Where cotton is planted by natives, the cultivation is usually

carefully carried out. Planting takes place in June, July, or

August, and the crop is harvested from January until April. For

the most part cotton is grown by the Yorubas as a separate crop,

although occasionally it may be found in conjunction with maize. No

manuring is carried on, but the crops are generally fair, except in

the proximity of the Niger, for an unexplained reason. No estimate

can be made of the yield per acre from native cotton fields, but

from 60 to 80 bolls are frequently found upon a single plant.

Before passing to other matters in connection with the condition of

the cotton plant in the country, and the appliances in use for the

preparation of the lint for export, it seems advisable to emphasise

the main points which require attention in the field. 1. Improvement

of the indigenous forms, by the careful selection of seed at the

ginneries, for distribution, and the subsequent elimination of

undesirable types of plant in the field. 2. Demonstration to the

native farmer of a useful method of combination of cotton with the

existing field crops, and especially the advantage of introducing

leguminous crops into the rotation with cotton. 3. Special efforts

to be made in those countries outside the oil palm districts, where

the natives have little else capable of being produced for barter

for imported material. Alter a series of experimental trials it was

decided in 1915 to encourage the planting of Georgia cotton in the

Western Province. In the year mentioned this American variety had

yielded 800 lbs. of seed cotton per acre at Ibadan.

A number of insect pests of a more or less serious nature attack

the plant at different periods of growth. The American boll-worm

(_Chloridea obsoleta_) does some damage annually in the Central

Province (Ugboha, Agbede and Ishan); _Earias insulana_, F.,

the Egyptian boll-worm; _E. imbricata_, an allied species, and

_Diparopsis castanea_ Hamp., the Sudan boll-worm, are common at

Ibadan. The immature boll is often punctured by a scarlet and brown

bug, identified as _Dysdercus superstitiosus_, Fabr., which enters

the opened bolls also, and exudes a yellowish liquid, which stains

the lint. The opened boll is also infested with three species of

cotton-seed bugs—_Oxycarenus hyalinipennis_, _O. gossipinus_,

and _O. Dudgeoni_—which do a large amount of damage in sapping

the juices from the seed and rendering it unproductive. The most

satisfactory method of dispersing this insect is to place the

seed-cotton in a hot sun for several hours. Both _Oxycarenus_ and

_Dysdercus_ may be trapped by placing piles of seed in the field at

intervals, and treating them with kerosene when the insects have

collected on them. A small caterpillar belonging to the family

_Gelechiadæ_[4] is often found in the boll feeding on the seed,

and a leaf-blistering blight, probably _Chlorita flavescens_,

appears to be common in several places. A malady, chiefly on stems

of exotic cottons, and known as “black-arm” in Georgia, U.S.A.,

is seen occasionally. The affection is not attributed to any animal

or vegetable parasite.

The ginneries erected by the British Cotton Growing Association are

probably some of the best equipped in the world. The Marlborough

Ginnery at Ibadan (Fig. 23) has at present the largest output,

although the Jones Ginnery at Oshogbo is larger, and is expected

to receive a greater quantity of cotton for treatment in the

future. The third, which is working in the Western Province, is

the Churchill Ginnery at Lafenwa, near Abeokuta. Smaller ginneries

have been erected at Eruwa Road, Iwo, Oyo, and Agege in the Western

Province, but are at present unused. In the Central Province the

Illushi Ginnery on the Niger is capable of treating all the cotton

of the adjoining districts. A photograph of cotton bales at Ibadan

is reproduced (Fig. 23).

At Ibadan an oil mill has been erected in connection with the

Marlborough Ginnery, and the expression of oil from the seed

is regularly carried on. The seed cake which is turned out is

found to be of rather inferior quality for European consumption,

as the excess of woolly seed renders it undesirable for cattle

food. A very economical local use for this cake has recently been

discovered—namely the employment of it to generate gas to drive

the machinery of the ginnery. It has been found that 6 cwt. of

cotton-seed cake is sufficient to generate gas to drive the 30

h.p. oil-mill engine for nine and a half hours. This discovery

suggests the possibility of doing without coal entirely at the

ginneries, which would mean a very large saving in the cost of

production of cotton.

The cotton ginned by the British Cotton Growing Association is baled

for the most part in rectangular oblong form, each bale weighing

approximately 400 lbs. The production of the country has shown

a rapid increase, especially in the earlier years, though more

recently one of the seasons proved a short one owing to adverse

climatic conditions.

Weight cwts. Weight cwts. Weight cwts.

1902 110 1908 20,485 1914 no figure given

1903 2,588 1909 44,937 1915 24,081

1904 10,255 1910 22,128 1916 66,555

1905 12,275 1911 19,984 1917 47,137

1906 24,071 1912 39,043 1918 13,214

1907 36,513 1913 56,796 1919 60,221

The exports of cotton-seed in 1912 and 1913 reached 4,058

tons and 5,887 tons respectively. (“Cotton Varieties,”

cf. _Bull. Imp. Inst._, vol. xv. [1917]). Much is expected from

this new development.

=MAIZE.=—In the last few years the cultivation of a short-season

“white” maize has been taken up, especially among the Yorubas,

in the Western Province, although the variety is also found in

the fields farther to the east. (See _Bulletin of the Imperial

Institute_, vol. vii. [1909], pp. 145-8.)

Tons Value £ Tons Value £

1907 9,891 28,520 1913 11,841 40,349

1908 15,529 51,695 1914 — 5,803

1909 10,917 34,335 1915 272 941

1910 5,096 16,689 1916 981 5,064

1911 867 3,128 1917 876 4,367

1912 7,899 28,713 1918 405 3,696

A difficulty has arisen in connection with the preparation of the

crop for shipment; it having been found that very large quantities

arrive in Europe in a weevilly condition. Various methods have

been suggested to remedy this, including disinfection with carbon

bisulphide, but the use of this last is dangerous.

A restriction with regard to the time of buying the July—August

crop is recommended for adoption by the merchants, in order to

prevent immature, insufficiently dried corn being shipped. It

is insisted, however, in some quarters, that, until the holds

of ships are systematically cleaned out before loading, no

amount of precaution on shore will prevent shipments becoming

weevilled during the voyage. (See article on “The Cultivation and

Marketing of Maize” in the _Bulletin of the Imperial Institute_,

vol. vi. [1908], pp. 261-77.)

Experiments were carried out in 1911, 1912 and 1913 to determine the

most profitable time for sowing maize. The results were, however,

conflicting, and no definite recommendation could be made owing to

the irregularity of rainfall.

=CASSAVA.=—Among the more important field crops, cassava has to be

reckoned. Two well-marked forms occur, which are readily recognised

by the different characters of their leaves, one having the leaflets

digitate and pointed, and the other digitate and spathulate, with the

central leaflet shortened. Cassava forms an important food in many

parts of the country, and is widely cultivated, especially in the

Western Province. No tapioca is prepared from the root in Southern

Nigeria, such as is the case in the West Indies and elsewhere.

=YAMS.=—In many parts of the country, more especially in the

Central and Eastern Provinces, the various forms of yam (_Dioscorea_)

are extensively cultivated alone or with maize, but the presence of

five or six other crops growing upon the heightened yam mounds is

not uncommon, in the Cross River districts particularly. From the

latter locality quantities of yams are sent by river canoes to the

large ports in the vicinity of which cultivated land is often scarce.

The Koko yam (_Colocasia antiquorum_) is also common in the wet zone.

=GROUNDNUTS.=—The cultivation of groundnuts (_Arachis hypogea_),

upon a more extensive scale than at present, is to be recommended, as

there are too few leguminous crops grown in the local rotation. The

colour of most of the Southern Nigerian nuts is probably an obstacle

to their ready sale in Europe; the shell being usually a dirty

greyish instead of a light straw colour. The kernels are, however,

satisfactory. It would, perhaps, therefore be advantageous to ship

decorticated nuts, as is done in the Northern Provinces. Although

new seed and instructors have been brought recently from the Gambia,

very little more is grown than formerly.

The variety seen in the Western Province is a larger one than that

of the Gambia, and has generally two kernels. The market price for

groundnuts at Lapita near Oyo was 200 for 1_d_., which will indicate

the scarcity of the product.

=SHEA NUTS AND BUTTER.=—The export trade in shea nuts

(_Butyrospermum Parkii_) was expected to develop with the extension

of the railway through Ibadan and Ilorin to the Northern Provinces,

but the exported product still has its main source from localities

north of the Niger. The demand does not seem sufficient to induce

expansion to a great extent (_Bull. Imp. Inst._, vol. vi. [1908]).

The butter or fat is much appreciated in the country for culinary

purposes, and has been found of value in Europe for soap and

candle-making, as well as for the manufacture of vegetable butter.

=KOLA.=—Two species of kola (_K. acuminata_ and _K. vera_)

are cultivated, the latter being the indigenous Gold Coast form,

the fruit of which is said to be especially valued in the Haussa

countries to the north. The local native names are, respectively,

“Obi abatta” and “Obi gbanja.” In general appearance the

trees are similar, except that the former has narrower and smaller

leaves. The “gbanja” form of nut is generally pink and divisible

into from two to three parts (cotyledons), whereas the “abatta”

form may vary in colour from deep crimson to white and be separable

into from three to five parts. The price paid for kolas in Lagos

is said to vary from 1_s_. 3_d_. to 5_s_. per hundred.

Although a considerable number of trees have been planted and are

bearing fruit in the Western Province, the demand for kolas for

native consumption is so great that there is a large import trade

from the Gold Coast.

The kola nut is chewed in much the same manner as the betel nut in

the East. It is greatly appreciated for its sustaining qualities,

and forms a token of friendship exchanged among high-grade natives,

as a preliminary to an important discussion of any kind.

=FIBRE.=—Experiments have been made at the Olokemeji Botanic

Station with indigenous fibres, and a small factory has been erected

at Ilaro, where a machine capable of extracting fibre is said to

have been instituted. The reports upon some of the local Hibiscus

fibres have been satisfactory. These are capable of utilisation

as jute substitutes, and it may be possible to grow them in the

crop rotation of the country at some future time for the purpose

of export. (See _Selected Reports from the Imperial Institute_,

No. 1 “Fibres,” pp. 38, 52, 83, 89, and 114.)

Piassava (_Raphia vinifera_) fibre is prepared and shipped,

especially from Uwet in the Eastern Province, the export amounting

to 319 tons in 1910.

=LEATHER.=—A small trade in leather is done among the Yorubas,

and tanners may be met with chiefly in the north of the Western

Province. The process employed in the preparation of the goat and

sheep skins used is similar to that of Northern Nigeria. (See Report

on “Leather from Lagos,” _Bulletin of the Imperial Institute_,

vol. iv. [1906], p. 366, and articles on “Native Leather of West

Africa,” _Bulletin of the Imperial Institute_, vol. vi. [1908],

pp. 175-81 and vol. viii. [1910], pp. 402.)

=TOBACCO.=—Tobacco is produced near Ibadan, and large quantities

are sold in the King’s market of that town. It is probable that the

curing of the leaf is done completely in the sun, as the prepared

material is of a rather light colour and has a mild flavour. The

leaves are apparently rather mixed, and old or immature examples

are frequently included in the same grade.

Experiments will be taken in hand with a view to the improvement of

the quality, but at present the local demand is so great that there

is little prospect of an export trade becoming established. Recent

work in Nyasa-land has shown that good pipe smoking tobacco,

suitable for consumption in England, can be produced in Africa.

=SILK.=—The preparation of a silk yarn, carded and spun from the

boiled cocoons of wild silkworms, is a common occupation of some

of the women of Ibadan. The identity of the insects producing the

silk has been determined to be _Anaphe infracta_ and _A. venata_,

both of which form congregated masses of cocoons. The yarn is of a

brown colour, and is woven with cotton into a cloth which is called

locally “Saṉyaṉ.” It is much valued by the natives on account

of its durability. The silkworms show some sign of becoming scarce

owing to the utilisation of the pupæ as food. (See _Bulletin of the

Imperial Institute_, 1910, p. 150; 1916, p. 168; and 1920, p. 319.)

=COCONUTS.=—The preparation of copra is carried on at Badagri,

where a large coconut plantation exists. Great alarm was recently

caused to the proprietors through the attack of a scale insect

(_Aspidiotus destructor_), which destroyed the leaves of a very

large number of trees. The advent of this pest was, however,

quickly followed by the vast multiplication of the numbers of a

species of large ladybird beetle, which soon checked the spread of

the scale. The directions issued by the Forestry Department with

regard to the means of destroying the infected leaves also assisted

in the extermination of the blight.

=MAHOGANY AND EBONY.=—Among the valuable exported products from

the country, mahogany and ebony must be regarded as occupying an

important place. The largest proportion of the timbers exported

to Europe and sold under the name of mahogany are obtained in the

Central Province, and are cut from trees belonging to the genera

_Khaya_, _Pseudocedrela_, and _Entandrophragma_, of the Natural

Order _MELIACEÆ_. Mr. Thompson, Conservator of Forests, remarks

that a fair number of logs cut from a species of _Guarea_, of the

same Natural Order, have been shipped, and have obtained good prices

in Europe.

A red wood, called locally “Iroko” (_Chlorophora excelsa_),

which is in good demand in the country for making furniture, etc.,

has been shipped to Europe, but at present there is little demand

for it. A photograph of another timber tree (_Terminalia superba_)

is given (Fig. 24).

Mahogany cannot be relied upon as a product capable of permanent

exportation, as trees are only useful for felling in the vicinity of

creeks and rivers, whence the logs may be inexpensively transported

to the sea. The rate at which the available trees are becoming

worked out is much greater than that at which they can be replaced

by nature.

The export values for some recent years are as under:—

1910 £60,191 | 1915 £54,559

1911 £55,575 | 1916 £49,361

1912 £78,007 | 1917 £21,282

1913 £105,440 | 1918 £68,480

1914 £86,522 | 1919 £116,820

The ebony exported from the country is chiefly obtained in the Cross

River District of the Eastern Province, but during recent years the

trade in it has diminished, and it is said that immature trees are

frequently felled. The sources of ebony are two species of trees

belonging to the genus _Diospyros_. The value of ebony exported

during the two years 1909 and 1910 is stated to have been £1,298

and £166 respectively.

Several other trees have recently been examined for export value,

most of them coming into the mahogany or red-wood class. (See

articles on “Timbers from Southern Nigeria,” _Bull. Imp. Inst._,

vol. vi. [1908], p. 144, vol. xviii. [1920], p. 199, and note on

next page.)

=CATTLE.=—The greater part of the moist zone is almost devoid

of cattle, partly owing to the prevalence of “tsetse” fly,

although mainly, perhaps, to the less advanced condition of the

inhabitants. As soon as the intermediate and dry-zone country is

entered, small herds are frequently seen. That the presence of

tsetse fly is not entirely accountable for the scarcity of cattle

in the forested region is shown by the occurrence of the peculiar

dwarfed variety with short legs, which is found in Ondo, Ilesha,

Ifon, Ishan, and even in the Bassa Province in Northern Nigeria,

in all of which districts “tsetse” flies of at least two species

are met with. (_Glossina palpalis_ and _G. pallidipes_.) It is stated

by the natives that the dwarf cattle are immune from fly disease,

but that introduced animals succumb to it. The appearance of these

animals, an illustration of one of which is given, reproduced

from a photograph taken at Illara (Fig. 25), is remarkable. The

prevailing colours are black and white, black, and more rarely

fawn-coloured. There is no dorsal hump, and the forequarters

are generally lower than the hind. A second illustration, from a

photograph taken at Owo (Fig. 26), gives an idea of the relative

size of a full-grown animal compared with that of a boy. Another

peculiarity of the above-mentioned districts is that the goats

occurring there are similarly short-legged and diminutive; there

is also said to be a stunted variety of horse, which is bred for

use at Ondo. When the open country is reached, two varieties of

cattle are seen, one of the Indian zebu type, with a large dorsal

hump, the prevailing colour of which is white, and another with

a straight back. The latter kind is seen as far south as Onitsha,

on the east bank of the Niger.

[Illustration: DWARF CATTLE, ILLARA.

Fig. 25, p. 119.]

[Illustration: OWO.

Fig. 26, p. 119.]

[Illustration: HAUSSA CULTIVATING IMPLEMENTS (LEFT TO RIGHT:

I. FATAINYA, II. GARMA, III. SANGUMI), NORTHERN PROVINCES.

Fig. 27, p. 125.]

=POTTERY.=—Earthen pots are made in several parts of the country,

and are usually symmetrically formed, although no wheel is used in

their preparation. The large earthen jars made at Abeokuta are used

in the palm oil, native beer, and indigo industries.

=FOREST RESERVES.=—These are now being formed everywhere in order

to replace the destruction of recent years. The irregular rainfall

renders natural regeneration very poor, and artificial regeneration

by means of planting by leaseholders for trees cut down has proved

unsatisfactory. In 1913 some villages in the Central Province started

small mahogany plantations, and trees for fuel are now being grown

in several districts. The value of such trees as _Afzelia africana_

and _Triplochiton johnsoni_ has been recently demonstrated.

[Illustration: =NIGERIA=, NORTHERN PROVINCES

Territory held by Great Britain under Mandate is hatched in

Red. [Legend]

_Stanford’s Geogl. Estabt., London._]

=NIGERIA-NORTHERN PROVINCES=

=INTRODUCTORY REMARKS=—Until 1914 the Northern Provinces of

Nigeria were separately administered under the designation of

Northern Nigeria, and were the largest as well as the most recent

of our West African Colonies. They lie between 7° 3′ and 13°

54′ north latitude, and 2° 50′ and 14° 5′ east longitude,

and are bounded on the north by the French Sudan, on the east by the

Kameruns and on the west by Dahomey and French Guinea. The Southern

Provinces of Nigeria almost completely adjoin the southern boundary.

The estimate of the populations and areas of the thirteen provinces

given below is taken from the Colonial Office Report No. 821 for

1913:—

Area, sq. miles. Population.

Sokoto 32,600 1,300,000

Kano 29,500 3,500,000

Bornu 33,600 700,000

Central[5] 23,700 700,000

Zaria 13,320 402,000

Niger[5] 16,770 400,000

Kontagora 27,800 122,000

Ilorin 6,500 200,000

Muri 28,700 700,000

Nassarawa 16,710 600,000

Yola 11,600 300,000

Kabba 8,200 140,000

Bassa 6,700 205,000

------- ---------

255,700 9,269,000

The total population is thus nearly double that of the estimation of

1907-8. For convenience the Northern Provinces may in places still

be referred to in this work by the old title of Northern Nigeria.

As will be seen below there is less variation in the rainfall of

the different provinces than is found elsewhere in West Africa. The

averages of the following centres for as many years as are available

until 1913 are given for comparison:—

Av. inches. Av. inches.

Naraguta 50·28 Knepp 40·80

Ilorin 49·75 Yola 38·64

Kontagora 47·77 Kano 33·65

Zaria 46·59 Maifoni 27·85

Baro 46·56 Sokoto 24·86

Lokoja 45·77 Kataguni 19·87

Zungeru 41·67 Geidam 15·14

Of the places mentioned the highest single year’s rainfall was

reached at Ilorin when 65·18 inches fell, and the lowest at Geidam

in 1913 when only 5·76 were recorded. There are localities where

the rainfall exceeds the highest given here and others where it is

undoubtedly much lower, but no records are available. The highest

shade temperatures have been at Dumjeri and Maifoni (North Bornu),

where 120° was attained, the lowest being at Kano, where it fell

to 39°. In Kano and Zaria rain seldom falls between November 1 and

the end of March, but the distribution is more general in the south.

=Administration and Political Divisions.=—The administration

of Northern Nigeria was taken over by the Crown in 1900, having

previously been carried on by the Royal Niger Company. Protectorates

were gradually assumed, and the country placed upon a secure

footing by the suppression of raiding, which had constantly been

carried on by the different Emirs, chiefly upon the pagan tribes. The

devastation caused by these raids is still visible in the country to

the south of Kontagora and elsewhere, and the fear of the raiders

kept the inhabitants within or in close proximity to their walled

towns, leaving large tracts of fertile country unexploited. The work

accomplished by Sir Frederick Lugard, the first High Commissioner,

was largely that of pacification and reassurance of the people,

and until this had been completed, and facilities for transport

provided, it could not be expected that the country could make much

progress from a commercial standpoint.

The further opening up of the country by means of roads and

railways, and the assessment of land revenue upon lines completely

understood and recognised as fair by the natives, was effected

by Sir Percy Girouard, who succeeded Sir Frederick Lugard’s

first administration. Sir Frederick subsequently returned as

Governor-General of the amalgamated Nigeria.

Until April 1907 the country was divided into fourteen provinces,

one of which, Borgu, was absorbed in Kontagora at that time,

making the thirteen mentioned above. By a later reconstruction

the provincial limits of the two provinces of Bauchi and Nupe were

reformed, and the provinces reconstituted under the names of the

Central and Niger Provinces respectively. Groups of provinces were

then placed under First-class Residents. Photographs are given of

Kano and Zaria (Figs. 32 and 33).

=Natural Divisions.=—There is less apparent possibility of

defining limits to the natural conditions of any part of the

country than is found in the countries nearer the coast. There is

no afforested zone in Northern Nigeria, although fairly densely

wooded tracts occur in several places near the larger rivers. It

may be said that grass land studded with well-separated trees is

the condition of the country throughout, the trees becoming more

stunted towards the northern and desert boundaries. To the north of

the 11th degree of latitude, the botanical aspect becomes different;

more trees of the Mimosa group, including the gum-bearing Acacias,

becoming apparent. Cattle thrive well in this region, where the

“tsetse” fly has not yet been observed.

Haussa Land, a term applied to the northern parts of the country,

alone among the British West African territories, may be said to have

been controlled by an ordered form of government from early times,

and to have had a recorded history. Unfortunately these records

were destroyed, wherever possible, by the Fulani conquerors, who

came from the source of the river Senegal and overran the country

at the beginning of the last century, and whose object seemed to be

to endeavour to eliminate from the minds of the conquered people

all recollection of their previous power. In spite of strenuous

efforts in this direction, a few documents have been preserved,

and these, combined with traditions, which have not had time to

become completely distorted, show that, in spite of severe wars,

famines, and other disturbing incidents, the Haussa has maintained

his characteristic traits.

The origin of the Haussa race is still a matter of uncertainty,

although there is some reason to suppose that it came from the east,

and gradually penetrated the Western Sudan from the north. The Haussa

language, which is claimed to be more in use than any other native

language in West Africa, is said, by Lady Lugard, to be classed

with Coptic among the Hamitic languages.[6]

History has established the fact that there were seven divisions

or states in Haussa Land, the people of which, although regarded as

having come from a common stock, were almost perpetually at war with

one another. The mythical account of the formation of these states

relates that each had particular duties assigned to it; those of Kano

and Rano, to the north of Zaria, being specially industrial. At the

beginning of the sixteenth century, when the Songhay kingdom was at

the summit of its power, Kano and Gober, among other Haussa towns,

were specially referred to by Leo Africanus on account of their

cotton trade.[7]

Everywhere along the West Coast the name Haussa is associated

with the idea of trade; the itinerant nature of the race inducing

individuals to visit the remote parts of the pagan countries,

thus creating trade routes in all directions. The Haussa trader

of the present day does not necessarily bring goods from his own

country for trading, but buys in one market to sell or exchange in

another. It is by this means that many European manufactured goods

penetrate into localities where no European trader has yet set foot.

The Haussa is also regarded as a good soldier, and is largely

enlisted in the native regiments of West Africa under European

officers.

The Nupes, Yorubas, Gwaris, Yauris, and others were constantly in

contact with the Haussas, and to a small extent the Haussa language

is spoken by them. Nupe is regarded as an ancient kingdom, occupying

at one time a position of great importance. The Yorubas, who inhabit

nearly the whole of the Ilorin Province and the Western Province

of Southern Nigeria, trace their origin from the Phœnicians of the

tribe of Nimrod, and claim that all the pagan tribes of Haussa Land

are descended from them. The Gwaris, apparently, have no records,

but are a scattered race living among the rocky hills and caves in

the country lying to the south of Zaria.

Bornu was not evidently included in the Songhay kingdom or associated

with the Haussa states, the inhabitants belonging to a distinct race

with separate traditions. Their history in comparison with that of

the Haussas is of recent date. In 1808, after the successful Fulani

conquests of Zaria, Zanfara, Kano, Katsena, and Bauchi, Bornu was

overrun. Shortly after this a sheikh, from the country extending

eastwards from Lake Tchad, believing himself to be inspired to

liberate the country, raised a small army, drove out the Fulani

forces, and founded the present dynasty of Bornu. Some years later

he attempted to expel the Fulanis from the Bauchi Province, but

failed, and was compelled to come to terms.

The Haussas as well as the Bornuese are chiefly Mohammedans, but it

is only among the higher ranks of the other tribes that a semblance

of that religion has been adopted.

The tribes which had migrated from the East brought with them the

agricultural knowledge of the Eastern nations. Among the noticeable

evidences of this may be mentioned the “shaduf,” or dipping

beam, used for irrigation in Egypt, which is similarly employed

near Kano and Zaria. The absence of ploughs and the non-employment

of cattle are, however, difficult to account for, as excellent

cattle are common and thrive well in the most populous parts of

the country. Tillage of the soil is still done entirely by hand,

and, in those parts where the shallowest form exists, manure is

extensively used. Among the many crops grown which are common to

Oriental countries, as well as Northern Nigeria, are Guinea corn,

maize, cotton, groundnuts, millet, benniseed, artichokes, wheat,

and rice.

Agriculture shows the greatest development in the Province of Kano,

where the population is dense, especially in the vicinity of the

town from which the Province takes its name. The concentration of

a large population in this locality was doubtless occasioned by

the protection thus obtained against local enemies; and, as the

realisation of the necessity for this becomes less each year, so

will the inhabitants spread out into the richer lands towards the

south. At a radius of thirty miles from Kano, it may be said that

every available acre of ground is cultivated. It may also be said

that nearly all the cultivation is continuous, and has been so for

a long period, the renovation of the soil being secured each year

by manuring. The mode of cultivation in these localities is for

the most part shallow, and in many places the crops grown subsist

entirely upon the manure applied. The Director of Agriculture,

in the _Bulletin of the Imperial Institute_, vol. xi. (1913),

p. 626, refers to the lack of fertility in the soil and to the

common practice of cropping without a fallow for a number of years

in succession. He also mentions, among other matters of interest,

the recent expansion in cultivation of cowpeas and groundnuts;

these being respectively third and fourth in order of importance

among the cultivated crops.

=Implements.=—An illustration is given showing the method of

using the three important agricultural implements employed by

the Haussa cultivator (Fig. 27). The first of these is locally

termed “Fatainya,” and is a curved-handled hoe with a blade

of variable width. It is used for all operations of cultivation

with the exception of turning up broad ridges and drilling. The

implement shown in the centre is termed “Garma,” and is a broad,

spade-like hoe, composed of an iron W-shaped frame, with several

strips of iron riveted on the face, filling the interval between the

arms. In the Zaria Province the iron strips are generally omitted,

and the implement is called “Owya.” It is used for throwing up

large spadefuls of soil in the preparation of the broad ridges which

are made for nearly all kinds of crops. The last implement is the

“Sangumi,” which is a thin rod with a small blade placed near

one end and at right angles to it; its use is entirely for making

drills for sowing seed.

All the fields for growing ordinary food crops, with the exception

of cassava, rice, and sugar-cane, are prepared in ridge formation;

the latter appearing to average about 8 in. high from the original

surface. The furrows from which the loose soil has been removed

increase the apparent height by the extent of their depth, and give

the appearance of a good form of tillage having been practised. This

is, however, seldom the case, as, except where irrigated crops are

being treated, the ground is left untilled beneath the thrown-up

soil. To compensate for the shallow state of the cultivation,

manure is applied in large quantity, all animal refuse and ashes

being carefully preserved, and often conveyed for long distances

to the fields by men or donkeys.

The above conditions apparently apply only to the Haussa race,

the pagan Gwaris and Bassas resorting to a much deeper form of

cultivation and employing no manure. The Nupes and Yorubas do not

know the use of manure for any crops except onions and tobacco,

for both of which wood ashes are the chief substance applied.

The crops of the country may be roughly divided into rainfall,

irrigated, and swamp kinds. The first are sown at the commencement

of the wet season, and are greatly affected by the distribution of

the rain, but include the most important sources of food. These are

Guinea corn, millet, maize, groundnuts, cassava, sweet potatoes,

etc. An inadequate or irregular rainy season often causes famine

conditions. The irrigated crops are yams, Colocasia, onions, tobacco,

peppers, rama-fibre, and wheat, the last being almost confined to

the country north of the 11th degree. Cassava and sugar-cane are also

frequently irrigated in the drier districts to the north. Irrigation

is performed in the northern localities by means of the shaduf. The

swamp crops are rice, Colocasia, and sugar-cane. The first is grown

upon a flat-dug surface, the second upon high ridges made of swamp

mud, and the third on low ridges bordering the rice fields. The

villages north of Kano are often entirely built of the stalks of

Guinea corn, and Fig. 31 represents a principal hut within such a

structure. The fencing of the fields in this locality is generally

made of the same material, but in the vicinity of Kano itself,

Euphorbia or thorn hedges are more common.

Near Rogo, fences and hedges are usually dispensed with, paths

forming the boundaries between fields.

The following table of value of exports shows the progress in the

last five years before amalgamation with the Southern Provinces. The

subsequent years are given at the end of this chapter.

VALUES OF EXPORTS

1908 1909 1910 1911 1912

£ £ £ £ £

Rubber 33,050 40,000 37,900 53,511 [8]

Shea nut products 70,900 93,050 43,150 40,496 51,409

Palm kernels 47,150 41,750 66,100 52,637 64,432

Groundnuts 13,650 16,350 8,150 10,377 18,930

Gum[9] 8,850 6,650 9,750 5,436 1,785

Cotton 1,300 4,400 1,850 945 [8]

Benniseed 2,000 4,000 2,300 2,582 2,972

Fibre 1,382 4,061 — — —

Livestock 2,600 1,300 3,750 6,357 9,132

Gutta percha (“Balata”) — — 2,262 6,695 4,267

Skins and hides[10] — — 5,214 37,809 68,832

Ostrich feathers — — 2,615 7,225 12,621

=RUBBER.=—The extent of the export of this commodity from the

Northern Provinces was less generally recognised than that from

the coast countries, for the reason that the Northern Nigeria’s

exports are necessarily shipped from Southern Nigerian ports,

and have been included in the statistical figures of that country.

Until 1907 no separate statement was furnished indicating the

quantity of rubber actually originating from the Northern Provinces;

the whole produce leaving the country by the Southern Nigerian

ports made it difficult to ascertain this. The following imperfect

records show, however, that the production was of significant extent:

1905. The value of the rubber exported by two of the leading

firms in the Northern Provinces was estimated at £101,207.

1906. The amount exported in the second half-year was given as

556,701 lbs., valued at £34,344. The year’s exports were

said to be 574 tons. Estimating the whole at the same

proportionate value as that given for the second

half-year we have:

1906. 1,283,520 lbs. £79,185

1907. 1,187,588 lbs. £91,074

The decrease in recent years is accounted for by the fall which

occurred in the price of rubber, but is probably partly due to the

extermination of the vines by the wasteful process of preparing

root rubber.

=Sources.=—The following are the trees and plants which have been

used for extracting rubber:—

1. _Funtumia elastica_.—This is only found in a wild state in

Southern Kabba and Bassa Provinces, and is recognised under the

Yoruba name of “Ire.” Small pieces of fairly well-prepared

rubber from this tree are occasionally brought in to Lokoja for sale.

2. _Landolphia sp._ (probably _owariensis_).—A clean “red

nigger” rubber is sold, and is probably obtained from this

species. It is generally of good quality, but not plentiful. It

appears to be collected as a scrap rubber, and is made up in small

irregular balls.

3. _Landolphia sp._—“Root rubber,” termed locally

“Attifufu,” and called by the trade “Brown cluster” or

“Brown medium.” It is probable that several species of vines

are used for this, which is not necessarily prepared from the root

alone, the whole stem being pounded up. This seems to represent

the commonest form of Northern Nigerian rubber, the preparation of

which was at one time prohibited.

4. _Landolphia florida_ or _Thompsonii_ (?).—“Paste rubber,”

called locally “Ebo,” is prepared from the latex of these vines

by boiling with the admixture of “wood oil,” or the resinous

exudation of _Daniellia thurifera_, until it reaches the consistency

of bird-lime, when it is only capable of being handled in water,

in which state it is sold to the merchants, who accumulate it in

casks for shipment. It is inferior in quality, and only capable of

export for cheap manufactures.

5. _Carpodinus hirsutus_.—“Flake rubber,” called

“Aribedda,” is said to be the product of this vine, which grows

commonly in Bassa. It is without resiliency and somewhat resembles

the exudations of some of the species of Ficus.

6. _Ficus platyphylla_.—“Red Kano rubber,” or “Ballata,”

known to the Nupe people as “Ogbagba.” This is prepared by

boiling, without the addition of any foreign matter, and attains the

consistency of a hardened paste, similar to the “guttas” made

from the latex of the Shea-butter tree (_Butyrospermum Parkii_). It

is distinguished in the Kano Province by the name “Danko Gawi,”

shea gutta being known as “Danko Kadainya.”

7. _Ficus trachyphylla_.—This tree is called in Ilorin by

the Yoruba name “Oapottoa,” and yields a latex which is

discoloured pink by the sap of the tree with which it becomes mixed

in tapping. When boiled and allowed to cool, the product is a reddish

hardened substance, somewhat resembling guttapercha in appearance.

8. _Ficus Vogelii_.—Scrap rubber from this tree is said to be

collected. In appearance this rubber is often good, but the shreds

break up easily.

It will be seen from the above, that several of the so-called rubbers

are unlike the valuable kinds in appearance and composition,

and as such are, perhaps, incapable of being used in a pure

state and for the most important manufactures for which rubber

is employed. All kinds, however, seem to be marketable at a price

which is remunerative to the exporter, so that the trade has become

an extensive one.

=Plantations.=—It has been urged that Para rubber (_Hevea

brasiliensis_) might be grown upon a large scale in the moist and

well-watered areas, and Ceara (_Manihot Glaziovii_) and _Funtumia

elastica_ in the drier districts; but the country is not generally

favourably adapted for growing the first and last mentioned. Ceara

rubber seems to thrive well in climates similar to that of this

country, and the rubber made from it is of the finest quality,

but in many tropical countries it has shown great uncertainty in

yield of latex, and often unaccountable cessation of flow. This

has caused it to be less favourably regarded for plantation

work. (Cf. _Bull. Imp. Inst._, 1913, 1916.)

Many parts of the country are suitable for Ceara cultivation,

thriving as it does in localities susceptible to long periods of

drought. In the German African Colonies the method of treating the

tree seems advantageous, in view of the uncertainty of the yield

after maturity is reached. In these places the plants are put out in

extensive plots each year, and, after they have reached full growth,

all the latex possible of extraction is taken out of them, and the

exhausted trees are cut out, permitting the area to become renovated

by the self-sown seedlings, which spring up in great profusion. Thus,

each year a plot becomes completely renovated, without great expense

being incurred. If Ceara planting should be adopted in Northern

Nigeria, some such system as this might prove remunerative.

In the Lokoja forest reserve, about a hundred acres of _Funtumia

elastica_ were planted in 1906, but these have not succeeded as well

as was originally expected, owing, probably, to want of moisture. A

few Ceara and even Hevea plants, have been grown at Zungeru and Baro,

but, as yet, no plantations have been made.

=SHEA NUTS.=—The shea nut is the seed or kernel contained in

the green fruit borne by _Butyrospermum Parkii_, called locally

“Kadainya.” The fruit, which ripens about May, is of variable

size, from that of a pigeon’s egg to as large as a hen’s egg

where only one nut is contained, but is nearly twice the size where

two nuts are present in the same fruit. The fleshy rind is not

more than one-sixth of an inch in thickness, is sweet to the taste,

and contains a white latex, which coagulates into a product called

“gutta-shea.” The natives in some places seem to regard the fruit

as a delicacy, and the roads and paths, in districts where the tree

is plentiful, are strewn with the nuts which have been thrown away

after the fruit portions have been eaten. The nut is quite smooth,

and is readily separated from the fleshy part.

The butter, which is extracted by the natives, is appreciated

less than palm oil or groundnut oil for cooking, but is used

as a substitute. In Europe the kernels as well as the extracted

“butter” are employed, especially on the Continent, for the

manufacture of vegetable butter and in candle factories.

In some places the fruits are collected and put in heaps, until the

fleshy parts have decomposed and left the nuts clean, after which

the kernels are extracted, dried in earthen stoves, and pounded

or ground into a fine flour. This is then pounded again, with the

addition of a little water, previous to being mixed in hot water to

separate the fat. The latter rises to the surface and solidifies on

cooling, being melted again for clarification by skimming previous

to being poured into moulds made from plantain leaves or maize-cob

sheaths. In this form it is sold for export, and is then known as

“shea-butter.” An illustration is given (Fig. 28) of some Shea

nut collectors resting beneath a Shea tree in the Ilorin Province.

[Illustration: SHEA-BUTTER TREE (_BUTYROSPERMUM PARKII_), WITH

NUT-COLLECTORS, ILORIN.

Fig. 28, p. 130.]

[Illustration: YIELDING GUM TREE (_ACACIA CAFFRA_) AT KONTAGORA.

Fig. 29, p. 131.]

[Illustration: LOCUST-BEAN TREE (_PARKIA FILICOIDEA_) AT ILORIN.

Fig. 30, p. 162.]

According to results obtained at the Imperial Institute (_Bulletin

of the Imperial Institute_, 1908, p. 370; 1912, p. 290), the kernels

contain from 40 to 50 per cent. of fat, as well as a small quantity

of unsaponifiable matter resembling gutta-shea.

Where the nuts are very plentiful, and transport appears to be

easy, the collection is often neglected, and the reason given is

that there is some difficulty in removing the fruit from the nut,

which makes the occupation unremunerative. But it is noticeable

that the fleshy part quickly decomposes, and the clean nuts are

frequently seen beneath the trees themselves, although in this

situation the advent of heavy rain will often induce germination,

and so spoil the kernel. This difficulty is obviated if the fruits

are collected and placed under cover, being allowed to decompose

without too much moisture.

Throughout the Ilorin and Nupe Provinces the nuts are at present

collected for sale to the factories, but in size those grown in

the Zaria Province are larger, and are now quite accessible. In

this latter locality the double fruit, above referred to, appears

to be common. In the tract of country through which the Baro-Kano

railway now proceeds, after crossing the Kogin-Serikin-Pawa river,

as far Zaria, localities containing very large and prolific trees are

frequently met with, but the population is scanty, and collection is

scarcely made for export purposes. Trees growing in cultivated areas

are generally recognised as the property of the cultivator, forest

trees only being common property. Women are the chief collectors

of the nuts in the districts whence the supplies at present come,

and their inability to penetrate far into the forests has sometimes

been urged as a reason for larger quantities not being brought in

to the factories. Now that the railway is present, it is probable

that regular collectors will commence to exploit the forests for

some distance on each side of the line, and that people from the

more populous districts will be induced to visit them for the

same purpose.

No record is available to show the amount of nuts and butter exported

previous to 1905, but it must have been considerable, as the High

Commissioner in his annual report for 1905-6 says: “The Shea nut

export trade, which formerly constituted the staple of Northern

Nigeria, continues to decrease in an unaccountable way, and is now

an almost negligible amount.” Various reasons are given to account

for a partial or gradual decrease, the most important of which is,

that the people who used to rely on the collection of sylvan produce

for a livelihood, have found a more lucrative employment in growing

foodstuffs for the troops and Government staff, or in working upon

the Government roads and railways. But, in spite of this, the value

of Shea nuts and butter exported in 1907-8 reached a high figure,

and placed these products second in order of value among those

exported during the year. The export of Shea nuts in the two years

following showed a further increase, being 3,922 and 9,085 tons

for 1908 and 1909 respectively. There is a growing demand for Shea

butter in Europe, and the supply is at present inadequate.

=PALM OIL AND KERNELS.=—The oil palm (_Elæis guineensis_) is

almost absent from a large part of the country, and is rarely seen

north of Zungeru, being chiefly confined to the vicinity of the

rivers and the forests on the boundaries of Southern Nigeria.

An insignificant amount of palm oil is exported, as the local demand

absorbs practically all that is produced, the kernels remaining

being alone exported.

Only one variety is recognised in the country, and is that with a

thin pericarp and thick-shelled kernel. It is similar to the form

termed “Abe-pa” in the Gold Coast. Among the Haussa-speaking

races the palm is called “Quaqua,” and in the Nupe language

“Yi-ku-niche.”

Extraction of the oil for local use is generally done by boiling

the fresh fruits, and a limpid product is obtained.

=GROUNDNUTS.=—The groundnut (_Arachis hypogea_), called “Geda”

by the Haussas, is seen in two forms in Northern Nigeria, dependent,

probably, on differences in soil and climate in the localities in

which they are grown.

The form seen commonly in the vicinity of Bida, from which most

of the exported nuts are procured, has a light-brown shell, and

is similar to the ordinary Gambian kind. The soil in which this is

grown is red, and, to some extent, this colour is imparted to the

shell. The nuts growing in the northern districts near Kano, where

the soil is sandy and light, resemble the kind which is considered

the finest in the French Colonies, and is largely cultivated in

Senegal. In this the shell is pale straw-coloured. Large exports

have been made from Kano since railway facilities were provided.

Groundnuts are chiefly employed as a terminal crop in the

cultivation adopted by the Nupes and Yorubas, but in the Kano

and Zaria Provinces, where land is retained for long periods in

cultivation and renovated annually by manure, they are often the

first crop grown on opening new land, and are seldom planted later.

From an interesting article contributed by Mr. Lamb, the Director

of Agriculture (_Imperial Institute Bulletin_, vol. xi. [1913]),

entitled “Agriculture in Haussaland,” it appears that leguminous

crops have recently been introduced more generally in the rotation

employed among the Haussa cultivators. The author remarks that the

cowpea (_Vigna catjang_) is now almost invariably grown with cereals,

and that there is such an increase in groundnut cultivation that this

has come into great prominence as an exported crop. This condition

has been brought about entirely by the establishment of railway

transport—a result which was foretold in the first edition of

this work.

All the nuts exported at the present time are in a decorticated

form, and the reason given for decortication is that there is a

large saving in weight in carriage thereby. It is, nevertheless,

generally admitted that in an undecorticated form the nuts are

better preserved in transit, and it often happens that the price

for undecorticated nuts is higher than for decorticated. It is,

however, recognised that if the appearance of the shell is rusty

or dirty, it should be removed before shipment, as this condition

adversely affects the market value. The demand for undecorticated

nuts is for confectionery, and is relatively small as compared with

the amount used, chiefly in France, for the expression of oil. The

weights of groundnuts exported in 1917 and 1918 were respectively

50,334 and 57,555 tons.

The Kano nuts appear to be of such a clean type that it might be

found more advantageous to ship them in an undecorticated state,

but this can be ascertained when transport has been facilitated

sufficiently to establish a continuous trade with a particular

market.

The chief markets for the product were Marseilles and Hamburg,

where it was employed for the expression of oil, used principally

for admixture with, or as a substitute for, olive oil. Although

formerly almost entirely sent to the German port, they now come

mostly to England. (Cf. _Bull. Imp. Inst._, vol. xvi. [1918].)

=GUMS.=—In the drier regions Acacia trees of several species

become plentiful, but many of these do not seem to produce gum.

Some of the gum in the Sudan is said to be derived from _A. arabica_,

Willd., which is not uncommon in certain localities, but is almost

entirely unproductive in this country.

The tree known in Haussa as “Gawo,” identified as _A. Albida_,

Delile, is perhaps the commonest species near Kano, and one which

produces a small amount of reddish gum. None, however, is apparently

collected from the tree in the district.

The species from which most of the gum is collected in Bornu

is said to be identical with that called “Karu” in Kano,

of which only immature specimens have as yet been examined. This

is probably referable to _A. Verek_, Guill. & Perr., which is the

most important source of the Senegal product, and to which Bentham

refers _A. Senegal_, Willd.

In Kontagora a good quality of gum is obtained from a tree which has

been identified as _A. Caffra_, Willd. This tree does not appear to

occur plentifully here, but further investigation is necessary with

regard to it in the dry uninhabited regions where it is found. An

illustration of this tree is given (Fig. 29).

Another species which has been recorded by Barter from the Niger,

and is said by him to yield “a gum like gum-arabic,” is

_A. mellifera_, Bentham, and may be one of those from which the

present exported product is collected.

On examination of the trade specimens, it is noticeable that the

quality is inferior to most of the Sudan and Senegal kinds, owing,

mainly, to the want of cleaning or sorting previous to sale. It

has been suggested that an improvement in the quality might be

effected by sorting the gum into different grades, cleaning it,

and spreading it in the sun to bleach. The quantity of gum exported

in 1908 is given as 789,949 lbs., and that for 1909 as 894,287 lbs.

Investigations carried out recently at the Imperial Institute show

that Nigerian gum is little, if at all, inferior to Sudan gum,

except that its mucilage is not quite so strong. Gums of the better

class are mainly employed in confectionery, and for this purpose

the cleaner, lighter-coloured gums of Northern Nigeria are quite

suitable. (_Bulletin of the Imperial Institute_, 1908, pp. 29-60;

1910, pp. 352-65; and 1914, pp. 27-31.)

=COTTON.=—Three distinct forms of cotton are found in cultivation

in the Northern Provinces. The best of these is that grown by the

natives of the Bassa and Nassarawa Provinces, and possesses lint of

rather long staple and a good colour, covering a clean seed. The

seed-cotton from these Provinces is brought into Lokoja for

sale. This variety seems well suited to the localities mentioned,

but, although it has been tried in other parts of the country, it

does not seem to thrive so successfully. In making a comparison of

the lint for Liverpool market requirements, the standard employed is

“Moderately Rough Peruvian,” which is a grade of higher price

than “Middling American,” with which most of the West African

cottons are compared.

In Ilorin, a woolly-seeded tall cotton plant is commonly cultivated,

and, although yielding a fair quality of lint, it is not equal

to that mentioned above. A small proportion of the cotton grown

in the Ilorin Province finds its way to the Ogudu Ginnery of the

British Cotton Growing Association, on the Niger, but the main

crop is carried to various points on the Lagos Government Railway,

and is sold for delivery to the Southern Nigerian ginneries of

the Association. Small quantities of cotton belonging to this

same variety are grown in Nupe, Kabba, and Kontagora, but the low

ground of the Niger valley does not appear to be very suitable

for cotton-growing.

In Zaria, Kano, and Sokoto Provinces, where the climate is drier,

excellent conditions exist for the production of large supplies

of cotton, but the population requires to become more distributed

into the districts remote from the towns. In the above-mentioned

Provinces, cotton has existed from the earliest times, and was long

established as an important export to North Africa by caravan. A

small-bolled variety with a short stem takes the place of the tall

cottons of the Niger valley. The quality of the lint, although fair,

is of a shorter staple, and the plant is less prolific.

In addition to the three kinds referred to, all of which are

grown as field crops, single plants of a fourth are sometimes

seen near villages, especially in the Bassa Province. This is the

crimson-flowered tree-cotton identified as _Gossypium arboreum_,

var. _sanguineum_, and is nowhere cultivated upon a large scale. The

lint is silky and fine, and the seed is covered with green fuzz.

=Exotic Cottons.=—American and Egyptian seed have been introduced

in many localities, especially in the Provinces of the Niger

valley. Cotton grown from American Upland seed in Bassa Province

has been well reported upon, but the deterioration of the quality

of seed reproduced by this kind has proved a serious drawback to

establishment. It is generally acknowledged that the indigenous

cottons are hardier and more prolific than the introduced varieties,

and are better able to withstand the attacks of the local insect

pests. It is probable that the climate of the Northern Provinces

will be found more suitable for the cultivation of American

Upland cottons, as the indigenous plant of that region more nearly

approximates the latter type.

=Valuation of Cottons.=—The following table shows the value of

different cottons grown in Northern Nigeria and examined at the

Imperial Institute. (See Professor Dunstan’s “British Cotton

Cultivation,” pp. 34-37.)

Locality. Kind. Length of Staple. Value. Standard value

at time of test.

Bassa American ·9-1·2 in. 7½_d_. M.A. 6·39_d_.

„ „ 1-1·3 „ 5½-6_d_. „

„ „ 1-1·3 „ 6¼_d_. „

„ „ ·8-1·2 „ 6¼_d_. „

„ „ 1-1·3 „ 6¼_d_. „

„ „ ·9-1·4 „ 6_d_. „

„ „ ·9-1·3 „ 6_d_. „

„ „ ·9-1·2 „ 6-6¼_d_. „

„ „ 1·-1·3 „ 6¼_d_. „

„ Native ·9-1·3 „ 6½-7_d_. „

„ „ 1-1·4 „ 8½-9_d_. M.R.P. 9·1_d_.

„ „ 1-1·3 „ 8_d_. „

„ „ ·9-1·4 „ 8¼-8½_d_. „

„ „ ·8-1·2 „ 7¾-8_d_. „

„ „ 1-1·3 „ 8¼_d_. „

„ „ 1·2-1·5 „ 8¼_d_. „

„ „ 1-1·3 „ 8_d_. „

„ „ ·9-1·3 „ 8½_d_. „

„ „ 1·1-1·6 „ 8-8½_d_. „

„ „ ·9-1·3 „ 6_d_. M.A. 6·39_d_.

Zaria Brazilian (?) ·9-1·2 „ 4_d_. „

„ Egyptian ·9-1·5 „ 6_d_. F.G.F.B. 10¹⁄₁₆_d_.

Yola Native ·8-1·2 „ 4½_d_. M.A. 6·39_d_.

„ American ·9-1·3 „ 6¼_d_. „

Munchi Native 1-1·5 „ 8_d_. M.R.P. 9·1_d_.

Ilorin American ·9-1·3 „ 6¼_d_. M.A. 6·39_d_.

(M.A. indicates the price ruling at the time of valuation for

standard “Middling American,” M.R.P. that for “Moderately

Rough Peruvian,” and F.G.F.B. that for “Fully Good Fair Brown

Egyptian.”)

[Illustration: VILLAGE OF FOGOLA, BUILT OF GUINEA-CORN STALKS.

Fig. 31. p. 126]

[Illustration: OUTSIDE THE EMIR’S PALACE, KANO.

Fig. 32, p. 137.]

[Illustration: NEAR THE SOUTHERN GATE, ZARIA.

Fig. 33, p. 137.]

All the native cottons in the above table are from the Niger and

Benue River Provinces, but it is considered probable that large

quantities of the product, which are looked for for export, will be

obtained from the Kano and Zaria Provinces, and after the opening

of the Baro-Kano Railway, the capitals of these may become important

cotton-buying and ginning centres. Figs. 32 and 33 illustrate views

of Kano and Zaria.

In all the localities referred to, cotton is generally cultivated

as a sole crop, in succession to food crops, and is planted upon

shallow ridges from July to September, when the cotton is ready for

picking from December to March. Experiments have been made at Baro

and Zungeru to raise plants during the dry months by irrigation,

but as this causes the fruiting season to occur about the time that

the first rain and wind storms commence, the success of this is

very uncertain. The necessity for the application of irrigation to

this crop is not apparent except as an assistance in lieu of rain

when the season of rainfall is late. There is no extreme drought

throughout the year, such as is the case in Egypt, where cotton is

entirely an irrigated crop.

In the Ilorin district, in the vicinity of Shari, a somewhat

extensive area is seen under cotton, and the mode of planting

is similar to that applied on a smaller scale near Rabba, Jebba,

Bida, and Egga. A piece of land is usually selected for a cotton

field upon which Guinea corn and millet crops have been grown

continuously for a long period, and which has consequently become

rather exhausted. This is often permitted to lie fallow for several

years, after which cotton is planted in drills on ridges or mounds

in July or August. No manure is applied. Generally about a dozen or

more seeds are put in each drill, and in this way it is estimated

that about a bushel and a half of seed per acre is required. Picking

commences in December, and lasts until February, as much as 500

lbs. of seed-cotton per acre being frequently gathered.

In Kano, cotton is often grown in alternation with cassava, and is

a manured crop. Large fields are not seen, as the land is chiefly

required for food crops, especially in the vicinity of towns, where

the population is dense. General improvements in cultivation, and

the introduction of ploughing, would enable a much larger area to

be put under cultivation, and would permit of the fertile tracts

remote from the towns being employed largely for cotton-growing.

The above account indicates the direction in which efforts should

be made to ensure the most fertile tract of Northern Nigeria,

where the population is also most industrious and dense, becoming

an important cotton-growing locality. It may be safely said that the

land, climate, and industrious population are existent and suitable,

but the population is congested, leaving large fertile areas of land

untouched. Transport difficulties have up to the present prevented

cultivation of products useful for export, and the non-employment

of cattle for ploughing has restricted cultivation to the growth

of crops entirely absorbed by local necessity.

=Improvement of Plant.=—In addition to these requirements, with

regard to cultivation, a rather better class of cotton is necessary

in the Northern Provinces. The local variety might perhaps be

sufficiently improved under better cultivation and seed selection,

but such a process would be gradual and require the undivided

attention of an experienced European officer, working in the

districts. It has previously been suggested that the introduction

of one of the many Upland American kinds might be advantageous; the

local variety approaching that class of plant more nearly than do

the varieties occurring in the forest regions farther to the south,

where the American varieties have been extensively planted with

somewhat variable results. One variety only should be introduced,

and this should possess cropping and lint records suitable for

European requirements. Georgia or Texas quick-maturing kinds are

indicated, but not the lowland kinds such as are grown in the

Mississippi valley.

The foregoing remarks apply to those regions only where it seems

possible that the quality of cotton which is in most general demand

in Lancashire can be extensively grown, but are not applicable to

the Niger Valley. As will be seen by a reference to the table of

valuations, a cotton exists in the Bassa and Nassarawa Provinces

which is comparable with a higher standard grade than Middling

American, the type to be produced in the north. Efforts should

be made to keep this latter variety free from the possibility

of admixture with exotic kinds, and it is therefore advisable

that improvement in this class should be confined to seed

selection. American cottons have already been introduced into Bassa,

but the value of the lint is lower than that of the indigenous kind.

With regard to the cotton grown in the Ilorin Province, the common

variety is similar to that of the adjoining country to the south,

and it is in this direction that the crop of the whole Province

will be sent in the future, as it has been arranged to remove the

Ogudu ginnery on the Niger, to which the northern Ilorin cotton

has hitherto been sent for sale. An illustration is given showing

the position of this ginnery upon the southern bank of the Niger

(Fig. 34).

The most important insect pests which attack the cotton plant in

Northern Nigeria are three species of _Oxycarenus_, or cotton-seed

bugs: _Dysdercus superstitiosus_, a cotton-lint stainer, the

American cotton boll-worm, _Chloridea obsoleta_, and a species

of _Earias_,[11] identical with or allied to the Egyptian cotton

boll-worm. The last mentioned has only been recorded as yet

from the Bornu Province, but the American boll-worm is found at

Lokoja and near the Niger in Nupe. The seed-bugs and stainer are

generally distributed. In no direction have these pests assumed

large proportions, but where they occur the following remedies

are recommended for application. The seed-bugs and stainer can be

attracted to traps of seed placed in piles upon the ground between

the lines of growing cotton, and the insects then destroyed

by petroleum or boiling water. In the case of the boll-worms,

trap-crops of maize and Hibiscus are recommended, as well as the

destruction of the moths after attraction to light at night. (See

Professor Dunstan’s “British Cotton Cultivation,” pp. 35-6.)

The British Cotton Growing Association commenced work in Northern

Nigeria by erecting a steam ginnery at Lokoja, followed by others at

Ogudu and Zaria. The natives of the Bassa Province were induced to

grow cotton upon a larger scale than before by the favourable market

established near them at Lokoja, but, although the cotton brought in

was generally of good quality, the supply fell off after the first

year or two, and in 1908 it almost ceased. More recently there has

been some return to cultivation, but the people are difficult to

get into touch with, and have few needs which can be supplied by

the traders, so that they have remained somewhat inactive and shy.

The ginnery at Ogudu acted as an inducement to the people of North

Ilorin (Shari) to undertake cotton-growing upon an increased scale,

and as the inhabitants are chiefly of a more intelligent class

(Yorubas and Nupes) than the Bassa people, the cultivation of cotton

developed well.

The opening of the Baro-Kano Railway created some activity in cotton

growing, and satisfactory quantities were brought in to the northern

ginneries. The British Cotton Growing Association will probably

succeed well in the northern parts of the country where a large

rural population is to be found.

An example of the development of cotton cultivation in West Africa,

influenced by and following the opening of a railway, is seen

in the Western Province of Southern Nigeria and in Ilorin; along

almost the entire route of the line the agricultural population

have taken up the cultivation of the plant. This has occurred even

in those districts where other natural products were available for

utilisation to a remunerative degree. It is therefore probable that

the industrious population of the Northern Provinces, who have no

such advantages, owing to the absence of oil palms, rubber, etc.,

would readily adopt cotton-growing upon a commercial scale.

The Baro-Kano Railway passes, however, through an extensive tract

of thinly populated country before reaching the localities from

which a large supply can be reasonably expected, and this may delay

the actual results. It would be inadvisable, in the meantime, to

encourage cotton cultivation in those districts which are still

remote, unless it were possible to buy the crops in advance of any

prospective railway extension.

The following statistical statement has been supplied by the British

Cotton Growing Association, showing the production in bales from

their ginneries, 1906-1909:

Year. Lokoja. Ogudu. Total. Weight of Bale. Approx. lbs.

1906. Sept.

1st, 1905, to

Aug. 31st, 1906 903 903 about 200 lbs. 180,600

1907. 16

months. Sept.

1st, 1906, to

Dec. 12th, 1907 1,067 815 1,882 200 lbs. each 376,400

239 239 400 lbs. each 95,600

1908 84 147 231 400 lbs. each 92,400

1909. 8 months.

To Aug. 31st,

1909 133 246 379 400 lbs. each 151,600

In 1908 the rainfall was deficient in a large part of the country,

and the cotton crop, among others, suffered in consequence. A

temporary check to cotton-growing in Ilorin province occurred in

1909 due to the demand for labour for the railway construction,

and a subsequent one occasioned by the war; but in spite of this,

the increase of cotton in Nigeria is to be attributed largely to

developments in the Northern Provinces. Cf. _Bull. Imp. Inst._,

vol. x., p. 480, and vol. xi. pp. 70, 165 and 656.[12]

=CAPSICUMS.=—An increasing export trade seems to be becoming

established in red peppers and chillies (_Capsicum annuum_ and

_C. frutescens_), plants which thrive well in West Africa.

In the Ilorin and Nupe Provinces, the plants are usually grown in

the vicinity of houses, but in the Kano and Zaria districts they are

frequently met with in irrigated fields. From the latter localities

an almost unlimited supply could be obtained.

=BENNISEED.=—The oil seed which is exported under this name is

the product of _Sesamum indicum_, Linn., and is identical with that

known in India as “til” or “gingelly” seed. Although the

specific name seems to imply that the plant is a native of India,

there is evidence to show that it may have been introduced into

that country from Africa, where several species of the genus occur

in a wild state.

The seed is pale or dark brown in colour, and contains a large

proportion of oil, for the extraction of which it is exported. In

the East, the dark seeds are said to produce the better quality of

oil, but this does not appear to be recognised in Northern Nigeria,

and the crop grown there is composed of a mixture of the two kinds.

The oil extracted from benniseed is clear yellow and without smell,

and is said to be capable of being preserved for a long time

without becoming rancid. For this reason it is highly appreciated

locally for alimentary purposes, and is said to be used in Europe

for making butter substitutes and for mixing with olive oil. The

seed cake furnishes a valuable cattle food and good manure.

Although liable to fluctuation in price on the European market,

dependent upon the extent of the supply of olive and groundnut oils,

the seed is always in demand, and for this reason it is worthy

of special attention for cultivation in the fertile and populated

tracts of Northern Nigeria.

A fair amount of benniseed is grown in the country, but the use of it

is so appreciated locally that only a small quantity is yet shipped,

most of this being apparently sent from Bauchi and Kabba, although

Kano and Zaria probably produce much more. The value shipped from

Nigeria rose from £5,225 in 1915 to £16,523 in 1916.

Benniseed is grown chiefly in separate fields, and is seldom seen in

those which have been employed for a long period under Guinea corn

or millet. It is a sole crop, and grown but once a year in this

country. In India, it may be remarked, the plant is cultivated in

both the spring (Rabi) and autumn (Kharif) rotations, and it should

be possible to do this in the agricultural parts of Northern Nigeria

where irrigation is employed.

=KANO LEATHER.=—A very large trade exists in the tanned and

dyed goat and sheep skins prepared throughout the country, and

generally known under the name of Kano leather, or, in Europe,

“Morocco Leather.” It is said that from early times caravans

have annually conveyed numbers of these skins from the Kano markets

across the Sahara to the towns in North Africa, whence they were

exported to Trieste and other ports of the Mediterranean.

During recent years the caravan trade has almost entirely

disappeared, but some quantity of skins now come to Liverpool by

way of the coast ports. The value of skins in Kano itself averages

about 5½_d_., but the cost of transport at present has made it

almost impracticable to export remuneratively, and a very small

trade exists in consequence.

By far the greater number of skins, which are tanned, are dyed

a bright red, yellow, or green colour, which seems to rather

depreciate them in the European markets for many uses to which

they might otherwise be put, undyed and even untanned skins being

in greater demand. (See _Bulletin of the Imperial Institute_,

vol. vi. [1908], p. 175; and vol. viii. [1910], p. 402.) It has also

been said that the tanning is often insufficiently done, and the

skins become blotched in consequence. It is noticeable that Kano

leather quickly becomes spotted in the damp coast regions, and for

this reason it is probable that no great direct European trade will

be established until better methods are introduced and more rapid

transport is arranged. There may, however, be a considerable trade

done in the untanned skins.

The best class of Kano or Niger leather is valued at a high price

for bookbinding.

In the country a fair amount of leather is manufactured for saddlery

and horse trappings, pillows, mattress covers, sword scabbards,

boots and hats, elaborate designs being often produced by the

skilful introduction of pieces of differently coloured leather.

In preparing the leather the skin is stripped off the animal and

usually pegged out for drying in the sun, after which it is immersed

for two or three days in a liquid made by pounding the pods and

seeds of _Acacia arabica_ (“Baggarua”), and soaking them in

water. The hides are then again pegged out and scraped in order to

remove the hair, and when dry the best attain a creamy white colour,

others being pale brownish. Palm oil or shea-butter is then rubbed

in on the smooth side of the skin, which is worked and rolled until

quite soft, after which a polish is obtained by drawing the smooth

surface rapidly over a wooden upright blade.

The finest and lightest skins are usually reserved for making into

yellow, green, or pale blue leather, and the rest are converted

into red, black, dark blue or dark yellow kinds. The red dye is

obtained from the stalks of a species of Sorghum,[13] which is

grown for this purpose, and to which the Haussas give the name of

“Karandeffi” or “Karantudi.” The dried stalks are pounded

up and placed in a calabash, to which a solution of “potash”

is added. A deep crimson liquid results, and in this the skin is

steeped until a sufficiency has been absorbed by it to render it

permanently deep red in colour. A pale yellow colour is imparted to

the skin by an infusion made from the root of a kind of turmeric,

which is pounded up for the purpose. A dark yellow is obtained

from the root of a tree called by the Yorubas “Agbesi.” A black

pigment is prepared from a mixture of honey and blacksmith’s slag;

blue from _Lonchocarpus cyanescens_, one of the indigo producers;

green or pale blue-green from brass filings mixed with lime juice,

common salt, and other ingredients. More recently green aniline dye

has been imported into the country, and has almost superseded the

use of brass filings in all the large leather-producing districts.

=FIBRES.=—Owing to the demand for ropes among the cattle-keepers

of the northern districts and the canoemen of the Niger and Benue

valleys, it is not surprising to find that the wild fibres are

considered insufficient to supply so great a necessity, and that

in consequence a selected species is extensively cultivated and

prepared for sale in the markets.

“Rama” or “Ramo” is the name which is applied to such a

plant in the Haussa- and Yoruba-speaking countries respectively,

but although used exclusively for fibre made from plants belonging

to the genus Hibiscus, different species are indicated in various

districts. The plant to which the name “Rama” is given in Ilorin,

Nupe, Kontagora, Kano, and Zaria, is apparently the same as that

generally termed “Farin (white) Rama” in Bauchi and Muri,

and has been recognised as _Hibiscus lunariifolius_; that called

“Rama” in the northern territories of the Gold Coast is said to

belong to two species allied to _H. Sabdariffa_, and that grown by

the Yoruba people of the western province of Southern Nigeria, and

called by them “Ramo,” has been identified as _H. guineensis_.

In the present instance only _H. lunariifolius_ is referred to,

since this is the species cultivated throughout the country.

Although in the other countries the allied plants are cultivated,

they are invariably grown upon a small scale, and are only seen in

small patches adjoining houses, or cultivated as a mixed crop with

peppers, okra, etc.; in Northern Nigeria fairly extensive tracts

are planted, and the crop is treated as carefully as the food crops

in the vicinity. In Ilorin, Kabba, and Bassa the seeds are sown on

ridges in drills a few inches apart, each drill having four to six

plants in it. The sowing in this locality is done in the middle

of May, and the crop is not irrigated, being dependent upon the

rainfall for development. The plants, when they have reached the

height of six or more inches, do not appear to be adversely affected

by a prolonged continuance of dry weather in the Niger Valley,

but this is perhaps accounted for by the humidity of the atmosphere.

The conditions last referred to do not, however, apply to the

northern districts, and the importance with which the crop is

regarded is seen in the fact that it is worth while to irrigate

it. At Fogola the plants are also sown in drills on ridges, but the

drills are made at about one foot apart from one another, and ten

or more plants are left in each drill. The seed is sown in April

and irrigated until the rainy season commences in June.

The stalks are said to be cut after the plant has fruited, and are

described as being retted in a manner similar to that employed for

Indian jute. The unretted “ribbons” as well as the prepared fibre

are offered for sale in the local markets, the former being employed

in the rough state for twisting into rope used for fastening roofing

poles, etc. The prepared fibre produces an excellent kind of rope,

and is in appearance very similar to Bengal jute, although it has

slightly less lustre. Specimens of Northern Nigerian rama fibre

have been examined from time to time at the Imperial Institute,

and have been satisfactorily reported on. As a result the fibre

has been actually exported to Europe.

In the _Selected Reports from the Imperial Institute_, Part I.,

“Fibres” (Colonial Reports—Miscellaneous [Cd. 4588], p. 38),

a full account is given of the composition of a specimen of the

fibre received from Northern Nigeria. The character is said to be

similar to jute, but it is apparently rather harsh, and therefore

more suitable for use in rope-making than for spinning. The valuation

placed upon it was £12 per ton, with common jute at £11—£12. A

specimen of the brown ribbons was also examined and was reported on,

the valuation being placed at about £4 per ton, with a remark that

it would only be of use for paper manufacture.

During the last three years, since attention was first drawn to

the probable value of the fibre as a jute substitute, the natives

of Nupe and Muri have been urged to cultivate the plant and prepare

the fibre for export. This has been done to a small extent, and the

natives of the latter province are said to be willing to produce

it at the local price of one penny per pound. At the valuation

mentioned above it might scarcely prove remunerative to pay this

local price, but it should be taken into consideration that the

market price of jute was depressed at the time that the valuation

was obtained. It seems that the product may be usefully cultivated,

especially in the Niger Valley, where river transport is available,

and it is probable that a better price would be quoted if a larger

and regular supply could be relied on. The value of the fibre shipped

from the country in 1908 is estimated in the Government returns at

£1,382, and that for 1909 at £4,049.

Attention should be specially directed to the time of cutting the

stalks for retting, and these should be treated before becoming

too woody, when a much better product would result.

Experiments with Indian jute, as well as with certain Hibiscus

fibres in West Africa, have shown that if the stems are permitted

to become woody, the resulting fibre is harsh and coarse.

With regard to the probable production of fibre per acre, there are

at present no data, but it may be stated for comparison that a good

average yield of jute in India is taken as 2000 lbs. Carefully

planted and treated in the same way, it is probable that rama

would give as high a return, judging from the growth seen in the

country. Jute in India, it should be remembered, is a manured crop,

but rama in West Africa is only manured in the northern districts

of Northern Nigeria, being cultivated without any special care in

the Niger Valley.

=WOOD OIL.=—Following the order of value shown in the list of

exported products, wood oil appears next. This is the oleo-resinous

exudation obtained from _Daniellia thurifera_, a tree belonging

to the Natural Order _LEGUMINOSÆ_, and allied to some of the

species from which the West African copals are procured. This tree

is commonly found in the dry country, but occurs also in the damp

forests, where it frequently attains large dimensions. The wood

oil is collected in many parts of West Africa, and is used as a

substitute for “balsam of copaiba” in native medicine. The

concreted resin formed on the trunks of the trees by the borings

of coleopterous larvæ is used for burning as incense.

The native use of wood oil in place of “balsam of copaiba”

induced merchants trading upon the Niger to export it, and at one

time a fair quantity was sold in England. This export trade has

recently diminished to a large extent.

The substance is an oleo-resin, and when free from oil has a

similar appearance to copal. Upon examination of the resin, it has

been found to be dissimilar in properties from the various freshly

exuded resins which enter the market under the name of recent or

soft copal. (_Bulletin of the Imperial Institute_, vols. vi. [1908]

and xiii. [1915].)

The mode of collecting wood-oil is somewhat destructive, as, in

order to procure an excessive flow, a hollow is scooped out in the

main trunk and a fire is kindled in the hole thus made. The oil

commences to flow rapidly after the fire is extinguished, which it

is necessary that it should be before a large quantity of oil has

exuded, on account of the inflammability of the latter.

The application of fire to the trees does not appear to kill them,

but they are rendered liable to attacks of noxious insects, and

are often broken off by winds.

In addition to the local use of the oil for maladies for which balsam

of copaiba is generally employed, the rubber makers of Ilorin and

Nupe add it to the latex of _Landolphia florida_ or _L. Thompsonii_

to make paste rubber. The two liquids are boiled together for some

time, until the mixture attains a consistency of birdlime. The

dried resin is here used for torches, and in the Egyptian Sudan

for incense.

=KOLA.=—Although a large quantity of kola nuts is annually imported

from Lagos and the Gold Coast, such a great demand exists that

the price of kola in Kano and Zaria is very high. The kola tree is

seldom seen in any part of the country except on the west bank of

the Kaduna river, where the famous plantations of the Emir of Bida

are situated. The kola nuts produced from these plantations are

said to be more appreciated than any other, and, in order that the

variety might not be grown elsewhere, stringent measures are said to

have been enforced by the Emir, and the nuts were always exported

to the north, where it was impossible to grow the tree, and where

a very remunerative price was obtainable. This particular kind of

kola nut is referred to as “Laboji,” and is said to be white.

The cultivation of kola could be undertaken in the Kabba and

Bassa Provinces, especially in the moist valleys protected from

severe winds by high plateaux, such as are commonly found in these

localities.

In the export table of 1907 a small quantity of kola is shown,

but this probably represents the re-export of produce from the south.

=COTTON SEED.=—The Lokoja Ginnery has exported a small quantity

of cotton seed each year, but the trade is not a lucrative one,

and the larger part of the cotton seed which is turned out of the

ginnery is valueless for shipment.

=FOOD CROPS.=—The products which have been referred to above are

those which have hitherto been exported from the country, but by far

the most important agricultural products are those upon which the

population itself subsists, and in relation to which the exported

products are merely in the position of a surplus.

Before referring to the products regularly cultivated for food, it is

necessary to mention that the seasons, which in the temperate zones

are closely associated with a rise and fall in the temperature and

its effect upon vegetation, are in West Africa determined to a much

greater degree by the advent and cessation of the rainy period. The

year is therefore divided into two seasons, roughly described as

(1) that in which the conditions are hot and dry, and (2) that

in which they are cooler and wet. The vegetation is so directly

dependent upon the timely appearance of the rainy season and its

normal distribution, that a failure of these conditions, even in a

comparatively small degree, may have serious consequences and perhaps

produce famine. In no part of British West Africa is a shortage or

irregularity of the rainfall so severely felt, nor does it affect

such a large number of people, as in the northern districts.

A table is given below showing the distribution of rain in Zaria for

five years, and of that in Kano for three years. In each of these

it will be seen that the fall in the year 1907 was far below the

average, and that during the most important months for the growth

of the staple grain crops—July, August, and September—there was

a severe shortage of rainfall. The effect of this in Kano was to

produce a condition of famine, which lasted for about six weeks. In

a congested locality, such as exists in the vicinity of the town

of Kano, the difficulty of importing sufficiently large supplies

to afford relief at such a period was great, on account of lack

of transport. The chief crop in this year, namely Guinea corn,

was an almost complete failure in many places, but the millet

TABLE SHOWING THE RAINFALL AT ZARIA FOR FIVE YEARS (1905 TO 1909)

-----------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------

Month. | 1905. | 1906. | 1907. | 1908. | 1909.

-----------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------

January | nil | nil | nil | nil | nil

February | nil | nil | nil | nil | ·36

March | nil | nil | nil | ·09 | nil

April | ·76 | ·85 | 2·20 | 1·84 | 3·56

May | 5·90 | 9·50 | 3·69 | 1·91 | 5·79

June | 7·24 | 5·95 | 7·05 | 6·94 | 6·51

July | 7·19 | 14·49 | 3·75 | 7·42 | 13·11

August | 15·04 | 16·39 | 4·46 | 14·36 | 16·62

September | 13·28 | 9·90 | 6·33 | 12·08 | 6·61

October | 1·40 | 3·93 | 2·32 | ·84 | 1·74

November | nil | ·04 | nil | nil | nil

December | nil | nil | nil | nil | 1·50

-----------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------

Totals | 50·81 | 61·05 | 29·80 | 45·48 | 55·80

-----------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------

(_Pennisetum_) crop, which is an early one, and not dependent on

the rainfall after June, had received a normal amount of rain to

that time, and was satisfactory; the stored supplies, as well as a

second sowing, of this grain to some extent made up for the failure

of the other.

The above table has been made out from the meteorological reports

obtained at Zaria town, and probably represents a fair average of

the rainfall conditions pertaining to the cultivated country in

the vicinity.

The more northern district, of which Kano is the centre, is liable

to smaller rainfall conditions than Zaria. A comparison can be made

by reference to the table given below.

TABLE SHOWING THE RAINFALL AT KANO FOR FOUR YEARS (1906 TO 1909)

-----------+-------+-------+-------+-------

Month. | 1906. | 1907. | 1908. | 1909.

-----------+-------+-------+-------+-------

January | nil | nil | nil | nil

February | nil | nil | nil | nil

March | nil | nil | ·54 | ·09

April | ·01 | ·10 | ·23 | 1·75

May | 3·24 | 1·77 | 1·16 | 8·7

June | 4·66 | 5·88 | 4·12 | 3·71

July | 8·75 | 3·90 | 10·24 | 9·01

August | 15·61 | 9·58 | 13·92 | 17·72

September | 4·66 | 3·57 | 4·63 | 6·83

October | ·87 | ·01 | ·02 | ·77

November | nil | nil | nil | nil

December | nil | nil | nil | ·45

-----------+-------+-------+-------+-------

Totals | 37·80 | 24·81 | 34·86 | 49·03

-----------+-------+-------+-------+-------

The remarks made above serve to emphasise two points in connection

with the densely populated districts of the north, the first

being the necessity of cultivating larger areas to permit of

surplus supplies being stored, and the second the requirement

of quick transport to enable supplies to be brought in from the

Niger valley in cases of urgent need. The first of these also

indicates the necessity for the improvement of agricultural methods

by the introduction of ploughing, the extension of irrigation and

dry-season crops, and the better distribution of the population. The

second—the supply of quick transport—is becoming rapidly

established, by means of the railway and improved roads.

The extension of irrigated crops can only be made in the vicinity

of the larger rivers, or where good wells exist, and it may be found

more expedient, therefore, that the inhabitants of the Niger, Benue,

Kaduna, Gongola, and Gurara valleys should be urged to cultivate

rice and maize under these conditions. The use of the land for two

crops in each year would be made possible by the introduction of

a leguminous crop as an intermediate, being sown later but in the

same field with the irrigated crop, and being permitted to ripen,

after the grain has been harvested, upon the stubble. A leguminous

grain suitable for human food would be necessary in the river valleys

where cattle are scarce, but a cattle food could be grown in the

north where cattle are common, and where milk forms an important

article of human consumption.

=GUINEA CORN= (_Sorghum vulgare_)—“Dawa” (Haussa), otherwise

known as the Great or Indian Millet “Juar” (Hindustani),

“Dhura” (Egyptian)—forms the most important food-grain of

the inhabitants of the ultra-forest region of West Africa.

A large number of different varieties are recognised in Northern

Nigeria, and are distinguished in the manner stated below. Most of

these have a grain which is commonly used for human food, but at

least two varieties are grown for other purposes.

The following list states the characters by which the various

kinds can be determined from the appearance of the seed and form

of the stem.

1. “Asidinono.”—Seed with white shell and black adherent

envelope.

2. “Farafara.”—Seed with white shell and red adherent envelope.

3. “Boganderi.”—Seed with straw-coloured shell and red

adherent envelope.

4. “Janari.”—Seed with pink shell and red adherent envelope.

5. “Kaura-ferin-sosia.”—Seed with straw-coloured shell and

straw-coloured adherent envelope.

6. “Bokin-sosia.”—Seed with straw-coloured shell and black

adherent envelope.

7. “Makafo-dewayo.”—Seed with straw-coloured shell and pointed

straw-coloured adherent envelope, which scarcely opens.

8. “Asidigero.”—Small pink-shelled seed with red adherent

envelope.

9. “Mazgua.”—Very large whitish seed with a straw-coloured

envelope.

10. “Karandeffi.”—Seed with red shell and red adherent

envelope. Never used for food, but employed in native medicine,

as well as for the production of the red dye used for leather

(_Bull. Imp. Inst._, vol. vi. [1908]).

11. “Takanda” or “Karantalaka.”—The seed has not been

examined, but the stem contains a large quantity of saccharine juice,

and the plant is grown entirely as a cattle food. Probably identical

with _S. saccharum_.

The first four kinds are regularly employed as food, and are

found growing as a mixed crop; although the white grains are

more appreciated and frequently predominate. Nos. 5 and 6 are

not considered so good for human food, but are largely employed

for feeding cattle and horses, for which latter purpose they are

greatly in demand. No. 7 is used for the same purpose as the last,

but is a rarity and of no special value. These seven kinds are

grown as six-months’ crops, and are harvested in October when

the rains cease. No. 8 is a three-months’ cropping kind, which

in this particular resembles “Gero” (_Pennisetum typhoideum_),

as its native name indicates. The grain is much smaller than the

others, and it is said to be cultivated to some extent in the Sokoto

Province. No. 9 is a variety which is said to be cultivated in Bornu

in the fertile depressions which retain moisture for long periods,

or by means of irrigation from the rivers. (See _Bulletin of the

Imperial Institute_, vol. iv. [1906], p. 226.)

Guinea corn is permitted to occupy the land for a number of

years successively, being often grown with “bulrush millet”

(_Pennisetum typhoideum_). In this case the millet occupies the

furrow whilst the Guinea corn is on the ridge, and this is reversed

when the soil from the ridge has been hoed into the furrow and the

previous ridge becomes the furrow. In many parts of the northern

districts it is customary to permit the Guinea corn root-stocks

to remain in the ground for two or three years, and to fill in the

vacancies only with new seed when the old plants die. By this system

it is found that the crops are better assured, as the old root-stocks

withstand a prolonged drought better than new plants. This custom,

if persisted in, would be a direct hindrance to the introduction

of ploughing.

Manure is applied regularly to this crop in the northern districts,

but never in the Niger valley. The method of applying manure varies

according to the condition of the crop. Where entirely new plants

are to be grown, a shallow bed is made upon the top of the ridge

or in the furrow, and the goat, sheep, and cow manure mixed with

ashes, and accumulated carefully in the villages, is spread thinly

upon the bed before the seed is sown. In other places, where old

root-stocks occur, handfuls of manure are applied to the growing

plants in May. This is sometimes adopted where young plants only

are growing. Manure is so necessary for the system of cultivation

adopted in the Kano and Zaria Provinces that every scrap of material

which is of manurial value is carefully preserved, being carried

to the fields by men and donkeys.

The heads are cut when ripe and tied in bundles to dry, after

which the grain is readily beaten out in wooden mortars or with

sticks. The flour made from the grain is ground between stones, and

is frequently eaten in the form of a thin porridge. Two varieties of

Nigerian Guinea corn have been examined at the Imperial Institute

and shown to be superior to Indian Guinea corn, though not quite

so good as the Syrian grain (_Bulletin of the Imperial Institute_,

vol. vii. [1909], p. 148.)

Smut-blights, _Ustilago Reiliana_ and _Tolyposporium sp._ (called

in Haussa “domana”), attack the heads, and a _Capnodium sp._

(called “derba”), the honeydew produced on the leaves by _Aphis

sorghi_ (cf. _Bull. Imp. Inst._, vol. xi. [1913]).

At certain stages, green Guinea corn is poisonous to cattle, and

for this reason goats, sheep, and cows are muzzled in the Kano and

Zaria Provinces. Local knowledge of this fact confirms what has been

observed elsewhere with regard to this species, and is explained

by investigations conducted at the Imperial Institute. (_Bulletin

of the Imperial Institute_, vol. i. [1903], and vol. viii. [1910].)

=BULRUSH MILLET.=—This plant, which is supposed to be of African

origin and is usually called millet in West Africa, belongs to

that group of grasses of which the seeding head is in a compact

form and in appearance resembles the head of a bulrush, from which

the common name applied to it has been derived. The botanical name

is _Pennisetum typhoideum_, and the plant is known in the country

as “Gero” or “Giro” (Haussa), and in India as “Bajra.”

At least two varieties, a smooth and an awned form, are grown as

three-months’ crops, and are sown either alone or as described

before with Guinea corn. It is usual to plant millet seed before the

Guinea corn, generally about the middle of April, or as soon as the

first showers are experienced. The crop is then ready for picking

in June and July. If the rainfall by this time has been deficient to

such an extent that the Guinea-corn crop promises to prove a failure,

a second crop of millet is often put in, and, as very much less

rain is required for this crop than is necessary for Guinea corn,

the severe effects of a short rainfall are minimised. The grain

yielded by _Pennisetum typhoideum_ would be classed commercially

as a millet, and a sample from Nigeria examined at the Imperial

Institute was valued at 22_s_. per quarter of 480 lb. (July 1908).

In addition to the two varieties mentioned which are employed

as three-months’ crops, there is another kind with a smooth

greyish-white large grain which is called “Maiwa” or “Dauro,”

and is cultivated in the same manner as Guinea corn; occupying the

land for from five to six months. The pagan Gwaris to the south

of Zaria grow this in large quantities, but it is uncommon north

of Zaria.

These grains are easily stored, and keep in good condition for a

long time. Flour is made from the grain by grinding, and both the

grain and leaves are used for cattle food.

From the malted grain of millet, and sometimes of Guinea corn, an

intoxicating beverage is made which is known as “Gir” (Haussa).

A fine grass seed called “Acha” (_Digitaria ternata_) is grown

in the fields with millet, and attains a height of about two and a

half feet. It is used for making a sort of porridge. “Tomba”

(_Eleusine coracana?_) and “Iboru” are grown in a similar

manner. The composition, nutritive value and commercial value of

several of these food grains are fully dealt with in the _Bulletin

of the Imperial Institute_, vol. vii. [1909], p. 148.

[Illustration: BRITISH COTTON GROWING ASSOCIATION GINNERY, OGUDU,

ILORIN.

Fig. 34, p. 139.]

[Illustration: GWARI TOWN, OPPOSITE MINNA, SOUTH OF ZARIA.

Fig. 35, p. 155.]

[Illustration: COW FULANI WOMAN SELLING MILK AT GWARI.

Fig. 36, p. 163.]

=MAIZE.=—“Mussara” (Haussa) is the name applied to this plant

(_Zea mays_). The crop is more common in the Niger valley among

the Nupe and Yoruba people than in the higher plateaux of Zaria

and Kano. It is probable that maize requires a larger rainfall than

the grain crops which have been mentioned above—which may account

for the infrequency of its cultivation in the dry country.

Among the Gwari pagans, inhabiting the country in the vicinity of

Minna, and the Nupe people to the south, fairly large quantities of

maize are grown and seem to represent the chief food crop. The sowers

drop only one seed, or at most two, into the drills, where they would

put five or six Guinea-corn seeds. The only variety grown commonly

has a bright yellow grain and is apparently a three-months’ crop;

being sown at the commencement and in the middle of the rains, thus

giving two crops in the year in some localities. An illustration

is given at Fig. 35 showing a view of the Gwari town at Minna.

=WHEAT.=—The cultivation of wheat is confined to the drier parts

of Northern Nigeria, where it is grown as a rainfall as well as an

irrigated crop.

In Zaria it is frequently sown in October, and occupies land which

may have been under rice cultivation just previously. Goat manure

is especially applied to wheat, and irrigation is carried out from

wells or by the employment of shadufs on the banks of streams. This

crop is harvested in January.

In Kano, wheat is more generally grown as a rainfall-crop in similar

situations, and is, in this case, sown in May, being harvested

in September.

The variety seems to be constant throughout the country, and

appears to have been established from very early times. The grain

is similar in appearance to the wheat seen in the Nile valley,

and may be _Triticum compositum_ (Egyptian wheat). Specimens from

Kano and Zaria have been examined at the Imperial Institute, and

the analyses made show about 11 per cent. of gluten including 5

to 6 per cent. of gliadin, and the commercial experts consulted

were of opinion that an unlimited quantity of this type of wheat

would be readily saleable on the European market (_Bulletin of the

Imperial Institute_, vol. viii. [1910], p. 118.) The Kano wheat in

particular gave excellent results in milling and baking trials.

As a food, wheat is regarded with great favour in the country, and is

bought up chiefly by the wealthy classes for making a brown flour. It

makes an excellent bread, and is in demand among the European

residents for mixing with European tinned flour for breadmaking.

In order to separate the grain from the ear, the dried corn is

threshed by the village women; thin sticks being used for the

purpose. The chaff is then winnowed in the wind. The Haussa name

is “Alkama.”

In addition to Zaria and Kano districts, the grain is said to be

plentiful and cheap in Sokoto and Bornu, but does not appear to be

grown south of the 11th degree.

=RICE.=—The cultivation of rice extends over a much larger portion

of the country than wheat. It is said to be especially plentiful

in the low-lying districts to the south of Sokoto, where large

tracts of swampy country exist, which are annually planted with the

crop. On the banks of the Kaduna river, near Dakman and Dagomba,

as well as in the valley of the Baku river in the Nupe country,

irrigated rice fields are common, and the product from the Nupe

Province is much appreciated by the inhabitants of the middle

Niger. The local name for rice is “Shinkafa.”

Near Zaria and Kano comparatively little rice is cultivated, and

where seen is generally found in swampy places where other food

grains are not capable of being utilised. Rice in these localities is

one of the few unmanured crops, and is planted at the commencement of

the rainy season. The harvesting is done about November or December,

and the paddy or husk-rice is cleaned by soaking the grain in hot

water, drying in the sun and then pounding in a wooden mortar. The

chaff is winnowed, and a fairly clean rice with a slight reddish

tint remains. All the rice appears to be of the same type, and is

held in high estimation for its nutritious quality. The imported

white rices, which occasionally enter the country, are regarded

with less favour than the local kind.

It is possible to develop the cultivation of the crop in the valleys

of all the large rivers, and it seems probable that, with improved

methods of irrigation, two crops might be grown annually.

A sample of rice from Ilorin examined at the Imperial Institute

proved to be about equal in quality to average Bengal rice (_Bulletin

of the Imperial Institute_, vol. vii. [1909], p. 149), but it is

improbable that it would at present prove remunerative to export

this rice to Europe. A good market might, however, be found for

it at the coast ports of Southern Nigeria, where imported rice

is in demand. It might be necessary, in order to compete with the

present trade, to grow and prepare a cleaner (less red) variety,

which would resemble more nearly the imported kinds, and to this

end the acclimatised American rice of Sierra Leone might be tried

(cf. _Bull. Imp. Inst._, vol. xv. [1917]).

=SUGAR-CANE.=—The cultivation of sugar-cane (_Saccharum

officinale_) is confined to small patches or strips of land

on the edges of rice fields, where it may be said to be under

irrigation. The Haussa name is “Reke.” The preparation of sugar

does not appear to be known in the country, and the sole use to

which the plant is put, seems to be the consumption of the green

stalks by the inhabitants and their cattle. The variety seen in

Kano district appears to have a reddish stalk, and cane is said to

be a feature in the Maigana district.

=LEGUMINOUS PLANTS.=—Several kinds of small beans are grown, of

which the most valuable appears to be that known as “Wanki.”

This is a white-skinned kind, similar to, but about half the size

of, the white haricot of Europe. The cultivation of these beans

is somewhat irregular; a few being occasionally sown among the

millet and Guinea-corn crops. They are apparently never grown as a

sole crop. A similar bean of a brown colour is common in the Bassa

Province, but the white bean is generally distributed throughout

the whole country.

The “Bambarra groundnut” (_Voandzeia subterranea_) is grown in

a similar manner to the common groundnut (_Arachis hypogea_) which

has been referred to among the exported products. The cultivation

is similar, and the plant is seen occupying elevated ridges. The

Haussa name is “Paruru.”

An unidentified bean, which is called “Girigiri,” has been

described as being grown by the pagan Gwari tribes to the south

of Zaria, but apart from the fact that it is much larger than the

“Wanki” bean, nothing seems to be known about it.

Indian dhall (_Cajanus indicus_), frequently termed the pigeon pea,

has been introduced into many parts of the country, with the object

of inducing the native to grow a leguminous crop, which would serve

the dual purpose of providing a palatable food as well as being

beneficial to the soil, but in only a few localities do the natives

appear to make use of the peas for food. It has been recommended

to grow the plant upon land which has become somewhat exhausted

by the repeated growth of grain crops, and to permit the peas to

remain upon such land for two or three seasons, during which time

they will yield successive crops. The beneficial action which such a

plant exerts by nitrifying the soil, and the manurial value of the

leaves, which are shed in thick profusion, are important reasons

for its introduction, but the value will not be fully appreciated

until it has been adopted generally as a food.

=SOYA BEAN.=—The Manchurian or soya bean (_Glycine hispida_ or

_soja_), which has the additional merit of yielding about 15 per

cent. of a valuable oil, and which is highly appreciated as another

kind of dhall in India, is being experimented with in various parts

of British West Africa (see _Bulletin of the Imperial Institute_,

vol. viii. [1910], p. 40).

The recent expansion in the cultivation of leguminous crops is a

promising step.

=CASSAVA.=—Among the Haussas as well as the Yorubas and Nupes, the

cultivation of cassava (_Manihot utilissima_) is extensively carried

on. In Haussa cultivation it is an unmanured plant, and is usually

grown in separate fields surrounded by mud walls, thorn hedges,

or Guinea-corn matting. The ground from which a crop of cassava has

been harvested is rarely used for Guinea corn; the succeeding crop

being usually cotton, with the application of manure. In the Nupe

country, near Bida, cassava is frequently employed as a shade crop

for onions; in this case being planted around the onion beds and

obtaining the benefit of the high state of cultivation, manuring

and irrigation which is applied to that crop. Cassava grown under

these conditions is planted twenty days later than the onions,

and is pulled up a month later.

The pagan tribes of Zaria, and the other provinces where they are

in greater numbers, do not seem to plant cassava. The Haussa name

given to the plant is “Rogo.”

=YAMS= (_Dioscorea sativa_, etc.).—These climbers are commonly

grown in the moist valley of the Niger and in the Yoruba country of

Ilorin, but are rare and only an irrigated crop in the more northern

countries. Where they are seen, they are planted from root eyes upon

high mounds with ditches dammed to retain the water between them,

and, until the plant has grown up as a trailer upon the ground,

some feet in length, no supports are put in. At this time, however,

the straw covers, which it is customary to place on the apex of the

yam mounds, are removed and an elaborate system of stakes, to the

top of each of which strings are tied and conducted to the ground

near the growing plant, are put in, and the plants to the number

of four or more are trained to grow towards the top of each stake.

The large white yam is chiefly grown, and is called in Haussa

“Doya.” Yams attain large dimensions in the damp localities,

but are small in the drier places.

_Colocasia antiquorum_, called by the Haussas “Kamu,” is usually

referred to as the koko yam and is rarely grown. A few may be seen

in the wet localities and near Zaria, where they are planted in

swamps upon high mounds or ridges.

=SWEET POTATOES.=—This crop is grown everywhere, and is nearly

always unmanured. It is said that it forms the occupant of the land

upon which Guinea corn and millet are repeatedly grown in some parts

of the Kano district in the second and eighth year—_i.e._ twice

in a period of eight years. In the year of plantation, the ridges

are said to be heightened. Near Bida very high beds are made for

it, resembling flat-topped mounds, with an area of sixteen or more

square feet. The Haussas apply the name “Dankali” to the root,

which is usually of the small white variety.

=Artichokes and small Root Crops.=—The Jerusalem artichoke

(_Helianthus tuberosus_) called “Gwaza,” as well as “Rizga”

(_Plectranthus sp._) and “Tumuku” (probably _Plectranthus sp._)

are cultivated by the people living to the south of Zaria Town.

“Gwaza” seems to be less planted than “Rizga,” the latter

being carefully grown upon selected ground which has been previously

hoed and levelled, the surface being covered over with branches of

_Bauhinia reticulata_ and other forest plants until the stems of

the crop have reached a height of one foot or more. Single stems

spring from the root eyes which are planted. “Tumuku” resembles

“Gwaza” in appearance, but comes up in clusters of stems and

is planted upon mounds.

All the above roots are used in the manner in which the potato is

employed in Europe; cassava alone being pounded to make a kind of

dough ball, in addition to being eaten in chopped up and boiled form.

=Onions.=—Two kinds of onions are cultivated throughout the

country: _Allium cepa_, the large onion which is seen to perfection

in the Kano markets, and _Allium ascalonicum_ which is usually

termed the shallot, and is cultivated to a larger extent in the

localities where manure is scarce.

The variety of large onion grown in Kano is pink upon the outside,

and for this reason, according to inquiries conducted by the Imperial

Institute, is said to be quite unsuitable for the English market;

the white Egyptian onion being preferred.

=Cultivation.=—The cultivation of onions is, perhaps, more

carefully carried out than that of any other crop, and may be

described from that seen at Lemu in Nupe. The seed is sown closely

in beds of soil which have previously been enriched with manure, and

the surface is covered with straw until the young plants are a few

inches in height. Transplanting into new beds, which are strewn with

cow and goat manure, is the next operation, the plants being put in

at about 4-6 inches apart. The whole cultivation is done during the

dry season, and the beds are irrigated by means of channels supplied

with water raised from streams or wells, in the north by shadufs,

or in the Nupe country by people conveying the water in calabashes.

The market price varies greatly in different districts, and is

immediately influenced by any reduced supply. There is said to be

a very good demand for the large onions in the Southern Nigerian

markets, and there should be no difficulty in getting them to Lagos,

as they have been brought from Kano to London in good condition.

=Minor Crops.=—Okra (_Hibiscus esculentus_), “Kubiewa,” a

species of Solanum resembling a small tomato called “Yalo,” the

sorrel Hibiscus (_H. Sabdariffa_) called “Yakwa,” a pumpkin

called “Kubiwa,” and the aubergine (_Solanum melongena_),

are grown upon a small scale, and chiefly in the vicinity of houses.

=OTHER FIELD CROPS.= =Dye Plants.=—Indigo is the chief dye used

in the country, and is prepared in the northern provinces from a

species of Indigofera, which has not been accurately determined.

In Ilorin and Kabba the plant used is _Lonchocarpus cyanescens_,

and the wild trees of this species may be seen preserved in the

cultivated fields.

Camwood, a name applied to the red wood obtained from several

species of _Pterocarpus_ and from _Baphia nitida_, in different

parts of West Africa, is obtained chiefly from _P. erinaceus_

in Northern Nigeria, and is used by the natives for staining the

skin. It is preserved in the fields cleared for grain cultivation.

Henna is obtained from _Lawsonia inermis_, which is regularly

planted as a sole crop in the northern provinces and Kontagora. The

use of it is generally to replace camwood as a red dye where that

tree is scarce.

=Tobacco.=—The cultivation of tobacco (_Nicotiana tabacum_) is

carried on in almost every part of the country, but for native use

is generally made into snuff or into ropes, plaits, and targets,

for sale in those places where it is smoked. (Cf. _Bull. Imp. Inst._,

vol. xv. [1917], p. 32.)

The crop is usually grown in the river valleys, and is irrigated

carefully. Manure in the form of house sweepings, ashes, and

cattle-shed refuse is always applied, and the crop consists of leaves

of all sizes and ages stripped from the plant at the same time.

The preparation of the tobacco usually consists in drying the

leaves spread upon mats or upon sand in the sun. When flaccid they

are twisted into ropes or plaits in the form in which they are

afterwards sold, or they are completely dried and pounded up. In

Ilorin an attempt has been made to prepare the leaves tied up

in flat bundles, and this method has more recently been tried at

the Baro prison farm, but the previous curing has generally proved

inefficient and requires more attention. It is unlikely that tobacco

fit for export will be produced except under expert guidance.

=MISCELLANEOUS.= =Beeswax.=—Bees are kept in many of the large

villages, and are seen in hives placed in trees near the large towns

in Kano and Zaria especially. Honey is employed in the country

as a substitute for sugar. The wax is not greatly valued, and is

frequently thrown away, although it seems to be of fair quality.

=Locust Bean.=—The tree which furnishes the well-known locust bean

(_Parkia filicoidea_) is called “Dorowa” by the Haussas. The

beans, which are produced in clusters, contain a sweet-tasting yellow

flour-like substance, which is used for making a beverage. In this

flour-like substance the flattened seeds are placed, and these

are greatly appreciated for making into cakes, in the process of

which they are boiled and apparently decomposed. The empty pods

of the bean are boiled and used for making a strong cement used in

flooring, etc. The pods have been examined at the Imperial Institute,

and appear to be unsuitable for export as a feeding-stuff owing to

their fibrous nature (see Report by Professor Dunstan on “Cotton,

Gum, and Other Economic Products from Northern Nigeria” (Cd. 2778

[1905]), p. 21). Fig. 30 shows a locust bean tree in Ilorin.

=Date Palms= (_Phœnix dactylifera_) and the fruit of the Run palm

(_Borassus flabellifer_), “Giginia” (Haussa), are used for

food and are sometimes sold in the markets towards the south,

being commonly seen in Kano.

=CATTLE.=—Large numbers of cattle are moved about through the

country north of the 11th degree, where the tsetse fly does

not appear to occur. The “Cow Fulani” is the race whose

work is confined to the care of cattle and the sale of milk and

butter. These people have no fixed abode, but move with the cattle

to localities suitable to the season. An illustration is given of

a Cow Fulani woman selling milk at Gwari, a town south of Zaria

(Fig. 36). The cattle are large and humped similar to the Indian

Zebu type, although in some places the straight-backed kind, which

are common in the south, are seen.

=SILK.=—Four kinds of silkworm are collected for the spinning

of yarn used in the embroidery on the Haussa gowns. The best of

these is that which feeds upon the Tamarind tree, “Tsamia,”

and is termed “Tsamian tsamia.” The silk cocoons are collected

in Bauchi Province and are boiled in water with wood ashes, and

subsequently washed. The silk becomes nearly white, and is carded

and spun into yarn in the same manner as cotton. The species of

insect which produces this silk has not yet been identified, but

is almost certainly referable to the genus _Anaphe_ (cf. p. 117).

A second quality of silk is that called “Tsamian doka,” and is

obtained from the cocoon masses produced by the larvæ of _Anaphe

Moloneyi_, which are found in the same locality, feeding upon the

“Bokin doka” tree, which has been determined to be a species

of _Macrolobium_. Several hundred worms congregate together and

form a solid mass of pale brown tubular cocoons upon the bark of

the tree, covering the outer surface with a whitish envelope of

silk. This silk is treated in the same manner as the other, but,

after boiling and washing, does not become white. Two other species,

which are used for the same purpose, are called “Tsamian fakali”

and “Tsamian bauri,” and feed on another species of _Macrolobium_

and a _Ficus_ respectively. They produce inferior kinds of silk.

Much interest is attached to these Anaphe silks, which, in recent

years, have been developed in the German Colonies of East Africa,

especially, on a commercial scale. It is reported that, just

previous to the declaration of war, German agents in British

West Africa made endeavours to obtain as much of the wild silk

as possible from Nigeria. Plantations of a species of _Bridelia_,

the common food plant of _Anaphe infracta_, were made in the late

German Colonies, and special machinery was in use there for the

production of a commercial silk.

The following figures give the values of the chief exported products

from Nigeria as a whole, from 1913 to 1919:—

1913 1914 1915 1916

£ £ £ £

Palm kernels 3,109,818 2,541,150 1,692,712 1,739,706

Palm oil 1,854,384 1,571,691 1,462,162 1,402,799

Cocoa 157,480 171,751 313,946 393,101

Cotton lint 159,223 150,791 56,351 243,949

Mahogany and timber 106,050 86,522 54,559 49,361

Groundnuts 174,716 179,219 72,177 473,653

Hides and skins 197,214 505,785 302,420 538,917

Shea products 74,471 52,843 69,823 32,529

Rubber — 38,854 38,113 34,192

Benniseed — — 5,225 16,523

_Continued:_ 1917 1918 1919

£ £ £

Palm kernels 2,581,702 3,226,306 4,947,995

Palm oil 1,882,997 2,610,448 4,245,893

Cocoa 499,004 235,870 1,067,675

Cotton lint 234,338 97,399 484,744

Mahogany and timber 21,282 68,480 116,820

Groundnuts 710,308 920,137 698,702

Hides and skins 198,332 293,019 1,262,142

Shea products 40,189 4,884 37,222

Rubber 32,350 19,667 43,903

Benniseed 2,876 696 53,541

=INDEX=

Abassi, 110

Abbradi, 44

“Abe bobe,” 71, 100

“Abe dam,” 70, 100

“Abe Ohene,” 71, 100

Abeokuta, 119

Abeokuta-Ibadan, 106

“Abe pa,” 22, 70, 100, 132

Abetifi, 43

“Abe tuntum,” 70

Abrotoo, 44

Abuko, 3, 4

Aburi, 47, 49, 57, 63, 65, 66, 79

_Acacia_, 89, 91, 122, 134

_Acacia albida_, 134

_Acacia arabica_, 13, 62, 89, 134, 143

_Acacia Caffra_, 134

_Acacia mellifera_, 134

_Acacia Senegal_, 134

_Acacia Sieberiana_, 89

_Acacia Verek_, 134

Accra, 56, 106

Accra copal, 82, 106

Accras, 44

“Acha,” 154

Adampes, 44

Adda, 90

Administration, 121

“Affia-ko-jub,” 100

African mahogany, 72

African mango, 103

African rubber, 59

_Afzelia africana_, 72, 119

Agbede, 95, 109, 112

“Agbesi,” 144