ABBOTS AND BISHOPS OF GLOUCESTER
Passing over the regimes of the Abbesses[1] and the secular canons, we
find that the first Abbot of the Benedictine rule at Gloucester was
#Edric# (1022-1028), who in his long rule maintained a very low standard
of discipline. His monks seem to have been as much addicted to "ill
lyvynge" as the secular canons. He was succeeded by #Wulstan#
(1058-1072), a monk of Worcester appointed by Bishop Aldred. In his time
Aldred rebuilt the monastery on new foundations. Wulstan died abroad on
a pilgrimage to the Holy Land in 1072.
#Serlo# (1072-1103), the next Abbot, had been the Conqueror's chaplain,
and was a man of great strength of character, and of quite a different
stamp. He was buried in the abbey church, which he had raised "from
meanness and insignificance to a glorious pitch."
#Peter#, who had been Prior, was Abbot from 1104-1113.
#William Godemon#, #Godeman#, or #Godemore#, was Abbot from 1113-1130,
when he retired.
#Walter de Lacy# was appointed by Godeman and was consecrated in 1131.
In his time, Robert, Duke of Normandy, surnamed Curthose, died at
Cardiff after twenty-five years' imprisonment, and was buried in the
choir. Walter de Lacy died in 1139, and was succeeded by
#Gilbert Foliot# (1139-1148), a Cluniac monk, who, owing his position to
his relative Milo, Earl of Hereford, was consecrated in 1139. He was
made Bishop of Hereford in 1148, and was translated thence to London.
Though he owed much to Becket, his patron and tutor, he is said to have
taken the king's side in the quarrels with Becket, and to have been
instrumental in the latter's assassination.
#Hameline# or #Hammeline# (1148-1179).
#Thomas Carbonel# (1179-1205).
#Henry Blond# (or #Blunt#) (1205-1224). Henry III. was crowned in the
Abbey in 1216.
#Thomas de Bredon# (or #Bredone#) (1224-1228).
#Henry Foliot# (or #Foleth#) was Abbot from 1228-1243.
#Walter de St. John# died before his installation.
#John de Felda# (1243-1263).
#Reginald de Hamme# (or #Homme#) (1263-1283).
#John de Gamages# (1284-1306).
#John Thokey# (or #Toky#) (1306-1329).
#John Wygmore# (or #Wygemore#) (1329-1337).
#Adam de Staunton# (1337-1351).
#Thomas Horton# (1357-1377).
#John Boyfield# (1377-1381).
#Walter Froucester# (1381-1412).
The succession of Abbots, and the dates of various works executed since
Serlo's time, are taken entirely from the particulars in the Chronicles
"attributed" to Abbot Froucester (1381-1412), who wrote of the Abbey and
of twenty Abbots after the Conquest. These Chronicles are the sole
foundation up to that date on which all the histories have been made.
There are three copies of them, one in the British Museum, one in
Queen's College, Oxford, and one in the Chapter Library, which latter
was lost for many years, and ultimately heard of again in 1878 as being
in the possession of a book-seller at Berlin, from whom it was rescued
on a payment of L150 by the Dean and Chapter.
#Hugh Moreton# (1412-1420).
#John Morwent# (or #Marewent#) (1421-1437).
#Reginald Boulers# (#Boulars# or #Butler#) (#Boteler#) (1437-1450). He
became Bishop of Hereford and was translated to Lichfield in 1453.
#Thomas Seabroke# (1450-1457).
#Richard Hanley# (1457-1472). He began to build the Lady Chapel, which
was finished by
#William Farley# (1472-1498).
#John Malvern# or #Mulverne# was Abbot for one year (1498-1499), and was
succeeded by a monk named
#Thomas Braunche# (1500-1510), who in turn was succeeded by
#John Newton# or #Browne, D.D.# (1510-1514).
#William Malverne# or #Parker# (1514-1539).
Parker wrote a Rhythmical History of St. Peter's Abbey, which was
reprinted in the appendix of Hearne's "Robert of Gloucester's
Chronicle." It was compiled from local records extending up to the time
of Abbot Horton.
He subscribed in 1534 to the King's supremacy, and remained Abbot till
the dissolution of the greater monasteries. Different traditions are
current as to his behaviour. Willis (in "Mitred Abbeys") describes him
as losing his pension and the chance of preferment on the score of
contumacy. Another tradition asserts that the king promised him the
bishopric, but that he died before the appointment was made. The place
of his burial is not known, and it is hoped that his tomb will escape
desecration for the sake of gratifying mere idle curiosity.
BISHOPS OF GLOUCESTER.
#John Wakeman# (1541-1549) was the last abbot of Tewkesbury, and
chaplain to Henry VIII.
#John Hooper# (1550-1554) was originally a monk at Cleeve; afterwards
became a Lutheran. He could not comply with the statute of the Six
Articles, and left Oxford in 1539 and went abroad. In Edward VI.'s reign
he preached the reformed doctrine in London. He was instrumental in
procuring the deprivation of Bishop Bonner in 1549, and was extremely
hostile to Gardiner. He was consecrated Bishop of Gloucester and
Worcester by Archbishop Cranmer. He was summoned to London in 1553, and
imprisoned. In 1554 his bishopric was declared void. He refused to
recant, and was burnt as an obstinate heretic in Gloucester in 1555.
#James Brookes# (1554-1558). Formerly chaplain or almoner to Bishop
Gardiner, and a very zealous Papist. He was delegated by the Pope for
the examination and trial of Cranmer, Ridley, and Latimer.
#Richard Cheiney# or #Cheyney# (1561-1579).
#John Bullingham# (1581-1598).
#Godfrey Goldsborough# (1598-1604).
#Thomas Ravis# (1604-1607), previous to his institution, had been Dean
of Christ Church, Oxford. He was one of the translators of the
Authorised Version. He was translated to London.
#Henry Parry# (1607-1610) was translated from Rochester in 1607, and
from Gloucester went to Worcester.
#Giles Thompson# (1611-1612).
#Miles Smith# (1612-1624). He was one of the translators of the
Authorised Version, and is said to have written the preface.
#Godfrey Goodman# (1624-1640).
#William Nicholson# (1660-1671).
#John Prickett# or #Prichard# (1672-1680).
#Robert Frampton# (1680-1690) was Dean in 1673. He refused to take the
oath of allegiance and supremacy after the accession of William III.,
and was deprived of his office.
#Edward Fowler# (1691-1714).
#Richard Willis# (1714-1721) was translated to Salisbury in 1721, and
thence to Winchester in 1725.
#Joseph Wilcocks# (1721-1731). He was translated to Rochester, which see
he held, together with the Deanery of Westminster.
#Elias Sydall# (1731-1733). Translated from St. David's. He was also
Dean of Canterbury.
#Martin Benson# (1734-1752).
#William Johnson# (1752-1759) was translated to Worcester in 1759.
#William Warburton# (1759-1779). The well-known editor of Pope's works.
#James Yorke# (1779-1781). When Dean of Lincoln was appointed Bishop of
St. David's, then translated to Gloucester in 1779, and in 1781 from
thence to Ely.
#Samuel Hallifax# (1781-1789). In 1789 he was translated to St. Asaph's,
a curious reversal of the usual order of episcopal promotion.
#Richard Beadon# (1789-1802) was Master of Jesus College, Cambridge, in
1781, but resigned on being made Bishop of Gloucester. Was translated to
Bath and Wells in 1802.
#G. J. Huntingford# (1802-1815). He was translated to Hereford in 1815.
#Henry Ryder# (1815-1824). Was Dean of Wells, previously Canon of
Windsor. He was made Bishop of Gloucester in 1815 and was translated to
Lichfield in 1824.
#Christopher Bethell# (1824-1830). Formerly Dean of Chichester. Was
Bishop of Exeter for one year, 1830-1831, and was then translated to
Bangor.
#James Henry Monk# (1830-1856). Dean of Peterborough in 1822.
Consecrated Bishop of Gloucester 1830, and from 1836, when the sees of
Gloucester and Bristol were united, was Bishop till his death in 1856.
#Charles Baring# (1856-1861). Translated to Durham in 1861.
[Illustration: MONUMENT TO MRS. MORLEY.
_H. C. Oakden, Photo._]
#William Thomson# (1861-1862). Became Archbishop of York in 1862.
#Charles John Ellicott# (1863-). One of the ablest of modern divines. He
was chairman for eleven years of the New Testament Revision Committee.
He has published commentaries on various epistles; also works on
"Scripture and its Interpretation," "Modern Scepticism"; also a
commentary for English Readers on the Old and also on the New Testament.
The sees of Gloucester and Bristol were separated in 1897, and the
separation took effect as from January 1st, 1898.
THE CITY OF GLOUCESTER
Gloucester has always been a town of importance, owing to its situation.
A Roman camp was formed here in A.D. 43, and later it was fortified with
a massive wall (of which the traces still survive), as befitted a
military post equal in importance to Cirencester, Winchester,
Chichester, and Colchester. Much of modern Gloucester rests on Roman
foundations.
After the Romans left Britain in 410 A.D., the country suffered from the
struggles between its petty kings, and from the invading hosts of the
Angles, Jutes, and Saxons. In the end Gloucester, or Gleawan-ceastre,
became one of the chief cities of the Mercian kingdom. Alfred held a
Witan in the town in 896. Athelstan--the reputed founder of St. John's
church--died in it in 940. King Edgar resided there in 965. Hardicanute
and Edward the Confessor both held Witans here, but William the
Conqueror must always be the central figure in the long line of notable
men connected with Gloucester. It was in Gloucester that he spent his
Christmas vacations when he could, and it was in the Chapter-House that
he took "deep speech" with his wise men, and ordered the compilation of
Domesday Book. His son and successor was often at Gloucester, and as
Professor Freeman wrote, "in the reign of Rufus almost everything that
happened at all, somehow contrived to happen at Gloucester." His death
was prophesied by the Abbot of Shrewsbury in a sermon in the Abbey, and
warning was sent to the king, but it was of no effect.
Henry I., Henry II., and John were frequently in the town, and the
youthful Henry III. was crowned in the Abbey in 1216. Later on he was
imprisoned in Gloucester by Sir Simon de Montfort. Edward I. held a
Parliament, which passed the celebrated Statutes of Gloucester. Edward
II., foully murdered in Berkeley Castle, was buried in the choir of the
Abbey.
Richard II., in 1378, held his famous Parliament in the Abbey precincts.
In this Parliament the House of Commons secured for itself the right of
controlling the financial arrangements of the nation.
Henry IV. and V. assembled their Parliaments in Gloucester, and from
Gloucester Richard III. is said to have issued the death-warrant of his
nephews. Henry VII. was well received as Earl of Richmond, when he
passed through the town on his way to Bosworth Field. Henry VIII., with
Anne Boleyn, is said to have spent a week in what is now the Deanery.
Later he visited the neighbourhood with Jane Seymour. Elizabeth visited
the town, and stayed in the old house next to St. Nicholas' Church. She
gave the city the privileges of a seaport, much to the annoyance of
Bristol. Gloucester supplied one ship to the navy at the time of the
Armada in 1588. In the disastrous Civil War the city played an important
part. It is said that the unpopularity of Laud, who had been Dean of
Gloucester, led the citizens to side with the Parliament. They held the
city under Colonel Massie, against enormous odds, through a long siege,
and the king, who had his headquarters at Matson House, was obliged,
owing to the approach of Essex with relief, to raise the siege. This was
a most serious blow to the failing cause of Charles I.
During the Commonwealth the citizens seem to have lost their heads
somewhat, and to have turned against the officer who had saved their
city from destruction. Some, too, had made arrangements for demolishing
the Cathedral, but fortunately were frustrated in their plans.
As a matter of policy the city congratulated Charles II. at the
Restoration in 1660, but without much result, as the walls and gates
were ordered to be destroyed. James II. visited Gloucester, and is said
to have touched over a hundred persons for the king's evil, a proceeding
to which he objected on the score of expense.
The last two Georges visited the city, and Queen Victoria visited it
when Princess Victoria, and again later, after her marriage.
The city, like Tewkesbury, is a curious admixture of the new and the
old. It has long emerged from the primitive state, and is now well
drained and well supplied with water; but the heavy penalty attaching to
transition has been paid, and many old houses and historic buildings,
like the Tolsey and others, have disappeared.
The history of Gloucester, commercially, is a history of progress. In
Domesday Book, Gloucester is mentioned in connection with iron, the
founding of nails for the king's ships. As the ore was obtained locally,
this branch of trade flourished till the seventeenth century.
Bell-founding was practised as early as 1350 by John Sandre, and one of
his bells still hangs and rings in the cathedral tower. Cloth-making,
too, was practised, but, declining in the fifteenth century, was
superseded by pin-making, for which Gloucester was for many years
famous. Glass-making was carried on in the seventeenth century, and the
Rudhall family for several generations had a bell-foundry of wide
reputation.
Elizabeth made the town a seaport, and it is one still. More than that,
it is the most inland port in Britain, owing to the Berkeley Ship Canal,
which enables ships to dispense with the awkwardness of a voyage up and
down the tortuous and dangerous Severn. It is to this canal that
Gloucester owes much of its present trade, as, by sea-going vessels,
corn and timber, its staple commodities, are brought in to the many
wharves in ever-increasing quantities. To the railways--the Great
Western and the Midland--the town also owes much of its prosperity, and
one great industry, that of railway waggon building, gives employment to
many pairs of hands.
In Gloucester, or its neighbourhood, will be found the following
buildings of interest:--
#Llanthony Priory.#--This was formerly an Augustinian convent, with a
church attached, founded by Milo, Earl of Hereford, in 1136. It was
founded as an asylum for the convenience of the priory in Monmouthshire
of the same name, which was so liable to be harried and pillaged by the
Welsh. This priory was dissolved in 1539. The church was finally
destroyed to make way for the Ship Canal. Some remains exist in a farm,
of which the masonry is good. A gateway, in the Perpendicular style,
still survives.
[Illustration: The Old Judges' House. Westgate St. Ed Burrow 1894]
#St. Oswald's Priory.#--In 909 the Princess Elfleda caused the canonised
relics of King Oswald to be removed and richly entombed at Gloucester.
She also founded a college for secular priests, but later on it was
converted into a priory for regular canons. (Refounded 1153.)
Attached to this priory was a chapel dedicated to St. Catherine, which,
after the dissolution of the priory, served for a parish church until
its destruction in the siege in 1643. On this site the present Church of
St. Catherine was built in 1867-69.
The #Grey Friars# (or College of Friars minor, or Franciscans).--This
building formerly stood at the east end of the Church of St. Mary de
Crypt.
The #White Friars# (or College of Carmelites).--This building, which was
situated without Lower Northgate Street, was founded by Queen Eleanor.
In the time of Elizabeth the college was converted into a house of
correction. During the siege in 1643, it was used as a fortress.
Portions of it remain incorporated with private houses.
The #Black Friars# (or College of Friars, Preachers).--This college was
established by Henry III. in 1237.
Remains of the building are still to be seen on the south side of the
thoroughfare called Blackfriars.
The college was dissolved in 1538.
#St. Mary de Lode# (or St. Mary before the Abbey Gate) stands on the
site of a Roman temple. The tower and chancel are all that remain of the
original church, the rest being very disappointing, having been built in
1826. The low square tower formerly had a lofty spire, which was
destroyed by a storm. The interior of the church has been lately
restored. The pulpit is a very fine specimen of carving. In the chancel
is a tomb which used to be pointed out as that of Lucius, the first
British Christian King.
#St. John the Baptist# (in Northgate Street).--The original church is
supposed to have been founded by King Athelstan.
The present building was built in 1734, the tower being all that is left
of the old church. The communion plate was presented in 1659 by Sir
Thomas Rich.
#St. Mary de Crypt# (in Southgate Street) is well worth inspection. It
has two crypts--hence its name. The church is Early English, Decorated
and Perpendicular, and was built by Robert Chichester, Bishop of Exeter,
1138-1155. It is cruciform in shape, and, though much restored, of great
interest.
There are interesting brasses to Luke Garnon, John Cooke and his wife,
and a curious squint or hagioscope. In the choir vestry is a monument to
R. Raikes. On the north side is a marble monument to Dorothy Snell, by
Scheemaker.
The communion plate is all early seventeenth century, and very good,
though it has suffered from careless handling.
[Illustration: House of Robert Raikes.]
Close by is the old building of the Crypt Grammar School. The school has
migrated to more open quarters.
#St. Nicholas# is situated at the bottom of Westgate Street, and, owing
to alterations in the street, is much below the level of the road. The
floor of the church is nearly two feet higher than it was originally.
There is much good Norman work, and some good Early English with
Perpendicular insertions.
On the south door is a fine (so-called) sanctuary knocker; the door is
quite unworthy of the knocker. Under the tower is some good late
Jacobean panelling. In the chancel are two squints, four each side,
arranged venetian-blind fashion. Several of the tombs are worth
inspecting--viz. the Window monument in the chancel, 1659, and one to
the wife of Rev. Helpe-Fox, 1657. There is a good tomb to Alderman John
Walton and his wife, 1626, which, though in good preservation, is
beginning to suffer from damp. There is also a brass, 1585, to Thos.
Sancky; and a slab to John Hanbury, who represented Gloucester in
Parliament in 1626. A fine view of the cathedral can be got from the top
of the tower. The spire was shortened after being damaged in a storm.
The chimes are worth hearing.
#St. Michael's# is situated where the four main streets meet, and near
the church was formerly the Cross. The church was restored in 1885, and
the monuments and tablets are all grouped together. The most interesting
is a brass of 1519, to William Henshawe.
The curfew is still rung from the tower every evening.
#Remains of Old Gloucester.#--The New Inn was built in Abbot Seabroke's
time by John Twynning or Twining (one of the monks), to accommodate the
large number of pilgrims who came to the shrine of Edward II.
Close by, at the corner of New Inn Lane, is a beautifully carved angle
post and bracket, which has been preserved for many years by being
plastered over (_vide_ p. 130). The houses on the right-hand side of the
lane are also old.
The Gloucestershire Seed Warehouse, 154 Westgate Street, does not look
specially interesting, but up the passage, which was formerly "Maverdine
Lane," is a portion of the old front of the house. It is a fine specimen
of domestic architecture, with very good windows, and has a distinctly
Flemish look. There are some good rooms inside, with oak panelling and
carving. A chimney-piece bears the text, "I and my house will serve the
Lord," and it is dated 1633. The house is usually called the "Old
Judge's House," but it is more famous as the house from which Colonel
Massie issued his orders in 1643 when Gloucester was besieged by Charles
I. (_vide_ p. 125).
[Illustration: THE NEW INN.
From a Drawing by E. J. Burrow]
163 Westgate Street contains a fine panelled room (the greater part
dating back from 1530-1550), which was discovered in 1890 when
alterations were being made. It is shown on payment of a fee, which
includes a printed description of the house. Some of the carving--such
as the Royal Arms of England--seems earlier than 1520, but the arms may
have been copied from an earlier document. Near St. Nicholas' Church is
another interesting house, where Queen Elizabeth is said to have stayed
in one of her many progresses through the country. The side of the house
abuts curiously on the church of St. Nicholas. Inside there is a quaint
overmantel, with Elizabethan carving, and E.R. in the centre panel.
[Illustration: CARVING AT NEW INN LANE ED J BURROW 1897]
In Southgate Street, opposite the Corn Exchange, is a well-known house
with a carved front. There is an elaborate over-mantel dated 1650. It
bears the arms of the Yates, the Berkeley, and the Box families.
Opposite St. Nicholas' Church is the Bishop Hooper Pharmacy. It is said
to be the house where the Bishop was kept closely guarded on the night
before his execution.
[Illustration: Remains of the Roman Wall Under 36 Westgate Sr.
Ed J. Burrow dil/94.]
The house of Robert Raikes, of Sunday School fame, is a fine house of
three gables, and is well preserved.
The house where Raikes held his first Sunday School can still be seen in
St. Catherine Street, Hare Lane.
The old Roman wall can be seen in several places--_e.g._ at 36 Westgate
Street, at Messrs Lea & Co.'s furniture warehouse in Northgate Street,
at Mr John Bellows' in Eastgate Street.
The #Gloucester Candlestick.#--One of the most interesting relics of the
Abbey of Gloucester is a candlestick which is now in the museum at South
Kensington. It is a remarkably fine piece of metal work, about 16 inches
in height, cast by the _cera perduta_ process in very pale bronze,
richly gilt and decorated. The upright stem is divided into two
compartments by bosses, ornamented with the emblems of the Evangelists,
and supporting a cup at the top. A triangular base supports the stem,
and the whole is enriched with forty-two monsters in various grotesque
attitudes, wrestling and struggling with nine human beings.
Round the stem is a ribbon bearing the inscription--
ABBATIS PETRI GREGIS ET DEVOTIO MITIS ME DEDIT
ECCLESIE SANCTI PETRI GLOUCESTRE.
Round the cup is a ribbon, on the outside of which a couplet is
inscribed--
LUCIS ONUS VIRTUTIS OPUS DOCTRINA REFULGENS
PREDICAT UT VICIO NON TENEBRETUR HOMO.
Inside this same ribbon are two hexameters--
HOC CENOMANNENSIS RES ECCLESIE POCIENSIS
THOMAS DITAVIT CUM SOL ANNUM RENOVAVIT.
After its removal from Gloucester, the candlestick was given to the
Cathedral of Le Mans by Thomas de Poche or de Poce (POCIENSIS).
Subsequently it belonged to the Marquis d'Espaulart of Le Mans, and was
sold to Prince Soltykoff for about L800, and finally was bought from his
collection for L680 for the Museum at South Kensington.
#Bishop Hooper's Memorial# stands in the churchyard of St. Mary de Lode,
and is on the actual site of the burning. This is perhaps the chief or
the only interest in the memorial, as its architectural merit is almost
_nil_. The inscriptions to prevent defacement are glazed over, and as
the glass is broken the effect is wretched. A previous monument to the
Bishop was erected at the other end of the churchyard.
An interesting relic of the execution of the Bishop is in possession of
the rector of St. Mary's Church--viz. the sergeant's mace, which was the
authority of the soldiers who conducted the Bishop down to Gloucester.
This mace, which is the only surviving example of a London sergeant's
mace, was found in a house in Westgate Street, belonging to a Mr Ingram.
It is to be hoped that some day the mace may be deposited in some public
national museum.
NOTES, ARCHITECTURAL AND CHRONOLOGICAL
Style. Abbot at the Time. Date.
South Porch, West |} | |
End of Nave, and |}P. |Morwent. | 1421-1437.
Aisles. |} | |
| | |
|{Pilasters N.,} | |
South Aisle of Nave. |{Windows and } |Serlo. | 1089-1100.
|{Groining D. } |Thokey. | 1307-1329.
| | |
|{Piers, Arches }| |
Nave. |{Triforium, }|Serlo. | 1089-1100.
|{Groining E.E.,}|Foliot. | 1242.
|{Windows P. }|Morwent. | 1421-1437.
| | |
|{Walls and }| |
North Aisle of Nave. |{Groining N., }|Serlo. | 1089-1100.
|{Windows P. }|Morwent. | 1421-1437.
| | |
South Transept. | Tr. (D. to P.) |Wygmore. | c. 1330.
| | |
Choir and |{P. cased on N.}|Staunton and | 1337-1377.
Presbytery. |{Walls. }|Horton. |
| | |
|{Walls and }| |
Ambulatory and |{Groining N., }|Thokey, Wygmore, | 1307-1377.
Chapels. |{Windows D. and}|Staunton, and |
|{P. inserted in}|Horton. |
|{N. Openings. }| |
| | |
Lady Chapel. | P. |Hanley and Fawley.| 1457-1499.
| | |
North Transept. | P. on N. Walls.|Horton. | 1368-1373.
| | |
Reliquary. | E.E. |Foliot. (?) | c. 1240.
| | |
Cloisters, S.E. part.| D. to P. |Horton. | 1351-1377.
" rest. | P. |{Boyfield and | 1381-1412.
| |{Froucester. |
Abbot's Cloister. } | | |
Chapter-House } | N. |Serlo. | 1089-1100.
West-End. } | | |
| | |
Chapter-House } | N. and P. |Hanley. | c. 1460.
East-End. } | | |
| | |
Tower. | P. |Seabroke. | 1450-1457.
These Notes are adapted from Mr F. S. Waller's "Notes and Sketches."
N. Norman. E.E. Early English. Tr. Transitional. D. Decorated. P.
Perpendicular.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] They have been given on pp. 3 and 4.
[Illustration: Diagram]
[Illustration: PLAN OF GLOUCESTER CATHEDRAL]
* * * * *
Transcriber's Notes:
1. Words and phrases which were italicized in the original have been
surrounded by underscores ('_') in this version. Words or phrases
which were bolded have been surrounded by pound signs ('#').
2. Obvious printer's errors have been corrected without note.
3. Inconsistencies in hyphenation or the spelling of proper names, and
dialect or obsolete word spelling, have been maintained as in the
original.