about the same

brightness as [Greek: b] of the same constellation (Ursa Minor) which

Al-Sufi rated 2nd magnitude. It was, however, also rated 3rd magnitude by

Ptolemy (or Hipparchus), and it may possibly have varied in brightness

since ancient times. Admiral Smyth says that in his time (1830) it was

"not even a very bright third size" (!)[395] Spectroscopic measures show

that it is approaching the earth at the rate of 16 miles a second; but

this would have no perceptible effect on its brightness in historical

times. This may seem difficult to understand, and to some perhaps

incredible; but the simple explanation is that its distance from the earth

is so great that a journey of even 2000 years with the above velocity

would make no _appreciable_ difference in its distance! This is

undoubtedly true, as a simple calculation will show, and the fact will

give some idea of the vast distance of the stars. The well-known 9th

magnitude companion to the Pole Star was seen _by day_ in the Dorpat

telescope by Struve and Wrangel; and "on one occasion by Encke and

Argelander."[396]

The star [Greek: b] Ursæ Minoris was called by the Arabians _Kaukab

al-shamáli_, the North Star, as it was--owing to the precession of the

Equinoxes--nearer to the Pole in ancient times than our present Pole Star

was _then_.

The "Plough" (or Great Bear) is supposed to represent a waggon and horses.

"Charles' Wain" is a corruption of "churl's wain," or peasant's cart. The

Arabians thought that the four stars in the quadrilateral represented a

bier, and the three in the "tail" the children of the deceased following

as mourners! In the Greek mythology, Ursa Major represented the nymph

Callisto, a daughter of Lycaon, who was loved by Jupiter, and turned into

a bear by the jealous Juno. Among the old Hindoos the seven stars

represented the seven Rishis. It is the Otawa of the great Finnish epic,

the "Kalevala." It was also called "David's Chariot," and in America it

is known as "The Dipper."

Closely north of the star [Greek: th] in Ursa Major is a small star known

as Flamsteed 26. This is not mentioned by Al-Sufi, but is now, I find from

personal observation, very visible, and indeed conspicuous, to the naked

eye. I find, however, that owing to the large "proper motion" of the

bright star (1"·1 per annum) the two stars were much closer together in

Al-Sufi's time than they are at present, and this probably accounts for

Al-Sufi's omission. This is an interesting and curious fact, and shows the

small changes which occur in the heavens during the course of ages.

Close to the star [Greek: z], the middle star of the "tail" of Ursa Major

(or handle of the "Plough"), is a small star known as Alcor, which is

easily visible to good eyesight without optical aid. It is mentioned by

Al-Sufi, who says the Arabians called it _al-suha_, "the little unnoticed

one." He says that "Ptolemy does not mention it, and it is a star which

seems to test the powers of the eyesight." He adds, however, an Arabian

proverb, "I show him _al-suha_, and he shows me the moon," which seems to

suggest that to some eyes, at least, it was no test of sight at all. It

has, however, been suspected of variation in light. It was rated 5th

magnitude by Argelander, Heis, and Houzeau, but was measured 4·02 at

Harvard Observatory. It has recently been found to be a spectroscopic

binary.

The constellation of the Dragon (Draco) is probably referred to in Job

(chap. xxvi. v. 13), where it is called "the crooked serpent." In the

Greek mythology it is supposed to represent the dragon which guarded the

golden apples in the Garden of the Hesperides. Some have suggested that it

represented the serpent which tempted Eve. Dryden says, in his translation

of Virgil--

"Around our Pole the spiry Dragon glides,

And like a wand'ring stream the Bears divides."

The fact that the constellation Boötis rises quickly and sets slowly,

owing to its lying horizontally when rising and vertically when setting,

was noted by Aratus, who says--

"The Bearward now, past seen,

But more obscured, near the horizon lies;

For with the four Signs the Ploughman, as he sinks,

The deep receives; and when tired of day

At even lingers more than half the night,

When with the sinking sun he likewise sets

These nights from his late setting bear their name."[397]

The cosmical setting of Boötis--that is, when he sets at sunset--is stated

by Ovid to occur on March 5 of each year.

With reference to the constellation Hercules, Admiral Smyth says--

"The kneeling posture has given rise to momentous discussion; and

whether it represents Lycaon lamenting his daughter's transformation,

or Prometheus sentenced, or Ixion ditto, or Thamyrus mourning his

broken fiddle, remains still uncertain. But in process of time, this

figure became a lion, and Hyginus mentions both the lion's skin and

the club; while the right foot's being just over the head of the

Dragon, satisfied the mythologists that he was crushing the Lernæan

hydra.... Some have considered the emblem as typifying the serpent

which infested the vicinity of Cape Tænarus, whence a sub-genus of

Ophidians still derives its name. At all events a poet, indignant at

the heathen exaltation of Hevelius, has said--

"'To Cerberus, too, a place is given--

His home of old was far from heaven.'"[398]

Aratus speaks of Hercules as "the Phantom whose name none can tell."

There were several heroes of the name of Hercules, but the most famous was

Hercules the Theban, son of Jupiter and Alcmene wife of Amphitryon, King

of Thebes, who is said to have lived some years before the siege of Troy,

and went on the voyage of the Argonauts about 1300 B.C. According to some

ancient writers, another Hercules lived about 2400 B.C., and was a

contemporary of Atlas and Theseus. But according to Pétau, Atlas lived

about 1638 B.C., and Lalande thought that this chronology is the more

probable.

The small constellation Lyra, which contains the bright star Vega, is

called by Al-Sufi the Lyre, the Goose, the Persian harp, and the Tortoise.

In his translation of Al-Sufi's work, Schjellerup suggests that the name

"Goose" may perhaps mean a plucked goose, which somewhat resembles a Greek

lyre, and also a tortoise. The name of the bright star Vega is a

corruption of the Arabic _vâki_. Ptolemy and Al-Sufi included all the very

brightest stars in the "first magnitude," making no distinction between

them, but it is evident at a glance that several of them, such as Arcturus

and Vega, are brighter than an average star of the first magnitude, like

Aldebaran.

The constellation Perseus, which lies south-east of "Cassiopeia's Chair,"

may be recognized by the festoon formed by some of its stars, the bright

star [Greek: a] Persei being among them. It is called by Al-Sufi

"_barschânsch_, [Greek: Perseus], Perseus, who is _hamil râs al-gul_, the

Bearer of the head of _al-gul_." According to Kazimirski, "_Gul_ was a

kind of demon or ogre who bewilders travellers and devours them, beginning

at the feet. In general any mischievous demon capable of taking all sorts

of forms." In the Greek mythology Perseus was supposed to be the son of

Jupiter and Danæ. He is said to have been cast into the sea with his

mother and saved by King Polydectus. He afterwards cut off the head of

Medusa, one of the Gorgons, while she slept, and armed with this he

delivered Andromeda from the sea-monster.

The constellation Auriga lies east of Perseus and contains the bright star

Capella, one of the three brightest stars in the northern hemisphere (the

others being Arcturus and Vega). Theon, in his commentary on Aratus, says

that Bellerophon invented the chariot, and that it is represented in the

heavens by Auriga, the celestial coachman. According to Dupuis, Auriga

represents Phæton, who tried to drive the chariot of the sun, and losing

his head fell into the river Eridanus. The setting of Eridanus precedes by

a few minutes that of Auriga, which was called by some of the ancient

writers Amnis Phaï-tontis.[399] Auriga is called by Al-Sufi _numsick

al-ainna_--He who holds the reins, the Coachman; also _al-inâz_, the

She-goat. M. Dorn found in Ptolemy's work, the Greek name [Greek:

Hêniochoi], Auriga, written in Arabic characters. Al-Sufi says, "This

constellation is represented by the figure of a standing man behind 'He

who holds the head of _al-gûl_' [Perseus], and between the Pleiades and

the Great Bear."

Capella is, Al-Sufi says, "the bright and great star of the first

magnitude which is on the left shoulder [of the ancient figure] on the

eastern edge of the Milky Way. It is that which is marked on the astrolabe

as _al-aijûk_." The real meaning of this name is unknown. Schjellerup

thought, contrary to what Ideler says, that the name is identical with

the Greek word [Greek: Aix] (a goat). Capella was observed at Babylon

about 2000 B.C., and was then known as Dilgan. The Assyrian name was

_Icu_, and the Persian name _colca_. It was also called Capra Hircus,

Cabrilla, Amalthea, and Olenia. In ancient times the rising of Capella was

supposed to presage the approach of storms. Ovid says, "Olenia sidus

pluviale Capellæ."

The constellation Aquila is called by Al-Sufi _al-ukab_, the Eagle, or

_al-nasr al-tâïr_, the flying vulture. According to the ancient poets the

eagle carried nectar to Jupiter when he was hidden in a cave in Crete.

This eagle also assisted Jupiter in his victory over the Giants and

contributed to his other pleasures. For these reasons the eagle was

consecrated to Jupiter, and was placed in the sky. Al-Sufi says, "There

are in this figure three famous stars [[Greek: g], [Greek: a], and [Greek:

b] Aquilæ], which are called _al-nasr al-tâïr_." Hence is derived the

modern name Altair for the bright star [Greek: a] Aquilæ. Al-Sufi says

that the "common people" call "the three famous stars" _al-mîzân_, the

Balance, on account of the equality of the stars." This probably refers to

the approximately equal distances between [Greek: g] and [Greek: a], and

[Greek: a] and [Greek: b], and not to their relative brightness. He says

"Between the bright one of the tail [[Greek: x] Aquilæ] and the star in

the beak of the Hen [[Greek: b] Cygni] in the thinnest part of the Milky

Way, we see the figure of a little earthen jar, of which the stars begin

at the bright one in the tail, and extend towards the north-west. [This

seems to refer to [Greek: e] Aquilæ and the small stars near it.] They

then turn towards the east in the base of the jar, and then towards the

south-east to a little cloud [4, 5, etc. Vulpeculæ, a well-known group of

small stars] which is found to the north of the two stars in the shaft of

the Arrow [[Greek: a] and [Greek: b] Sagittæ]. The cloud is on the eastern

edge of the jar, and the bright one on the tail on the western edge; the

orifice is turned towards the flying Vulture [Aquila], and the base

towards the north. Among these are distinguished some of the fourth,

fifth, and sixth magnitudes [including, probably, 110, 111, 112, 113

Hercules, and 1 Vulpeculæ] and Ptolemy says nothing of this figure, except

the bright star in the tail of the Eagle" (see figure). The above is a

good example of the minute accuracy of detail in Al-Sufi's description.

[Illustration: AL-SUFI'S "EARTHEN JAR."]

The southern portion of Aquila was formerly called Antinous, who was said

to have been a young man of great beauty born at Claudiopolis in Bithynia,

and drowned in the Nile. Others say that he sacrificed his life to save

that of the Emperor Hadrian, who afterwards raised altars in his honour

and placed his image on coins.[400]

The constellation Pegasus, Al-Sufi says, "is represented by the figure of

a horse, which has the head, legs, and forepart of the body to the end of

the back, but it has neither hind quarters nor hind legs." According to

Brown, Pegasus was the horse of Poseidon, the sea god. Half of it was

supposed to be hidden in the sea, into which the river Eridanus

flowed.[401] In the Greek mythology it was supposed to represent the

winged horse produced by the blood which fell from the head of Medusa when

she was killed by Perseus! Some think that it represents Bellerophon's

horse, and others the horse of Nimrod. It was also called Sagmaria and

Ephippiatus, and was sometimes represented with a saddle instead of wings.

In describing the constellation Andromeda, Al-Sufi speaks of two series of

stars which start from the great nebula in Andromeda; one series going

through 32 Andromedæ, [Greek: p, d], and [Greek: e] to [Greek: z] and

[Greek: ê]; and the other through [Greek: n, m, b] Andromedæ into the

constellation Pisces. He says they enclose a fish-shaped figure called by

the Arabians _al-hût_, the Fish, _par excellence_. He speaks of two other

series of stars which begin at [Greek: t] and [Greek: u], and diverging

meet again at [Greek: ch] Persei, forming another "fish-like figure." The

eastern stream starts from [Greek: t] and passes through 55, [Greek: g],

60, 62, 64, and 65 Andromedæ; and the western stream from [Greek: u]

through [Greek: ch] 51, 54, and _g_ Persei up to [Greek: ch] Persei. The

head of the first "fish," _al-hût_, is turned towards the north, and that

of the second towards the south (see figure).

[Illustration: AL-SUFI'S "FISHES" IN ANDROMEDA.]

Al-Sufi says that the stars [Greek: a] Persei, [Greek: g, b, d], and

[Greek: a] Andromedæ, and [Greek: b] Pegasi form a curved line. This is

quite correct, and this fine curve of bright stars may be seen at a glance

on a clear night in September, when all the stars are high in the sky.

The first constellation of the Zodiac, Aries, the Ram, was called,

according to Aratus and Eratosthenes, [Greek: krios]. It is mentioned by

Ovid under the name of Hellas. It was also called by the ancients the Ram

with the golden horns. Manilius (fourth century B.C.) called it "The

Prince." It is supposed to have represented the god Bel. Among the

Accadians the sign meant "He who dwells on the altar of uprightness." It

first appears on the Egyptian Zodiac; and it was sacred to Jupiter Ammon.

In the Greek mythology it was supposed to represent the ram, the loss of

whose fleece led to the voyage of the Argonauts. In the time of

Hipparchus, about 2000 years ago, it was the first sign of the Zodiac, or

that in which the sun is situated at the Vernal Equinox (about March 21 in

each year). But owing to the precession of the equinoxes, this point has

now moved back into Pisces.

The brightest star of Aries ([Greek: a]) is sometimes called Hamal,

derived from the Arabic _al-hamal_, a name given to the constellation

itself by Al-Sufi. In the Accadian language it was called _Dilkur_, "the

dawn proclaimer." Ali-Sufi says that close to [Greek: a], "as if it were

attached to it," is a small star of the 6th magnitude, not mentioned by

Ptolemy. This is clearly [Greek: k] Arietis. The fact of Al-Sufi having

seen and noticed this small star, which modern measures show to be below

the 5th magnitude, is good evidence of his keen eyesight and accuracy of

observation.

According to Al-Sufi, the stars [Greek: b] and [Greek: g] Arietis were

called by the Arabians _al-scharatain_, "the two marks." They marked the

"first mansion of the moon," and [Greek: e, d], and [Greek: r] the second

mansion. With reference to these so-called "mansions of the moon," Admiral

Smyth says--

"The famous _Manazil al-kamar_, i.e. Lunar mansions, constituted a

supposed broad circle in Oriental astronomy divided into twenty-eight

unequal parts, corresponding with the moon's course, and therefore

called the abodes of the moon. This was not a bad arrangement for a

certain class of gazers, since the luminary was observed to be in or

near one or other of these parts, or constellations every night.

Though tampered with by astrologers, these Lunar mansions are probably

the earliest step in ancient astronomy."[402]

Taurus, the second constellation of the Zodiac, was in ancient times

represented by the figure of a bull, the hinder part of which is turned

towards the south-west, and the fore part towards the east. It had no hind

legs, and the head was turned to one side, with the horns extended towards

the east. Its most ancient name was _Te_, possibly a corruption of the

Accadian _dimmena_, "a foundation-stone." The Greek name is [Greek: athôr]

([Greek: thôôr], Eusebius). In the old Egyptian mythology Taurus

represented the god Apis. According to Dupuis it also represented the 10th

"labour of Hercules," namely, his victory over the cows of Geryon, King of

Spain.[403] It was also supposed to represent the bull under the form of

which Jupiter carried off Europa, daughter of Agenor, King of the

Phoenicians. It may also refer to Io or Isis, who is supposed to have

taught the ancient Egyptians the art of agriculture.

Aldebaran is the well-known bright red star in the Hyades. It was called

by Ptolemy _Fulgur succularum_. Ali-Sufi says it was marked on the old

astrolabes as _al-dabaran_, "the Follower" (because it follows the Hyades

in the diurnal motion), and also _ain al-tsaur_, the eye of the bull. It

may be considered as a standard star of the 1st magnitude. Modern

observations show that it has a parallax of 0"·107. It is receding from

the earth, according to Vogel, at the rate of about 30 miles a second;

but even with this high velocity it will take thousands of years before

its brightness is perceptibly diminished. It has a faint companion of

about the 10th magnitude at the distance of 118", which forms a good

"light test" for telescopes of 3 or 4 inches aperture. I saw it well with

a 4-inch Wray in the Punjab sky. The Hyades were called _Succulæ_ by the

Romans, and in the Greek mythology were said to be children of Atlas.

The star [Greek: b] Tauri, sometimes called Nath, from the Arabic

_al-nátih_, the butting, is a bright star between Capella and [Greek: g]

Orionis (Bellatrix). It is on the tip of the horn in the ancient figure of

Taurus, and "therefore" (says Admiral Smyth) "at the greatest distance

from the hoof; can this have given rise to the otherwise pointless sarcasm

of not knowing B from a bull's foot?"[404] Al-Sufi says that an imaginary

line drawn from the star now known as A Tauri to [Greek: t] Tauri would

pass between [Greek: u] and [Greek: k] Tauri, which is quite correct,

another proof of the accuracy of his observations. He also says that the

star [Greek: ô] Tauri is exactly midway between A and [Greek: e], which is

again correct. He points out that Ptolemy's position of [Greek: ô] is

incorrect. This is often the case with Ptolemy's positions, and tends to

show that Ptolemy adopted the position given by Hipparchus without

attempting to verify their position in the sky. Al-Sufi himself adopts

the longitudes and latitudes of the stars as given by Ptolemy in the

_Almagest_, but corrects the positions in his _descriptions_, when he

found Ptolemy's places erroneous.

The famous group of the Pleiades is well known; but there is great

difficulty in understanding Al-Sufi's description of the cluster. He says,

"The 29th star (of Taurus) is the more northern of the anterior side of

the Pleiades themselves, and the 30th is the southern of the same side;

the 31st is the following vertex of the Pleiades, and is in the more

narrow part. The 32nd is situated outside the northern side. Among these

stars, the 32nd is of the 4th magnitude, the others of the 5th." Now, it

is very difficult or impossible to identify these stars with the stars in

the Pleiades as they are at present. The brightest of all, Alcyone

([Greek: ê] Tauri), now about 3rd magnitude, does not seem to be mentioned

at all by Al-Sufi! as he says distinctly that "the brightest star" (No 32

of Taurus) is "outside" the Pleiades "on the northern side." It seems

impossible to suppose that Al-Sufi could have overlooked Alcyone had it

the same brightness it has now. The 32nd star seems to have disappeared,

or at least diminished greatly in brightness, since the days of Al-Sufi.

More than four stars were, however, seen by Al-Sufi, for he adds, "It is

true that the stars of the Pleiades must exceed the four mentioned above,

but I limit myself to these four because they are very near each other and

the largest [that is, the brightest]; this is why I have mentioned them,

neglecting the others." A full examination of the whole question is given

by Flammarion in his interesting work _Les Étoiles_ (pp. 289-307), and I

must refer my readers to this investigation for further details.

According to Brown, Simonides of Keos (B.C. 556-467) says, "Atlas was the

sire of seven daughters with violet locks, who are called the heavenly

_Peleiades_."[405] The name is by some supposed to be derived from the

Greek [Greek: pleiôn], full. The Old Testament word _Kimah_ (Job ix. 9 and

xxviii. 31) and Amos (v. 8) is derived from the Assyrian _Kimta_, a

"family." Aratus describes the Pleiades in the following lines:--

"Near his[406] left thigh together sweep along

The flock of Clusterers. Not a mighty span

Holds all, and they themselves are dim to see,

And seven paths aloft men say they take,

Yet six alone are viewed by mortal eye.

These seven are called by name Alkyonî

Kelainî, Meropî and Steropî

Taygetî, Elecktrî, Maia queen.

They thus together small and faint roll on

Yet notable at morn and eve through Zeus."[407]

The Pleiades are mentioned by Ovid. According to the ancient poets they

were supposed to represent the children of Atlas and Hesperus, and on

this account they were called Atlantids or Hesperides. From the

resemblance in sound to the word [Greek: pleias], a pigeon, they were

sometimes called "the doves," and for the same reason the word [Greek:

plein], to navigate, led to their being called the "shipping stars." The

word [Greek: pleias] was also applied to the priestesses of the god Zeus

(Jupiter) at Dordona, in the groves of which temple there were a number of

pigeons. This is, perhaps, what Aratus refers to in the last line of the

extract quoted above. According to Neapolitan legends, the name of

Virgil's mother was Maia. The mother of Buddha, the Hindoo _avatar_, was

also named Maia. In Italy the Pleiades were called _Gallinata_, and in

France _poussinière_, both of which mean the hen and chickens, a term also

given to them by Al-Sufi. The old Blackfoot Indians called them "The Seven

Perfect Ones." The Crees and Ojibway Indians called them the "Fisher

Stars." The Adipones of Brazil and some other nations claimed that they

sprang from the Pleiades! The Wyandot Indians called them "The Singing

Maidens."

Photographs show that the brighter stars of the Pleiades are involved in

nebulosity. That surrounding Maia seems to be of a spiral form. Now, there

is a Sanscrit myth which represents Maia as "weaving the palpable

universe," for which reason she was "typified as a spider." This seems

very appropriate, considering the web of nebulous light which surrounds

the stars of the group. Maia was also considered as a type of the

universe, which again seems appropriate, as probably most of the stars

were evolved from spiral nebulæ.

The name Hyades is supposed to be derived from the Greek word [Greek:

hyein], to rain, because in ancient times they rose at the rainy season.

In ancient Egypt, Aldebaran was called _ary_; and the Pleiades _chooa_, a

word which means "thousands." The name Aldebaran seems to have been

originally applied to the whole of the Hyades group. Aldebaran was also

called by the Arabians _al-fanik_, the great Camel, and the Hyades

_al-kilas_, the young Camels. The two close stars [Greek: u] and [Greek:

k] Tauri were called _al-kalbaïn_, the dogs of Aldebaran. La Condamine

states that the Indians of the Amazon saw in the Hyades the head of a

bull.

Gemini, the Twins, is the third constellation of the Zodiac. It was also

called Gemelli, etc. According to Dupuis it represents the 11th "labour of

Hercules"--his triumph over the dog Cerberus.[408] But some of Dupuis'

ideas seem very fanciful. The Twins are usually called Castor and Pollux,

but they were also called by the ancient writers Apollo and Hercules;

Jason and Triptolemus; Amphion and Zethus; and Theseus and Peritheus. In

Egypt they represented the deities Horus and Hippocrates. Brown thinks

that the "Great Twins" were originally the sun and moon, "who live

alternately. As one is born the other dies; as one rises the other

sets."[409] This applies to the full moon, but does not seem applicable to

the other lunar phases.

Gemini was the constellation to which Dante supposed himself transported

when he visited the stellar heavens.[410] He says he was born under the

influence of this "sign."

Cancer, the Crab, is the next sign of the Zodiac. In the Greek mythology

it was supposed to have been placed in the sky by Juno to commemorate the

crab which pinched the toes of Hercules in the Lernæan marsh. The Greek

name was [Greek: tybi]. According to Dupuis it represents the 12th "labour

of Hercules"--his capture of the golden apples in the Garden of the

Hesperides, which were guarded by a Dragon. This Dragon is Draco, which

was also called Custos Hesperidum.[411] But the connection between a crab

and the myth of the golden apples is not obvious--unless some reference to

"crab apples" is intended! Among the Romans, Cancer was consecrated to

Mercury, and by the ancient Egyptians to their god Anubis.

The well-known cluster in Cancer called the Præsape, Al-Sufi says, is "a

little spot which resembles a cloud, and is surrounded by four stars, two

to the west [[Greek: ê] and [Greek: th] Cancri] and two to the east"

[[Greek: g] and [Greek: d]]. This cluster is mentioned by Aratus, who

calls it the "Manger." The word Præsape is often translated "Beehive," but

there can be no doubt that it really means "Manger," referring to the

stars [Greek: g] and [Greek: d] Cancri, which the ancients called Aselli,

the ass's colts. These were supposed to represent the asses which in the

war of Jupiter against the Giants helped his victory by their braying!

Admiral Smyth says in his _Bedford Catalogue_ (p. 202) that he found

[Greek: g] and [Greek: d] Cancri both of 4th magnitude; but the

photometric measures show that [Greek: d] is now distinctly brighter than

[Greek: g]. An occultation of [Greek: d] Cancri by the moon is recorded as

having occurred on September 3, B.C. 240.

The fine constellation Leo, the Lion, is the next "sign" of the Zodiac,

and is marked by the well-known "Sickle." According to Dupuis, it

represents the first "labour of Hercules"--the killing of the Nemælian

lion. Manilius called it Nemæus. It was also called Janonus sidus, Bacchi

sidus, etc. The Greek name was [Greek: mechir], [Greek: mecheir], or

[Greek: mechos]. In ancient Egypt, Leo was sacred to Osiris, and many of

the Egyptian monuments are ornamented with lions' heads. It is stated in

the Horapolla that its appearance was supposed to announce the annual

rising of the Nile.

Regulus ([Greek: a] Leonis) is the brightest and most southern of the

stars in the "Sickle." Al-Sufi says "it is situated in the heart and is of

the 1st magnitude. It is that which is called _al-maliki_, the royal star.

It is marked on the astrolabe as _kalb al-asad_, the Heart of the Lion"

(whence the name Cor Leonis). Modern photometric measures make it about

1·3 magnitude. It has an 8-1/2 magnitude companion at about 177" distance

(Burnham) which is moving through space with the bright star, and is

therefore at probably the same distance from the earth as its brilliant

primary. This companion is double (8·5, 12·5: 3"·05, Burnham). The

spectroscope shows that Regulus is approaching the earth at the rate of

5-1/2 miles a second. Its parallax is very small--about 0"·022, according

to Dr. Elkin--which indicates that it is at a vast distance from the

earth; and its brightness shows that it must be a sun of enormous size.

Ptolemy called it [Greek: basiliskos], whence its Latin name Regulus,

first used by Copernicus as the diminutive of _rex_.[412]

The next constellation of the Zodiac is Virgo, the Virgin. It was also

called by the ancients Ceres, Isis, Erigone, Fortuna, Concorda, Astræa,

and Themis. The Greek name was [Greek: phamenôth]. Ceres was the goddess

of the harvest. Brown thinks that it probably represents the ancient

goddess Istar, and also Ashtoreth. According to Prof. Sayce it is the

same as the Accadian sign of "the errand of Istar, a name due to the

belief that it was in August that the goddess Astarte descended into Hades

in search of her betrothed, the sun god Tammuz, or Adonis, who had been

slain by the boar's tusk."[413] The ear of corn (Spica) is found on the

ancient Egyptian monuments, and is supposed to represent the fertility

caused by the annual rising of the Nile. According to Aratus, the Virgin

lived on earth during the golden age under the name of Justice, but that

in the bronze age she left the earth and took up her abode in the heavens.

"Justice, loathing that race of men,

Winged her flight to heaven."

The Sphinx near the Great Pyramid has the head of a virgin on the body of

a lion, representing the goddess Isis (Virgo) and her husband Osiris

(Leo).

Al-Sufi's 5th star of Virgo is Flamsteed 63 Virginis. Al-Sufi says it is a

double star of the 5th magnitude. In Al-Sufi's time it formed a "naked-eye

double" with 61 Virginis, but owing to large proper motion, 61 has now

moved about 26 minutes of arc towards the south, and no longer forms a

double with 63. This interesting fact was first pointed out by Flammarion

in his work _Les Étoiles_ (p. 373).

Libra, the Balance, is one of the "signs" of the Zodiac, but originally

formed the claws of the Scorpion. It was called Juguna by Cicero, and

Mochos by Ampelius. The Greek name was [Greek: pharmouthe]. Virgil

suggests that it represented the justice of the emperor Augustus, honoured

by the name of a constellation; but probably this refers to the birth of

Augustus under the sign of Libra, as Scaliger has pointed out. According

to Brown, "the daily seizing of the dying western sun by the claws of the

Scorpion of darkness is reduplicated annually at the Autumnal Equinox,

when the feeble waning sun of shortening days falls ever earlier into his

enemy's grasp;"[414] and he says, "The Balance or Scales (Libra), which it

will be observed is in itself neither diurnal nor nocturnal, is the only

one of the zodiacal signs not Euphratean in origin, having been imported

from Egypt and representing originally the balance of the sun at the

horizon between the upper and under worlds; and secondarily the equality

of the days and nights at the equinox."[415]

According to Houzeau, Libra was formed at the beginning of the second

century B.C., and it does not appear in any writings before those of

Geminus and Varron.[416]

Milton says in _Paradise Lost_:--

"The Eternal to prevent such horrid fray,

Hung forth in heaven his golden scales, yet seen

Betwixt Astræa and the Scorpion's sign."

(Here Astræa is Virgo.)

It is worth noticing that both Ptolemy and Al-Sufi rated the star [Greek:

k] Libræ as two magnitudes brighter than [Greek: l] Libræ. The two stars

are now practically of equal brightness (5th magnitude), and it seems

impossible to believe that this could have been the case in Al-Sufi's

time. Surely a careful observer like Al-Sufi, who estimated the relative

brightness of stars to a third of a magnitude, could not possibly have

made an error of two magnitudes in the brightness of two stars near each

other! It should be stated, however, that [Greek: k] Libræ was rated 5th

magnitude by Argelander and Heis, and [Greek: l], 6th magnitude by the

same excellent observers.

The next "sign" of the Zodiac, Scorpion, was consecrated by the Romans to

Mars, and by the Egyptians to Typhon.[417] It was called _Nepa_ by Cicero,

_Martis sidus_ by Manilius, and _Fera magna_ by Aratus. The Greek name was

[Greek: pachôn].

Mr. E. B. Knobel has called attention to a curious remark of Ptolemy with

reference to the bright star Antares ([Greek: a] Scorpii), "Media earum

quæ _tendit ad rapinam_ quæ dicitur Cor Scorpionis"; and he made a similar

remark with reference to Betelgeuse ([Greek: a] Orionis) and others. But

Mr. Robert Brown[418] explains the remark by the fact that in ancient

times these stars rose in the morning at a time when caravans were exposed

to dangers from robbers. Thus the term had nothing to do with the aspect

or colour of these stars, but was merely a reference to their supposed

astrological influence on human affairs.

In the Egyptian _Book of the Dead_, Silkit was a goddess who assumed the

form of a scorpion in the sky. She was supposed to be the daughter of

_Ra_.

With reference to stars "outside" the ancient figure of Scorpio, the

first, Al-Sufi says, "is a star which immediately follows _al-schaulat_"

[[Greek: l]] and [Greek: k], "it is of small 4th magnitude; Ptolemy calls

it [Greek: nepheloeidês]" [nebulous]. Schjelerup, in his translation of

Al-Sufi's work, does not identify this object; but it is very evidently

[Greek: g] Telescopii, which lies exactly in the position described by

Al-Sufi. Now, it is a very interesting and curious fact that Ptolemy

called it nebulous, for in the same telescopic field with it is the nebula

_h_ 3705 (= Dunlop 557). Dunlop describes it as a "small well-defined

rather bright nebula, about 20" in diameter; a very small star precedes

it, but is not involved; following [Greek: g] Telescopii." Sir John

Herschel at the Cape found it fairly resolved into very faint stars, and

adds, "The whole _ground_ of the heavens, for an immense extent is

thickly sown with such stars. A beautiful object."[419] This perhaps

accounts for the nebulous appearance of the star as seen by Ptolemy.

Several _novæ_ or temporary stars are recorded as having appeared in

Scorpio. One in the year B.C. 134 is stated by Pliny to have induced

Hipparchus to form his catalogue of stars. This star was also observed in

China. Its exact position is unknown, but Flammarion thinks it may

possibly have appeared about 4° north of the star [Greek: b] Scorpii.

Another new star is said to have appeared in A.D. 393, somewhere in the

Scorpion's tail. One in A.D. 1203 and another in 1584 are also mentioned,

the latter near [Greek: p] Scorpii.

The constellation Scorpio seems to be referred to by Dante in his

_Purgatorio_ (ix. 4-6) in the lines--

"De gemma la sua fronte era lucenta

Poste in figura del fredda animale

Che con la coda percota la genta,"

perhaps suggested by Ovid's remark--

"Scorpius exhibit caudaque menabitur unca."[420]

Next to Scorpio comes Sagittarius, the Archer. It is said to have been

placed in the sky as a symbol of Hercules, a hero who was held in the

greatest veneration by the ancient Egyptians. The horse, usually

associated with this constellation, was a symbol of war. It was also

called by the ancients Chiron, Arcitenens, Minotaurus, Croton, etc. The

Greek name was [Greek: pauni], or [Greek: paôni]. Chiron was supposed to

be the son of Saturn and Phillyra, and first taught men to ride on horses.

The name is derived from the Greek [Greek: cheir], a hand. Some writers,

however, think that Chiron is represented by the constellation of the

Centaur, and others say that Sagittarius represents the Minotaur loved by

Persephone. According to Dupuis, Sagittarius represents the 5th "labour of

Hercules," which consisted in hunting the birds of the lake Stymphalus,

which ravaged the neighbouring countries. These birds are perhaps

represented by Cygnus, Altair, and the Vulture (Lyra). The Lyre probably

represents the musical instrument which Hercules used to frighten the

birds.[421]

According to Al-Sufi, the Arabians called the stars [Greek: g, d, e], and

[Greek: ê] Sagittarii which form a quadrilateral figure, "the Ostrich

which goes to the watering place," because they compared the Milky Way to

a river. They compared the stars [Greek: s, ph, t], and [Greek: z]

Sagittarii, which form another quadrilateral, to an ostrich which has

drunk and returns from the "watering place." He says that the star [Greek:

l] Sagittarii forms with these two "ostriches" a tent, and certainly the

figure formed by [Greek: l, ph, z, e], and [Greek: d] is not unlike a

tent. Al-Sufi says more about these "ostriches"; but the ideas of the old

Arabians about the stars seem very fanciful.

A "temporary star" is recorded in the Chinese Annals of Ma-touan-lin as

having appeared in May, B.C. 48, about 4° distant from [Greek: m]

Sagittarii. Another in the year 1011 A.D. appeared near the quadrilateral

figure formed by the stars [Greek: s, t, z], and [Greek: ph] Sagittarii.

This may perhaps be identified with the object referred to by Hepidannus

in the year 1012, which was of extraordinary brilliancy, and remained

visible "in the southern part of the heavens during three months." Another

is mentioned near the same place in A.D. 386 (April to July).[422] The

number of "temporary stars" recorded in this part of the heavens is very

remarkable.

According to Brown, Sagittarius is depicted on a stone, cir. B.C. 1100,

found at Bâbilu, and now in the British Museum.[423]

* * * * *

The next of the "signs of the Zodiac" is Capricornus, the Goat. In the

Arabo-Latin edition of Ptolemy's _Almagest_ it is called Alcaucurus. It is

supposed to represent Amalthea, the goat which nursed Jupiter. According

to Dupuis it represented the 6th "labour of Hercules," which was the

cleaning out of the Augean stables.[424]

[Greek: a]_{2} Capricorni is the northern of two stars of the 4th

magnitude ([Greek: a] and [Greek: b] Capricorni). It really consists of

two stars visible to the naked eye. The second of these two stars ([Greek:

a]_{1}) is not mentioned by Al-Sufi, but I find that, owing to proper

motion, they were nearer together in his time (tenth century), and were

evidently seen by him as one star. [Greek: b] Capricorni (about 3rd

magnitude) is a very wide double star (3-1/2, 6; 205"), which may be seen

with any small telescope. The fainter star was found to be a close double

by Burnham. At present [Greek: b] is brighter than [Greek: a], although

rated of the same brightness by Al-Sufi.

Aquarius is the next "sign of the Zodiac." It is supposed to represent a

man pouring water out of an urn or bucket. Other names given to this

constellation were Aristæus, Ganymede, Cecrops, Amphora, Urna, and Aqua

tyrannus. According to Dupuis it represents the 7th "labour of Hercules,"

which was his victory over the famous bull which ravaged Crete.[425] But

the connection between a bull and a bucket is not obvious. Aquarius is

represented in several places on the Egyptian monuments. Some of the

ancient poets supposed that it represented Deucalion (the Noah of the

Greek story of the Deluge); others thought that it represented Cecrops,

who came to Greece from Egypt, built Athens, and was also called Bifornis.

Others say that he was Ganymede, the cup-bearer of the gods.

There is some difficulty about the identification of some of Al-Sufi's

stars in Aquarius. His sixth star (Fl. 7) is nearly 10° south-west of

[Greek: b] Aquarii, and is, Al-Sufi says, "the following of three stars in

the left hand, and precedes the fourth [[Greek: b]] ... it is of the 6th

magnitude. Ptolemy calls it third, but in reality it is very faint" [now

about 6th magnitude]. The seventh [[Greek: m]] is the middle one of the

three and about 4-1/2 magnitude, although Al-Sufi calls it "small fifth"

[Ptolemy rated it 4]. The eighth star, [Greek: e], is the preceding of the

three and about 3·8, agreeing closely with Al-Sufi's 4·3. Ptolemy rated it

3. This star is mentioned under the name _nou_ in the time of

_Tcheou-Kong_ in the twelfth century B.C. Al-Sufi says, "These three stars

are followed by a star of the 5th magnitude which Ptolemy has not

mentioned. It is brighter than the sixth star" [Fl. 7]. This is evidently

[Greek: n] Aquarii. If, however, we plot Ptolemy's positions as given by

Al-Sufi, it seems probable that _Ptolemy's_ sixth star was really [Greek:

n], and that either [Greek: m] or Fl. 7 was not seen by him. As Ptolemy

called his seventh star 4th magnitude, and his sixth and eighth stars 3rd

magnitude, some considerable change of brightness seems to have taken

place in these stars; as [Greek: n] is now only 4-1/2 and Fl. 7 only a

bright sixth. Variation was suspected in Fl. 7[426] by Gould. I found it

very reddish with binocular in October, 1892. Burnham found it to be a

close double star, the companion being about 12th magnitude at a distance

of only 2". It is probably a binary.

According to Al-Sufi, the Arabians called the second and third stars of

the figure ([Greek: a] and [Greek: o] Aquarii) _sad al-malik_ (_malk_ or

_mulk_), "the Good Fortune of the king." They called the fourth and fifth

stars ([Greek: b] and [Greek: x] Aquarii) with the twenty-eighth star of

Capricornus (_c_) _sad al-sund_, "the Good Fortune of the Happy Events."

"This is the 24th mansion of the moon." These stars rose at the time of

year when the cold ends, and they set at the time the heat ends. Hence,

Al-Sufi says, "when they rise the rains begin, and when they set the

unhealthy winds cease, fertility abounds, and the dew falls." Hence

probably the Arabic names. This, of course, applies to the climate of

Persia and Arabia, and not to the British Isles. Al-Sufi says, "They call

the 6th, 7th, and 8th stars _sad bula_, 'The Good Fortune which swallows

up!' This is the 23rd mansion of the moon. They say that it is so called

because that at the time of the Deluge it rose at the moment when God

said, 'O earth! absorb the waters' (Koran, chap, xi., v. 46). They called

the stars [Greek: g, p, z] and [Greek: ê] Aquarii _sad al-achbija_, 'the

the Good Fortune of the tents'; this is the 25th mansion of the moon, and

they give them this name because of these four stars, three form a

triangle, the fourth [[Greek: z]] being in the middle." The three were

considered to form a tent.

The Arabians called the bright star Fomalhaut "in the mouth of the

southern fish _al-dhifda al-auval_, 'the first Frog,' as the bright one on

the southern point of the tail of Kîtus [Cetus] is called _al-dhifda

al-tsani_ [[Greek: b] Ceti], 'the second Frog.'" Fomalhaut was also called

_al-zhalim_, "the male ostrich."

Al-Sufi says, "Some of the Arabians state that a ship is situated to the

south of Aquarius." The stars in the Southern Fish (Piscis Australis) seem

to be here referred to.

The constellation Pisces, the Fishes, is the last of the "signs of the

Zodiac." The Fishes appear on an ancient Greek obelisk described by

Pococke. Among the Greeks this sign was consecrated to Venus; and in Egypt

to Nepthys, wife of Typhon and goddess of the sea. Pisces is said to end

the Zodiac as the Mediterranean Sea terminated Egypt. This idea was

suggested by Schmidt, who also conjectured that the Ram (Aries) was placed

at the beginning of the Zodiac because Thebes, a town sacred to Jupiter

Ammon, was at the beginning of Egypt in ancient times; and he thought that

the constellation Triangulum, the Triangle, represented the Nile Delta,

Eridanus being the Nile.[427] The constellation was represented in ancient

times by two fishes connected by a cord tied to their tails. The southern

of these "fishes" lies south of the "Square of Pegasus," and the northern

between Andromeda and Aries. According to Manilius, the origin of these

fishes is as follows: Venus, seeing Typhon on the banks of the river

Euphrates, cast herself with her son into the river and they were

transformed into fishes!

Some of the Arabians substituted a swallow for the northern of the two

fishes--the one below Andromeda. The swallow was a symbol of Spring.

According to Dupuis, Pisces represents the 8th "labour of Hercules," his

triumph over the mares of Diomed which emitted fire from their

nostrils.[428] But the connection between fishes and mares is not obvious,

and some of Dupuis' ideas seem very fanciful. Here he seems to have found

a "mare's nest."

The constellation Cetus, the Whale, represents, according to ancient

writers, the sea monster sent by Neptune to devour Andromeda when she was

chained to the rock. Aratus calls Cetus the "dusky monster," and Brown

remarks that "the 'Dusky Star' would be peculiarly appropriate to Mira

(the wondrous [Greek: o] Ceti)."[429] Cetus was also called Canis

Tritonis, or Dog of the Sea, Bayer in his Atlas (1603) shows a dragon

instead of a whale, finding it so represented on some ancient spheres.

Al-Sufi calls it Kîtus or [Greek: kêtos], the whale. He says, "it is

represented by the figure of a marine animal, of which the fore part is

turned towards the east, to the south of the Ram, and the hinder part

towards the west behind the three 'extern' stars of Aquarius."

Al-Sufi does not mention the variable star [Greek: o] Ceti, now called

Mira, or the "wonderful," nor does he refer to any star in its immediate

vicinity. We may, therefore, conclude that it was near a minimum of light

at the time of his observation of the stars of Cetus.

The constellation of Orion, one of the finest in the heavens, was called

by Al-Sufi _al-djabbar_, "the Giant," and also _al-djauza_, "the Spouse."

The poet Longfellow says--

"Sirius was rising in the east

And, slow ascending one by one,

The kindling constellations shone

Begirt with many a blazing star

Stood the great giant Al-gebar

Orion, hunter of the beast!

His sword hung gleaming at his side

And on his arm, the lion's hide--

Scattered across the midnight air

The golden radiance of its hair."

Al-Sufi says it "is represented by the figure of a standing man, to the

south of the sun's path. This constellation very much resembles a human

figure with a head and two shoulders. It is called _al-djabbar_, 'the

Giant,' because it has two thrones, holds a club in his hand, and is

girded with a sword." Orion is supposed to have been a son of Neptune;

but there are many stories of the origin of the name. It is also said to

be derived from the Greek word [Greek: ôra], because the constellation was

used to mark the different times of the year. According to the ancient

fable, Orion was killed by a scorpion, and was placed in the sky at the

request of Diana. According to Houzeau, the name comes from _oriri_, to be

born. Scorpio rises when Orion sets, and he thinks that the idea of the

ancients was that the Scorpion in this way kills the giant Orion.

In ancient Egypt Orion was called _Sahu_. This name occurs on the

monuments of the Ptolemies, and also on those of the Pharaohs. It is also

mentioned in the _Book of the Dead_. It seems to have been considered of

great importance in ancient Egypt, as its heliacal rising announced that

of Sirius, which heralded the annual rising of the Nile.

The constellation Eridanus lies south of Taurus, east of Cetus, and west

of Lepus. In ancient times it was supposed to represent the Nile or the

Po. Ptolemy merely calls it [Greek: Potamou asterismos], or asterism of

the river. It was called Eridanus by the Greeks, and Fluvius by the

Romans. It appears to correspond with the Hebrew Shicor. Al-Sufi calls it

_al-nahr_, "the River."

One of the most interesting points in Al-Sufi's most interesting work is

the identity of the bright star known to the ancient astronomers as

_achir al-nahr_, "the End of the River," and called by Ptolemy [Greek:

Eschatos tou potamou], "the Last in the River." Some astronomers have

identified this star with [Greek: a] Eridani (Achernar), a bright southern

star of the 1st magnitude, south of Eridanus. But Al-Sufi's description

shows clearly that the star he refers to is really [Greek: th] Eridani;

and the reader will find it interesting to follow his description with a

star map before him. Describing Ptolemy's 34th star of Eridanus (the star

in question), he says, "the 34th star is found before [that is west of]

these three stars [the 31st, 32nd, and 33rd, which are [Greek: u]{2}, Du,

and [Greek: u]' in Proctor's Atlas], the distance between it and that of

the three which is nearest being about 4 cubits [9° 20']. It is of the

first magnitude; it is that which is marked on the southern astrolabe, and

called _achir al-nahr_, 'the End of the River.' There are before this

bright one two stars, one to the south, [[Greek: s] Eridani, not shown in

Proctor's small Atlas], the other to the north [[Greek: i] Eridani];

Ptolemy does not mention these. One of these stars is of the 4th

magnitude, the other of the 5th. There is behind the same [that is, east

of it] a star of the 4th magnitude distant from it two cubits [[Greek: e]

Eridani]. To the south of the three stars which follow the bright one

there are some stars of the 4th and 5th magnitudes, which he [Ptolemy] has

not mentioned."

Now, a glance at a star map of this region will show clearly that the

bright star referred to by Al-Sufi is undoubtedly [Greek: th] Eridani,

which is therefore the star known to the ancients as the "End of the

River," or the "Last in the River."

The position given by Ptolemy agrees fairly well with Al-Sufi's

description, although the place is slightly erroneous, as is also the case

with Fomalhaut and [Greek: b] Centauri. It is impossible to suppose that

either Ptolemy or Al-Sufi could have seen [Greek: a] Eridani, as it is too

far south to be visible from their stations, and, owing to the precession

of the equinoxes, the star was still further south in ancient times.

Al-Sufi says distinctly that the distance between Ptolemy's 33rd star

(which is undoubtedly _h_ Eridani, or Proctor's [Greek: u]') and the 34th

star was "4 cubits," or 9° 20'. The actual distance is about 9° 11', so

that Al-Sufi's estimate was practically correct. Halley, in his _Catalogus

Stellarium Australium_, identifies Ptolemy's star with [Greek: th]

Eridani, and Baily agreed with him.[430] Ulugh Beigh also identifies the

"Last in the River" with [Greek: th] Eridani. The Arabic observer Mohammed

Ali Achsasi, who observed in the seventeenth century, called [Greek: th]

Eridani _Achr al-nahr_, and rated it first magnitude.[431] To argue, as

Bode and Flammarion have done, that Ptolemy and Al-Sufi may have heard of

[Greek: a] Eridani from travellers in the southern hemisphere, is to beg

the whole question at issue. This is especially true with reference to

Al-Sufi, who says, in the preface to his work, that he has described the

stars "as seen with my own eyes." [Greek: a] Eridani is over 11 "cubits"

from _h_ Eridani instead of "4 cubits" as Al-Sufi says. This shows

conclusively that the star seen by Al-Sufi was certainly _not_ [Greek: a]

Eridani. The interest of the identification is that Al-Sufi rated [Greek:

th] Eridani of the _first_ magnitude, whereas it is now only 3rd

magnitude! It was measured 3·06 at Harvard and estimated 3·4 by Stanley

Williams, so that it has evidently diminished greatly in brightness since

Al-Sufi's time. There is an interesting paper on this subject by Dr.

Anderson (the discoverer of Nova Aurigæ and Nova Persei) in _Knowledge_

for July, 1893, in which he states that the "Last in the River," according

to the statements of Hipparchus and Ptolemy, _did_ rise above their

horizon at a certain time of the year, which [Greek: a] Eridani could not

possibly have done. This seems sufficient to settle the question in favour

of [Greek: th] Eridani. Dr. Anderson says, "It is much to be regretted

that Professor Schjellerup, the able and industrious translator of Sufi,

has allowed this to escape his notice, and helped in the preface and note

to his work to propagate the delusion that [Greek: a] Eridani is Ptolemy's

'Last in the River'"; and in this opinion I fully concur. Al-Sufi's clear

account places it beyond a doubt that the star known to Hipparchus,

Ptolemy, Al-Sufi, and Ulugh Beigh as the "Last in the River" was [Greek:

th] Eridani. [Greek: th] must have diminished greatly in brightness since

Al-Sufi's time, for in ranking it as 1st magnitude he placed it in a very

select list. He only rated thirteen stars in the whole heavens as being of

the 1st magnitude. These are: Arcturus, Vega, Capella, Aldebaran, Regulus,

[Greek: b] Leonis, Fomalhaut, Rigel, [Greek: th] Eridani, Sirius, Procyon,

Canopus, and [Greek: a] Centauri. _All_ these stars were actually _seen_

by Al-Sufi, _and described from his own observations_. He does not mention

[Greek: a] Eridani, as it was not visible from his station in Persia.

[Greek: th] Eridani is a splendid double star (3·40, 4·49: 8"·38, 1902,

Tebbutt). I found the components white and light yellow with 3-inch

refractor in the Punjab. Dr. Gould thinks that one of the components is

variable to some extent. This is interesting, considering the brilliancy

of the star in Al-Sufi's time. The brighter component was found to be a

spectroscopic binary by Wright, so that on the whole the star is a most

interesting object.

The small constellation Lepus, the Hare, lies south of Orion. Pliny calls

it Dasypus, and Virgil Auritus. In ancient Egypt it was the symbol of

vigilance, prudence, fear, solitude, and speed.[432] It may perhaps

represent the hare hunted by Orion; but some say it was placed in the sky

to commemorate a terrible plague of hares which occurred in Sicily in

ancient times.

A little north-west of the star [Greek: m] Leporis is Hind's "crimson

star" (R.A. 4{h} 53{m}, S. 14° 57', 1900) described by him as "of the most

intense crimson, resembling a blood drop on the background of the sky; as

regards depth of colour, no other star visible in these latitudes could be

compared with it." It is variable from about the 6th to the 8th magnitude,

with a period of about 436 days from maximum to maximum.

The constellation Canis Major, the Great Dog, is remarkable for containing

Sirius, the brightest star in the heavens. In the Greek mythology it was

supposed to represent a dog given by Aurora to Cephalus as the swiftest of

all dogs. Cephalus wished to match it against a fox which he thought

surpassed all animals for speed. They both ran for so long a time, so the

story goes, that Jupiter rewarded the dog by placing it among the stars.

But probably the dog comes from Anubis, the dog-headed god of the ancient

Egyptians. According to Brown, Theogirius (B.C. 544) refers to the

constellation of the Dog.[433] He thinks that Canis Major is probably "a

reduplication" of Orion; Sirius and [Greek: b] Canis Majoris corresponding

to [Greek: a] and [Greek: g] Orionis; [Greek: d], 22, and [Greek: e] Canis

Majoris to the stars in Orion's belt ([Greek: d, e], and [Greek: z]

Orionis); and [Greek: ê]; and [Greek: k] Canis Majoris with [Greek: k] and

[Greek: b] Orionis.[434]

The Arabic name of Sirius was _al-schira_, which might easily be corrupted

into Sirius. The Hebrew name was Sihor. According to Plutarch, the

Ethiopians paid regal honours to the Celestial Dog. The Romans used to

sacrifice a dog in its honour at the fetes called Robigalia, which were

held on the seventh day before the Calends of May, and nine days after the

entry of the sun into Taurus. Pliny says, "Hoc tempus Varro determinat

sole decimam partem Tauri obtinenti quod canis occidit, sidus per se

vehemens," etc.[435]

Owing to some remarks of Cicero, Horace, and Seneca, it has been supposed

that in ancient times Sirius was of red colour. Seneca says, "Nec mirum

est, si terra omnis generis et varia evaporatio est; quam in coelo

quoque non unus appareat color rerum, sed acrior sit Caniculæ rubor,

Nartis remissior, Jovis nullus, in lucem puram nitore perducto."[436] It

is now brilliantly white with a bluish tinge. But this change of colour is

somewhat doubtful. The remarks of the ancient writers may possibly refer

to its great brilliancy rather than its colour. Al-Sufi says nothing about

its colour, and it was probably a white star in his time. If it were red

in his day he would most probably have mentioned the fact, as he does in

the case of several red stars. Brown, however, quotes the following from

Ibn Alraqqa, an Arabian observer:--

"I recognize Sirius _shining red_, whilst the morning is becoming white.

The night fading away, has risen and left him,

The night is not afraid to lose him, since he follows her."

Schjellerup thinks that it is very doubtful that Sirius was really red as

seen by Hipparchus and Ptolemy. But in an exhaustive inquiry made by Dr.

See on the supposed change of colour,[437] he comes to the conclusion that

Sirius was really red in ancient times. Seneca states distinctly that it

was redder than Mars (see extract above), and other ancient writers refer

to its red colour. It has been generally supposed that the Arabian

astronomer Alfraganus, in his translation of Ptolemy's _Almagest_, refers

to only five red stars observed by Ptolemy, namely, Arcturus, Aldebaran,

Betelgeuse, Antares, and Pollux. But Dr. See shows that this idea is due

to a mistranslation of Alfraganus by Plato Tibertinus in 1537, and that

Ptolemy did not speak of "five red stars," but five _nebulous_ stars, as

stated by Christmann and Golius. Ptolemy described Sirius as [Greek:

upokirros], "fiery red," the same word used with reference to the other

stars mentioned above. The change of colour, if any, probably took place

before Al-Sufi's time.

Dr. See says--

"Prof. Newcomb rejects the former well-authenticated redness of

Sirius, because he cannot explain the fact. But the ink was scarcely

dry on his new book on the stars, in which he takes this position,

when Nova Persei blazed forth in 1901; and observers saw it change

colour from day to day and week to week. Could any one explain the

cause of these numerous and conspicuous changes of colour? Shall we,

then, deny the changes of colour in Nova Persei, some of which were

noticed when it was nearly as bright as Sirius?"[438]

On the ceiling of the Memnonium at Thebes the heliacal rising of Sirius is

represented under the form and name of Isis. The coincidence of this

rising with the annual rising of the Nile is mentioned by Tibullus and

Aclian. About 4000 B.C. the heliacal rising of Sirius coincided with the

summer solstice (about June 21) and the beginning of the rising of the

Nile. The festival in honour of this event was held by the Egyptians about

July 20, and this marked the beginning of the sacred Egyptian year. On the

summit of Mount Pelion in Thessaly there was a temple dedicated to Zeus,

where sacrifices were offered at the rising of Sirius by men of rank who

were chosen for the purpose by the priests and wore fresh sheepskins.

Sirius seems to have been worshipped by the ancient Egyptians under the

name of Sothis, and it was regarded as the star of Isis and Osiris. The

last name without the initial O very much resembles our modern name.

According to Al-Sufi, the Arabians called Sirius _al-schira al-abûr_,

"Sirius which has passed across," also _al-schira al Jamânija_, "the

Sirius of Yémen." He says it is called _al-abûr_, "because it has passed

across the Milky Way into the southern region." He relates a mythological

story why Sirius "fled towards the south" and passed across the Milky Way

towards Suhail (Canopus). The same story is told by Albufaragius[439]

(thirteenth century). (The story was probably derived from Al-Sufi.) Now,

it seems to me a curious and interesting fact that the large proper motion

of Sirius would have carried it across the Milky Way from the eastern to

the western border in a period of 60,000 years. Possibly the Arabian story

may be based on a tradition of Sirius having been seen on the opposite, or

eastern, side of the Milky Way by the men of the early Stone Age. However

this may be, we know from the amount and direction of the star's proper

motion that it must have passed across the Milky Way from east to west

within the period above stated. The Arabic name _al-abûr_ is not,

therefore, a merely fanciful one, but denotes an _actual fact_. The

proper motion of Sirius could not possibly have been known to the

ancients, as it was only revealed by accurate modern observations.

The little constellation Canis Minor, the Little Dog, lies south of Gemini

and Cancer. Small as it is, it was one of the original forty-eight

constellations of Ptolemy. In the Greek mythology it was supposed to

represent either one of Diana's hunting dogs, or one of Orion's hounds.

Ovid calls it the dog of Icarus. Others say it was the dog of Helen, who

was carried off by Paris. According to the old poets, Orion's dog, or the

dog of Icarus, threw himself into a well after seeing his master perish.

The name Fovea, given to the constellation by Bayer, signifies a pit where

corn was deposited. This comes from the fact that the rising of the star

Procyon ([Greek: a] Canis Minoris) indicated the season of abundance. But

Lalande thought it more probable that the idea of a pit came from the

Greek [Greek: seiros], which means a corn store, and that it was

confounded with Sirius.

The name of the bright star Procyon ([Greek: a] Canis Minoris) is derived

from the Greek [Greek: prokuôn], "the advanced day," because it appeared

in the morning sky before Sirius. Procyon was called by the Hindoos

Hanouman after their famous monkey god, from whose tail a bridge is said

to have been formed to enable the army of Rama to pass from India to

Ceylon. Al-Sufi says that the star was marked on the old astrolabes as

_al-schira al-schamia_, "the Syrian Sirius." It was also called, he says,

_al-schira al-gumaisa_, "the Sirius with blear eyes" (!) from weeping

because Sirius had passed across the Milky Way, Procyon remaining on the

eastern side. Here we have the same legend again. The proper motion of

Procyon (about the same in amount and direction as that of Sirius) shows

that the star has been on the eastern side of the Milky Way for many ages

past. About 60,000 years hence, Procyon will be near the star [Greek: th]

Canis Majoris, and will then--like Sirius--have passed across the Milky

Way.

Argo, the Ship, is a large constellation south of Hydra, Monoceros, and

Canis Major. It is called by Al-Sufi _al-safîna_, "the Ship." It is

supposed to represent the first ship ever built. The name is derived from

the builder Argo, or from the Greek word [Greek: Argos]. This ship is said

to have been built in Thessaly by order of Minerva and Neptune, to go on

the expedition for the conquest of the golden fleece. The date of this

expedition, commanded by Jason, is usually fixed at 1300 or 1400 B.C. With

reference to the position of this supposed ship in the sky, Proctor says,

"It is noteworthy that when we make due correction for the effects of

precession during the past 4000 years, the old constellation Argo is set

on an even keel, instead of being tilted some 45° to the horizon, as at

present when due south." He connects Argo with Noah's Ark.

The brightest star of Argo is Canopus, called Suhaïl by Al-Sufi. It is the

second brightest star in the heavens; but it is not visible in northern

latitudes. The Harvard photometric measures make it nearly one magnitude

brighter than the zero magnitude, about two magnitudes brighter than

Aldebaran, and about half the brightness of Sirius. This fine star has

been suspected of variable light. Webb says, "It was thought (1861) in

Chili brighter than Sirius." Observing it in the Punjab, the present

writer found it on several occasions but little inferior to Sirius,

although very low on the southern horizon. From recent observations by Mr.

H. C. McKay in Australia, he believes that it is variable to the extent of

at least half a magnitude.[440] But it is difficult to establish

variations of light in very bright stars. The parallax of Canopus is

_very_ small, so its distance from the earth is very great, and it must be

a sun of gigantic size. According to Al-Fargani, Canopus was called the

star of St. Catherine by the Christian pilgrims in the tenth century.[441]

It was called Suhaïl by the old Arabians, a name apparently derived from

the root _sahl_, "a plain"; and Schjellerup suggests that the name was

probably applied to this and some other southern stars because they seem

to move along a plain near the southern horizon. Al-Sufi says that he

measured the latitude of Schiraz in Persia, where he observed, and found

it to be 29° 36'; and hence for that place Canopus, when on the meridian,

had an altitude of about 9°. Canopus was the ancient name of Aboukir in

Egypt, and is said to have derived its name from the pilot of Menelaus,

whose name was Kanobus, and who died there from the bite of a snake. The

star is supposed to have been named after him, and it was worshipped by

the ancient Egyptians.

Al-Sufi does not mention the famous variable star [Greek: ê] Argûs, which,

owing to the precession of the equinoxes, he might possibly have seen

_close to the horizon_, if it had been a bright star in his day. It lies

between [Greek: ph] Velorum and [Greek: a] Crucis. Both of these stars are

mentioned by Al-Sufi, but he says nothing of any bright star (or indeed

any star) between them. This negative evidence tends to show that [Greek:

ê] Argûs was not visible to the naked eye in Al-Sufi's time. This

extraordinary star has in modern times varied through all degrees of

brightness from Sirius down to the 8th magnitude! Schönfeld thought that a

regular period is very improbable. It seems to be a sort of connecting

link between the long period variables and the _novæ_ or temporary stars.

It is reddish in colour, and the spectrum of its light is very similar to

that of the temporary stars. Whether it will ever become a brilliant

object again, time alone can tell; but from the fact that it was

presumably faint in Al-Sufi's time, and afterwards increased to the

brightness of Sirius, it seems possible that its light may again revive.

The long constellation Hydra lies south of Cancer, Leo, Crater, Corvus,

Virgo, and Libra. It was also called Asina, Coluber, Anguis, Sublimatus,

etc. In the Greek mythology it was supposed to represent the Lernæan

serpent killed by Hercules. According to Ovid, who fixed its acronycal

rising for February 14, it had a common origin with Corvus and Crater.

Apollo, wishing to sacrifice to Jupiter, sent the Crow with a cup to fetch

water. On his way to the well the Crow stopped at a fig tree and waited

for the fruit to ripen! Afterwards, to excuse his delay, he said that a

serpent had prevented him from drawing the water. But Apollo, to punish

the Crow for his deception, changed his plumage from white to black, and

ordered the serpent to prevent the Crow from drinking.[442] Hydra was

called by Al-Sufi _al-schudja_, "the Serpent, or Hydra." He says that "it

contains twenty-five stars in the figure and two 'outside', and its head

is to the south of the southern scale of the Balance" ([Greek: a] Libræ).

But this is clearly a mistake (one of the very few errors to be found in

Al-Sufi's work), for he goes on to say that the head is composed of four

stars forming a figure like the head of a horse, and he adds, "This head

is in the middle between _al-shira al-gumaisa_ [Procyon] and _Kalb

al-asad_ [Regulus] the Heart, inclining from these two stars a little to

the south." This clearly indicates the stars [Greek: d, e, ê], and [Greek:

s] Hydræ which, with [Greek: z] Hydræ, have always been considered as

forming the Hydra's head. These stars lie south of [Greek: a] and [Greek:

b] Cancri, not south of Libra as Al-Sufi says (doubtless by a slip of the

pen).

Ptolemy's 12th star of Hydra ([Greek: a] Hydræ) is, Al-Sufi says, "the

bright red star which is found at the end of the neck where the back

begins; it is of the 2nd magnitude. It is that which is marked on the

astrolabe as _unk al-schudja_, 'the neck of the serpent,' also _al-fard_,

'the solitary one.'" Al-Sufi's estimate of its brightness agrees well with

modern measures; but it has been suspected of variable light. Sir John

Herschel's estimates at the Cape of Good Hope varied from 1·75 to 2·58

magnitude. He thought that its apparent variation might be due to its

reddish colour, and compares it to the case of [Greek: a] Cassiopeiæ. But

as this latter star is now _known_ to be irregularly variable it seems

probable that [Greek: a] Hydræ may be variable also. Gemmill found it

remarkably bright on May 9, 1883, when he thought it nearly equal to

Pollux (1·2 magnitude). On the other hand, Franks thought it nearer the

3rd than the 2nd magnitude on March 2, 1878. On April 9, 1884, the

present writer found it only slightly less than Regulus (1·3 magnitude).

On April 6, 1886, how-ever, it was considerably less than Regulus, but

half a magnitude brighter than [Greek: b] Canis Minoris, or about 2-1/2

magnitude. In the Chinese Annals it is called the "Red Bird." In a list of

thirty stars found on a tablet at Birs-Nimroud, it is called "The son of

the supreme temple." Although to the naked eye deserving the name of

Alphard or "the solitary one," it is by no means an isolated star when

examined with a telescope. It has a faint and distant companion, observed

by Admiral Smyth; and about 25' to the west of it Ward saw a small double

star (8, 13: 90°: 50"). With a 3-inch refractor in the Punjab, I saw a

small star of about 8-1/2 magnitude to the south and a little east of the

bright star, probably identical with Smyth's companion. Farther off in the

same direction I saw a fainter star, and others at greater distances in

the field. There is also a faint star a little to the north. I also saw

Ward's double with the 3-inch telescope.

There is some difficulty in identifying the stars numbered by Ptolemy 13,

14, and 15 in Hydra. Having plotted a map from Ptolemy's positions (as

given by Al-Sufi), I have come to the conclusion that Ptolemy's stars are

13 = [Greek: k] Hydræ; 14 = [Greek: u]; and 15 = [Greek: l] Hydræ,

probably. From the clear description given by Al-Sufi of the stars

observed by _him_, I find that _his_ stars are 13 = [Greek: u]_{1}; 14 =

[Greek: u]_{2}; and 15 = [Greek: l] Hydræ. We must, therefore, conclude

that Ptolemy and Al-Sufi saw only three stars where now there are

four,[443] and that [Greek: k] Hydræ was not seen, or at least is not

mentioned by Al-Sufi. [Greek: k] is, therefore, probably variable. It was

rated 4 by Tycho Brahé, Bayer, and Hevelius; it is at present about 5th

magnitude. If Ptolemy did not see [Greek: u]_{2} it is probably variable

also, and, indeed, it has been suspected of variable light.[444]

The small constellation of Crater, the Cup, lies north of Hydra, and south

of Leo and Virgo. Al-Sufi calls it _al-batija_, "the Jar, or Cup." He says

the Arabians called it _al-malif_, "the Crib, or Manger." According to

Brown, the stars of Crater exactly form a Bakhian [Greek: kantharos], with

its two handles rising above the two extremities of the

circumference.[445] An Asia Minor legend "connected Crater with the mixing

of human blood with wine in a bowl." Crater is referred to by Ovid in the

lines--

"Dixit et antiqui monumenta perennia facti

Anguis, Avis, Crater sidera, juncta micunt."

The star [Greek: a] Crateris was rated 4th magnitude by Al-Sufi and all

other observers, and the Harvard measures make it 4·20, a satisfactory

agreement. It has three companions noted by Admiral Smyth. One of these he

called "intense blood colour." This is R Crateris, now known to be

variable from above the 8th magnitude to below the 9th. Sir John Herschel

called it an "intense scarlet star, a curious colour." With 3-inch

refractor in the Punjab I found it "full scarlet." It is one of an open

pair, the further of the two from [Greek: a]. There is a third star about

9th magnitude a little south of it. Ward saw a 13th magnitude star between

[Greek: a] and R with a 2-7/8-inch (Wray) refractor. This I saw "readily"

with my 3-inch. Smyth does not mention this faint star, although he used a

much larger telescope.

Corvus, the Crow, is a small constellation, north of Hydra. Aratus says

"the Crow form seems to peck the fold of the water snake" (Hydra). The

victory which Valerius Corvinus is said to have owed to a crow has given

it the name of Pomptina, because the victory took place near the Pontine

marshes.[446] A quadrilateral figure is formed by its four brightest

stars, [Greek: g, d, b], and [Greek: e] Corvi. This figure has sometimes

been mistaken for the Southern Cross by those who are not familiar with

the heavens. But the stars of the Southern Cross are much brighter.

The constellation Centaurus, the Centaur, lies south of Hydra and Libra,

and north of the Southern Cross. According to Dupuis, Centaurus represents

the 3rd "labour of Hercules," his triumph over the Centaurs.[447] The

Centaurs were supposed to be a people living in the vicinity of Mount

Ossa, who first rode on horses. The constellation was also called Semivir,

Chiron, Phobos, Minotaurus, etc. Al-Sufi says it "is represented by the

figure of an animal, of which the forepart is the upper part of a man from

the head to end of the back, and its hinder part is the hinder part of a

horse, from the beginning of the back to the tail. It is to the south of

the Balance [Libra] turning its face towards the east, and the hinder part

of the beast towards the west."

Al-Sufi describes very clearly the four bright stars of the famous

"Southern Cross." Owing to precession these stars were some 7° further

north in the tenth century than they are at present, and they could have

been all seen by Al-Sufi, when on the meridian. In the time of Ptolemy and

Hipparchus, they were still further north, and about 5000 years ago they

were visible in the latitude of London. Dante speaks of these four stars

as emblematical of the four cardinal virtues, Justice, Temperance,

Fortitude, and Prudence.

Closely south-east of [Greek: a] and [Greek: b] Crucis is the dark spot in

the Milky Way known as the "Coal Sack," which forms such a conspicuous

object near the Southern Cross. It was first described by Pinzon in 1499;

and afterwards by Lacaille in 1755. Although to the naked eye apparently

black, photographs show that it contains many faint stars, but, of course,

much less numerous than in the surrounding regions. The dark effect is

chiefly caused by contrast with the brilliancy of the Milky Way

surrounding it.

Al-Sufi also mentions the bright stars [Greek: a] and [Greek: b] Centauri

which follow the Southern Cross. He says that the distance between them

"is four cubits," that is about 9° 20', but it is less than this now.

[Greek: a] has a large "proper motion" of 3"·67 per annum, and was farther

from [Greek: b] in Al-Sufi's time than it is at present. This, however,

would not _wholly_ account for the difference, and Al-Sufi's over-estimate

is probably due to the well-known effect by which the distance between two

stars is _apparently_ increased when they are near the horizon. Several of

Al-Sufi's distances between southern stars are over-estimated, probably

for the same reason.

The constellation Lupus, the Wolf, is south of Libra and Scorpio. It lies

along the western border of the Milky Way. According to ancient writers it

represents Lycaon, King of Arcadia, a contemporary of Cecrops, who is said

to have sacrificed human victims, and on account of his cruelty was

changed into a wolf. Another fable is that it represents a wolf

sacrificed by the Centaur Chiron. According to Brown, Lupus appears on the

Euphratian planisphere discovered by George Smyth in the palace of

Sennacherib. Al-Sufi called it _al-sabu_, "the Wild Beast." It was also

called _al-fand_, "the Leopard," and _al-asada_, "the Lioness."

Ara, the Altar, lies south of Scorpio. According to ancient writers it

represents an altar built by Vulcan, when the gods made war against the

Titans. It is called by Al-Sufi _al-midjman_, "the Scent Box," or "the

Altar."

The little constellation Corona Australis, the Southern Crown, lies south

and west of Sagittarius, east of Scorpio, and west of Telescopium. Aratus

refers to the stars in Corona Australis as--

"Other few

Before the Archer under his forefeet

Led round in circle roll without a name."[449]

But the constellation was known by the names Caduceus, Orbiculus, Corona

Sagittarii, etc. The ancient poets relate that Bacchus placed this crown

in the sky in honour of his mother Semele.[450] Others say that it

represents the crown conferred on Corinne of Thebes, famous as a poet.

The small constellation Piscis Australis, or the Southern Fish, lies

south of Capricornus and Aquarius. In the most ancient maps it is

represented as a fish drinking the water which flows from the urn of

Aquarius.

* * * * *

A good many constellations have been added to the heavens since the days

of Al-Sufi, and notes on some of these may be of interest.

CAMELOPARDALIS.--This constellation first appears on a celestial

planisphere published by Bartschius in the year 1624. It was not formed by

Bartschius himself, but by the navigators of the sixteenth century. It

lies south of Ursa Minor, north of Perseus and Auriga, east of Draco, and

west of Cassiopeia. It contains no star brighter than the 4th magnitude.

LYNX.--This constellation is south of Camelopardalis and Ursa Major, and

north of Gemini and Cancer. It was formed by Hevelius in 1660, and he

called it the Lynx, because, he said, it contained only faint stars and

"it was necessary to have the eyes of a lynx" to see them! Some of them

were, however, observed by Ptolemy and Al-Sufi, and are mentioned by the

latter under Ursa Major.

CANES VENATICI, or the Hunting Dogs.--This was formed by Hevelius in 1660.

It lies south of the Great Bear's tail, north of Coma Berenices, east of

Ursa Major, and west of Boötis. Its brightest stars [Greek: a] (12) and

[Greek: b] (8) were observed by Al-Sufi, and included by him in the

"extern" stars of Ursa Major.

COMA BERENICES.--This constellation lies between Canes Venatici and Virgo.

Although it was not included among the old forty-eight constellations of

Ptolemy, it is referred to by Al-Sufi as the Plat, or Tress of Hair, and

he included its stars Flamsteed 12, 15, and 21 in the "extern" stars of

Leo. It was originally formed by the poet Callimachus in the third century

B.C., but was not generally accepted until reformed by Hevelius.

Callimachus lived at Alexandria in the reigns of Ptolemy Philadelphus and

Ptolemy Euergetes, and was chief librarian of the famous library of

Alexandria from about B.C. 260 until his death in B.C. 240. Eratosthenes

was one of his pupils. The history of the constellation is as follows:

Berenice, wife of Ptolemy Euergetes, made a vow, when her husband was

leaving her on a military expedition, that if he returned in safety she

would cut off her hair and consecrate it in the temple of Mars. Her

husband returned, and she fulfilled her vow. But on the next day the hair

had disappeared--stolen from the temple--and Conon the mathematician

showed Ptolemy seven stars near the constellation of the Lion which did

not belong to any constellation. These were formed into a constellation

and called Berenice's Hair. Conon is referred to by Catullus in the

lines--

"Idem me ille Conon coeleste numine vidit

E. Berenico vertice Cæsariem."

Coma Berenices first occurs as a distinct constellation in the catalogue

contained in the Rudolphine Tables formed by Kepler (epoch 1600) from the

observations of Tycho Brahé.[451] Bayer substituted a sheaf of corn, an

idea derived from an ancient manuscript.

LEO MINOR.--This small constellation lies between Ursa Major and Leo, and

east of the Lynx. It was formed by Halley about the year 1660; but is

referred to by Al-Sufi, who includes one of its stars (Fl. 41) in the

"extern" stars of Leo. There are, however, several brighter stars in the

group. The brightest, Fl. 46, was measured 3·92 at Harvard. The star Fl.

37 was called _præcipua_ (or brightest) by Tycho Brahé, and rated 3, but

as it was measured only 4·77 at Harvard it may possibly have diminished in

brightness.

SEXTANS.--This constellation lies south of Leo, and north and east of

Hydra. It was formed by Hevelius about the year 1680. According to the

Harvard photometric measures its brightest star is Fl. 15 (4·50).

MONOCEROS, or the Unicorn, lies south of Gemini and Canis Minor, north of

Canis Major and Argo, east of Orion, and west of Hydra. It appears on the

planisphere of Bartschius, published in 1624. According to Scaliger it is

shown on an old Persian sphere. One of its stars, Fl. 22, is mentioned by

Al-Sufi among the "extern" stars of Canis Major (No. 1). Another, Fl. 30,

is given under Hydra ("Extern" No. 1) and Fl. 8, 13, and 15 are apparently

referred to in Gemini. The star 15 Monocerotis is a little south of

[Greek: x] Geminorum, and was measured 4·59 magnitude at Harvard. It was

at one time supposed to be variable with a short period (about 3-1/2

days), but this variation has not been confirmed. The spectrum is of the

fifth type--with bright lines--a very rare type among naked-eye stars. It

is a triple star (5, 8·8, 11·2: 2"·9, 16"·3) and should be seen with a

4-inch telescope. It has several other small companions, one of which

(139°·2: 75"·7) has been suspected of variation in light. It was estimated

8-1/2 by Main in 1863, but only 12 by Sadler in 1875. Observing it on

March 28, 1889, with 3-inch refractor, I found it about one magnitude

brighter than a star closely preceding, and estimated it 8 or 8-1/2

magnitude. It is probably variable and should be watched.

SCUTUM SOBIESKI.--This is, or was, a small constellation in the southern

portion of Aquila, which was formed by Hevelius in 1660 in honour of the

Polish hero Sobieski. Its principal stars, which lie south-west of [Greek:

l] Aquilæ, were mentioned by Al-Sufi and are referred to by him under that

constellation. It contains a very bright spot of Milky Way light, which

may be well seen in the month of July just below the star [Greek: l]

Aquilæ. Closely south of the star 6 Aquilæ is a remarkable variable star R

Scuti (R.A. 18{h} 42{m}·2, S. 5° 49'). It varies from 4·8 to 7·8 with an

irregular period. All the light changes can be observed with a good

opera-glass.

VULPECULA, the Fox.--This modern constellation lies south of Cygnus, north

of Sagitta and Delphinus, east of Hercules, and west of Pegasus. It was

formed by Hevelius in 1660. One of its stars, 6 Vulpeculæ, is mentioned by

Al-Sufi in describing the constellation Cygnus. Closely north-west of 32

Vulpeculæ is the short-period variable T Vulpeculæ. It varies from 5·5 to

6·2 magnitude, and its period is 4·436 days. This is an interesting

object, and all the changes of light can be observed with an opera-glass.

LACERTA.--This little constellation lies south of Cepheus and north of

Pegasus. Its formation was first suggested by Roger and Anthelm in 1679,

and it was called by them "The Sceptre and the Hand of Justice." It was

named Lacerta by Hevelius in 1690, and this name it still retains. Al-Sufi

seems to refer to its stars in his description of Andromeda, but does not

mention any star in particular. It brightest star Fl. 7 ([Greek: a]

Lacertæ) is about the 4th magnitude. About one degree south-west of 7 is 5

Lacertæ, a deep orange star with a blue companion in a fine field.

There are some constellations south of the Equator which, although above

Al-Sufi's horizon when on the meridian, are not described by him, as they

were formed since his time. These are as follows:--

SCULPTOR.--This constellation lies south of Aquarius and Cetus, and north

of Phoenix. Some of its stars are referred to by Al-Sufi under Eridanus

as lying within the large triangle formed by [Greek: b] Ceti, Fomalhaut,

and [Greek: a] Phoenicis. The brightest star is [Greek: a], about 12°

south of [Greek: b] Ceti (4·39 magnitude Harvard). About 7° south-east of

[Greek: a] is the red and variable star R Sculptoris; variable from 6·2 to

8·8 magnitude, with a period of about 376 days. Gould describes it as

"intense scarlet." It has a spectrum of the fourth type.

PHOENIX.--This constellation lies south of Sculptor. Some of its stars

are referred to by Al-Sufi, under Eridanus, as forming a boat-shaped

figure. These are evidently [Greek: a, k, m, b, n], and [Greek: g].

[Greek: a] is at the south-eastern angle of Al-Sufi's triangle referred to

above (under "Sculptor"). (See Proctor's Atlas, No. 3.)

FORNAX, the Furnace, lies south of Cetus, west of Eridanus, and east of

Sculptor and Phoenix. It was formed by Lacaille, and is supposed to

represent a chemical furnace with an alembic and receiver! Its brightest

star, [Greek: a] Fornacis, is identical with 12 Eridani.

CÆLUM, the Sculptor's Tools, is a small constellation east of Columba, and

west of Eridanus. It was formed by Lacaille. The brightest stars are

[Greek: a] and [Greek: g], which are about 4-1/2 magnitude. [Greek: a] has

a faint companion; and [Greek: g] is a wide double star to the naked eye.

ANTLIA, the Air Pump, lies south of Hydra, east and north of Argo, and

west of Centaurus. It was formed by Lacaille. It contains no star brighter

than 4th magnitude. The brightest, [Greek: a], has been variously rated

from 4 to 5, and Stanley Williams thinks its variability "highly

probable."

NORMA, the Rule, lies south of Scorpio. It contains no star brighter than

the 4th magnitude.

TELESCOPIUM.--This modern constellation lies south of Corona Australis,

and north of Pavo. Its stars [Greek: a, d], and [Greek: z], which lie near

the northern boundary of the constellation, are referred to by Al-Sufi in

his description of Ara.

MICROSCOPIUM.--This small constellation is south of Capricornus, and west

of Piscis Australis. Its stars seem to be referred to by Al-Sufi as having

been seen by Ptolemy, but he does not specify their exact positions. It

contains no star brighter than 4-1/2 magnitude.

* * * * *

South of Al-Sufi's horizon are a number of constellations surrounding the

south pole, which, of course, he could not see. Most of these have been

formed since his time, and these will now be considered; beginning with

that immediately surrounding the South Pole (Octans), and then following

the others as nearly as possible in order of Right Ascension.

OCTANS.--This is the constellation surrounding the South Pole of the

heavens. There is no bright star near the Pole, the nearest visible to the

naked eye being [Greek: s] Octantis, which is within one degree of the

pole. It was estimated 5·8 at Cordoba. The brightest star in the

constellation is [Greek: n] Octantis ([Greek: a], Proctor), which lies

about 12 degrees from the pole in the direction of Indus and Microscopium.

The Harvard measure is 3·74 magnitude.

HYDRUS, the Water-Snake, is north of Octans in the direction of Achernar

([Greek: a] Eridani). The brightest star is [Greek: b], which lies close

to [Greek: th] Octantis. The Harvard measure is 2·90. Gould says its

colour is "clear yellow." It has a large proper motion of 2"·28 per annum.

Sir David Gill found a parallax of 0"·134, and this combined with the

proper motion gives a velocity of 50 miles a second at right angles to the

line of sight. [Greek: g] Hydri is a comparatively bright star of about

the 3rd magnitude, about 15-1/2 degrees from the South Pole. It is

reddish, with a spectrum of the third type.

HOROLOGIUM, the Clock, is north of Hydra, and south of Eridanus. Three of

its stars, [Greek: a, d], and [Greek: ps], at the extreme northern end of

the constellation, seem to be referred to by Al-Sufi in his description

of Eridanus, but he does not give their exact positions. Most of the stars

forming this constellation were below Al-Sufi's horizon.

RETICULUM, the Net, is a small constellation to the east of Hydrus and

Horologium. The brightest star of the constellation is [Greek: a] (3·36

Harvard, 3·3 Cordoba, and "coloured").

DORADO, the Sword Fish, lies east of Reticulum and west of Pictor. It

contains only two stars brighter than the 4th magnitude. These are [Greek:

a] (3·47 Harvard) and [Greek: b] (3·81 Harvard, but suspected of

variation). About 3° east of [Greek: a] Reticuli is the variable star R

Doradus. It varies from 4·8 to 6·8, and its period is about 345 days.

Gould calls it "excessively red." It may be followed through all its

fluctuations of light with an opera-glass.

MENSA, or Mons Mensa, the Table Mountain, lies between Dorado and the

South Pole, and represents the Table Mountain of the Cape of Good Hope. It

contains no star brighter than the 5th magnitude.

PICTOR, the Painter's Easel, lies north of Doradus, and south of Columba.

It contains no very bright stars, the brightest being [Greek: a] (3·30

Harvard).

VOLANS, the Flying Fish, is north of Mensa, and south and west of Argo.

Its brighter stars, with the exception of [Greek: a] and [Greek: b], form

an irregular six-sided figure. Its brightest star is [Greek: b] (3·65)

according to the Harvard measures. The Cordoba estimates, however, range

from 3·6 to 4·4, and Gould says its colour is "bright yellow." Williams

rated it 3·8.

CHAMÆLION.--This small constellation lies south of Volans, and north of

Mensa and Octans. None of its stars are brighter than the 4th magnitude,

its brightest being [Greek: a] (4·08 Harvard) and [Greek: g] (4·10).

ARGO.--This large constellation extends much further south than Al-Sufi

could follow it. The most southern star he mentions is [Greek: e] Carinæ,

but south of this are several bright stars. [Greek: b] Carinæ is 1·80

according to the Harvard measures; [Greek: u] Carinæ, 3·08; [Greek: th],

3·03; [Greek: ô], 3·56; and others. A little north-west of [Greek: i] is

the long-period variable R Carinæ (9{h} 29{m}·7, S. 62° 21', 1900). It

varies from 4·5 at maximum to 10 at minimum, and the period is about 309·7

days. A little east of R Carinæ is another remarkable variable star, _l_

Carinæ (R.A. 9{h} 42{m}·5, S. 62° 3'). It varies from 3·6 to 5·0

magnitude, with a period of 35-1/2 days from maximum to maximum. All the

light changes can be observed with an opera-glass, or even with the naked

eye. It was discovered at Cordoba. The spectrum is of the solar type (G).

MUSCA, the Bee, is a small constellation south of the Southern Cross and

Centaurus. Its brightest stars are [Greek: a] (2·84 Harvard) and [Greek:

b] (3·26). These two stars form a fine pair south of [Greek: a] Crucis.

Closely south-east of [Greek: a] is the short-period variable R Muscæ. It

varies from 6·5 to 7·6 magnitude, and its period is about 19 hours. All

its changes of light may be observed with a good opera-glass.

APUS, the Bird of Paradise, lies south-east of Musca, and north of Octans.

Its brightest star is [Greek: a], about the 4th magnitude. Williams calls

it "deep yellow." About 3° north-west of [Greek: a], in the direction of

the Southern Cross, is [Greek: th] Apodis, which was found to be variable

at Cordoba from 5-1/2 to 6-1/2. The spectrum is of the third type, which

includes so many variable stars.

TRIANGULUM AUSTRALIS, the Southern Triangle, is a small constellation

north of Apus, and south of Norma. A fine triangle, nearly isosceles, is

formed by its three bright stars, [Greek: a, b, g], the brightest [Greek:

a] being at the vertex. These three stars form with [Greek: a] Centauri an

elongated cross. The stars [Greek: b] and [Greek: g] are about 3rd

magnitude. [Greek: b] is reddish. [Greek: e] (4·11, Harvard) is also

reddish, and is nearly midway between [Greek: b] and [Greek: g], and near

the centre of the cross above referred to. [Greek: a] is a fine star (1·88

Harvard) and is one of the brightest stars in the sky--No. 33 in a list of

1500 highest stars given by Pickering. About 1° 40' west of [Greek: e] is

the short-period variable R Trianguli Australis (R.A. 15{h} 10{m}·8, S.

66° 8') discovered at Cordoba in 1871. It varies from 6·7 to 7·4, and the

period is about 3{d} 7{h}·2. Although not visible to ordinary eyesight it

is given here, as it is an interesting object and all its light changes

may be well seen with an opera-glass. A little south-east of [Greek: b] is

another short-period variable, S Trianguli Australis (R.A. 15{h} 52{m}·2,

S. 63° 30'), which varies from 6·4 to 7·4, with a period of 6·3 days; and

all its fluctuations of light may also be observed with a good

opera-glass.

CIRCINUS, the Compass, is a very small constellation lying between

Triangulum and Centaurus. Its brightest star, [Greek: a], is about 3-1/2

magnitude, about 4° south of [Greek: a] Centauri.

PAVO, the Peacock, lies north of Octans and Apus, and south of

Telescopium. Its brightest star is [Greek: a], which is a fine bright star

(2·12 Harvard). [Greek: k] is a short-period variable. It varies from 3·8

to 5·2, and the period is about 9 days. This is an interesting object, as

all the fluctations of light can be observed by the naked eye or an

opera-glass. [Greek: e] Pavonis was measured 4·10 at Harvard, but the

Cordoba estimates vary from 3·6 to 4·2. Gould says "it is of a remarkably

blue colour."

INDUS.--This constellation lies north of Octans, and south of Sagittarius,

Microscopium, and Grus. One of its stars, [Greek: a], is probably referred

to by Al-Sufi in his description of Sagittarius; it lies nearly midway

between [Greek: b] Sagittarii and [Greek: a] Gruis, and is the brightest

star of the constellation. The star [Greek: e] Indi (4·74 Harvard) has a

remarkably large proper motion of 4"·68 per annum. Its parallax is about

0"·28, and the proper motion indicates a velocity of about 49 miles a

second at right angles to the line of sight.

TOUCAN.--This constellation lies north of Octans, and south of Phoenix

and Grus, east of Indus, and west of Hydrus. Its brightest star is [Greek:

a], of about the 3rd magnitude.

* * * * *

There are seven "celestial rivers" alluded to by the ancient

astronomers:--

1. The Fish River, which flows from the urn of Aquarius.

2. The "River of the Bird," or the Milky Way in Cygnus.

3. The River of the Birds--2, including Aquila.

4. The River of Orion--Eridanus.

5. The River of the god Marduk--perhaps the Milky Way in Perseus.

6. The River of Serpents (Serpens, or Hydra).

7. The River of Gan-gal (The High Cloud)--probably the Milky Way as a

whole.

There are four serpents represented among the constellations. These are

Hydra, Hydrus, Serpens, and Draco.

According to the late Mr. Proctor the date of the building of the Great

Pyramid was about 3400 B.C.[452] At this time the Spring Equinox was in

Taurus, and this is referred to by Virgil. But this was not so in Virgil's

time, when--on account of the precession of the equinoxes--the equinoctial

point had already entered Pisces, in which constellation it still remains.

At the date 3400 B.C. the celestial equator ran along the whole length of

the constellation Hydra, nearly through Procyon, and a little north of the

bright red star Antares.

The star Fomalhaut ([Greek: a] Piscis Australis) is interesting as being

the most southern 1st magnitude star visible in England, its meridian

altitude at Greenwich being little more than eight degrees.[453]

With reference to the Greek letters given to the brighter stars by Bayer

(in his Atlas published in 1603), and now generally used by astronomers,

Mr. Lynn has shown that although "Bayer did uniformly designate the

brightest stars in each constellation by the letter [Greek: a],"[454] it

is a mistake to suppose--as has often been stated in popular books on

astronomy--that he added the other Greek letters _in order of brightness_.

That this is an error clearly appears from Bayer's own "Explicatio" to his

Atlas, and was long since pointed out by Argelander (1832), and by Dr.

Gould in his _Uranometria Argentina_. Gould says, "For the stars of each

order, the sequence of the letters in no manner represents that of their

brightness, but depended upon the positions of the stars in the figure,

beginning usually at the head, and following its course until all the

stars of that order of magnitude were exhausted." Mr. Lynn says, "Perhaps

one of the most remarkable instances in which the lettering is seen at a

glance not to follow the order of the letters is that of the three

brightest stars in Aquila [Al-Sufi's 'three famous stars'], [Greek: g]

being evidently brighter than [Greek: b]. But there is no occasion to

conjecture from this that any change of relative brightness has taken

place. Bayer reckoned both of these two of the third magnitude, and

appears to have arranged [Greek: b] before [Greek: g], according to his

usual custom, simply because [Greek: b] is in the neck of the supposed

eagle, and [Greek: g] at the root of one of the wings."[455] Another good

example is found in the stars of the "Plough," in which the stars are

evidently arranged in the order of the figure and not in the order of

relative brightness. In fact, Bayer is no guide at all with reference to

star magnitudes. How different Al-Sufi was in this respect!

The stars Aldebaran, Regulus, Antares, and Fomalhaut were called royal

stars by the ancients. The reason of this was that they lie roughly about

90° apart, that is 6 hours of Right Ascension. So, if through the north

and south poles of the heavens and each of these stars we draw great

circles of the sphere, these circles will divide the sphere into four

nearly equal parts, and the ancients supposed that each of these stars

ruled over a quarter of the sphere, an idea probably connected with

astrology. As the position of Aldebaran is R.A. 4{h} 30{m}, Declination

North 16° 19', and that of Antares is R.A. 16{h} 15{m}, Declination South

25° 2', these two stars lie at nearly opposite points of the celestial

sphere. From this it follows that our sun seen from Aldebaran would lie

not very far from Antares, and seen from Antares it would appear not far

from Aldebaran.

The following may be considered as representative stars of different

magnitudes. For those of first magnitude and fainter I have only given

those for which all the best observers in ancient and modern times agree,

and which have been confirmed by modern photometric measures. The Harvard

measures are given:--

Brighter than "zero magnitude" Sirius (-1·58); Canopus (-0·86)

Zero magnitude [Greek: a] Centauri (0·06)

0 to 0·4 magnitude Vega (0·14); Capella (0·21);

Arcturus (0·24); Rigel (0·34)

0·5 magnitude Procyon (0·48)

1st " Aldebaran (1·06)

2nd " [Greek: a] Persei (1·90);

[Greek: b] Aurigæ (2·07)

3rd " [Greek: ê] Boötis (3·08);

[Greek: z] Capricorni (2·98)

4th " [Greek: r] Leonis (3·85);

[Greek: l] Scorpii (4·16);

[Greek: g] Crateris(4·14);

[Greek: r] Herculis (4·14)

5th " [Greek: o] Pegasi (4·85);

[Greek: m] Capricorni (5·10)