THE DOGES: THEIR POWER AND THEIR ACHIEVEMENTS.
There is a wonderful fulness and magnificence of sound in the title
of the Doge of Venice! It has only been paralleled by that of the
Stadtholder of the United Provinces, and excelled by that of the
President of the United States.
Why is this? Partly because it is a less generic title than emperor,
king, sultan, and so on; and then it was the gift of the people, not
a mere accident of birth. A man was already known for strength of
character or for great deeds before he received the Beretta. He had
attained an influence over other men in such a degree that they were
willing to elevate him above themselves.
In the accounts of the achievements and acts of the Doges, it would
seem that their power was absolute; but the truth shows this
appearance to be most deceitful. For while the earliest of these
dukes were autocratic, the democracy soon feared the effect of such
rulers, and gradually the Doge was hedged in until, in one way and
another, he who appeared to govern was more governed himself than
were many who surrounded him.
But when, in 697, Luca Anafesto was elected the first Doge of Venice,
and in the church of his own parish was seated in an impromptu chair
of state, and invested with a crown of gold and a sceptre of ivory,
he thereby acquired vast power. He was not only the head of civil
and military affairs, but of the Church as well, since the purely
{26} spiritual matters only were controlled by the clergy. His
Serenity alone could convoke the church assemblies; and no deacon,
bishop, or patriarch could be chosen or confirmed in office without
his sanction.
In fact, he was a Sovereign, for the Tribunes were subordinate to the
Doge; and for twenty years Anafesto reigned supreme. But in that
time the public vacillated curiously as to how they would be
governed. Theoretically they were a democracy, and monarchy was an
experiment; and for centuries a semi-civil war existed in Venice,
degenerating at times into actual anarchy.
The name of Doge was given up, and that of Magister (Master) was
adopted; again Doge was in favor, and not infrequently those who bore
the dignity of that office were blinded, insulted, exiled, and even
murdered. To change the Doge seemed to be the only panacea which
occurred to the Venetians in times of difficulty; and erelong what at
the first glance seems an honor came to be, in fact, a serious
danger,--a position subject to suspicions, jealousies, and
conspiracies.
Like the stories of the early days of other nations, that of Venice
is largely mythical, confusing, and confused; and not until Giovanni
Sagornino (John of Venice, and Deacon John, as he is called) wrote a
connected and trustworthy story of his own time, can we clearly trace
the course of events.
From 976 on through the dogates of the Orseoli and the Michieli, the
external history of Venice is told by recounting the fightings with
Dalmatians and other neighbors, and even with the Normans at Naples,
and the story of the earlier crusades; while its internal history is
a strange mixture of plots and counterplots on the one hand, and the
endeavors of those who had learned the value of law and order, on the
other, to bring about some conditions on which all could rest with
confidence.
[Illustration: _Ducal Palace._]
{27}
The manner of electing the Doge during three centuries was very
curious, but after all not unlike the methods of politics almost
everywhere. There are always bold, enterprising men who seem born to
be leaders, and others who, through family tradition or great wealth,
appropriate to themselves prominent positions. These classes existed
in Venice, and they held what we should call caucuses, and decided
who suited them best for Doge. Of course there were compromises to
be made before these leaders could agree; but at last a sort of
mass-meeting was called in San Marco, and the people were advised as
to who they should elect. Naturally, he who was thus easily exalted
could be as easily destroyed; and the inspiriting cries of _Provato,
Provato_ (Approved), which arose like thunder-tones to announce the
will of the people, must have had an undertone on a purely minor key,
in spite of the honor and dignity they conferred.
Vitale Michieli II., who came into power in 1117, was the last Doge
elected by this dubious form of universal suffrage. The people had
grown in experience and intelligence, and demanded more real power
for themselves.
A century had now passed since Venice had begun to replace the mud
huts and primitive houses of her founders and their descendants with
marble palaces; and the churches and monasteries of the tenth and
eleventh centuries show full well the riches of the Republic at that
period, and foreshadow the abounding magnificence which followed so
rapidly. But this wealth was not distributed among the people, as
the privileges of salt-gathering and fishing had been among the
primeval dwellers on these islands.
The fact that San Marco, the Ducal Palace, and the first Public
Hospital were all founded by one Doge, Orseolo I., from his private
fortune at the close of the tenth century, and even the wills of the
Patriarch Fortunate in 825, and {28} of other wealthy patricians,
prove how riches were massed in certain families; and these families
also absorbed the honors of the Republic.
The names of the Orseoli, Michieli, Dandolos, Contarinis, Morosinis,
Tiepolos, and others occur _ad infinitum_, alternating in the story
of the glories and riches of Mediæval Venice. They were all
patricians (_Maggiori_), and a wide chasm now separated them from the
lower classes (_Mediocri_ and _Minori_). The former had sufficient
means to stay at home, while the two latter were forced to follow
various maritime occupations; and it soon came about that all the
larger ships were owned by Patricians, were fitted out by them, and
brought back to them the gold which gave them their power. In short,
Venice, calling herself a Republic, was governed by an Oligarchy,--by
a few families who now owned almost all the soil outside of that in
possession of ecclesiastical establishments.
One custom which had greatly furthered the establishment of the
aristocracy was discontinued in 1033; this was the association of the
son of the Doge with his father in the power and responsibility of
the office, which directly tended to making it hereditary. But in
spite of reforms, only patricians held the civil, military, naval, or
ecclesiastical offices; only patricians governed the provinces; the
judicial and episcopal benches were filled by the same class, and to
them alone had the Beretta and the Pallium been given. In five
centuries, as frequently as the Doges had succeeded each other, but
nineteen families had been honored with this office, which had now
assumed a power as independent and a magnificence as imposing as
those of the rulers of Germany or France.
After reading of the power, wealth, and influence of the Venetian
Republic in 1172, we are surprised to learn that its population was
but sixty-five thousand; and yet, even with this small number, the
Arrengo (General Assembly), {29} consisting of all male inhabitants,
had become a troublesome body, and hitherto no measure was valid that
had not been passed by it.
The Patricians found themselves between two fires,--the Arrengo on
the one hand, where the poorest and most ignorant of the Minori had
equal rights with themselves, and on the other hand the Doge, who was
elected for life, and whose power was only modified by two
Councillors, who might easily be entirely in his control.
The assassination of Michieli III. in 1172 afforded an opportunity
for changes, and the increasing dissatisfaction of the aristocracy
now culminated in a reform of the Constitution, which ended in a
division of Venice into six wards, from each of which two deputies
appointed forty members of a Great Council (Consiglio Grande), which
was to be the general legislature, elected annually on September 29.
The Arrengo was not abolished, but would be convened only on
occasions of vast importance, such as a Declaration of War, the
Election of a Doge, or the making of a Treaty of Peace.
This measure seemed very harmless, as there were no limitations to
the rank of a Councillor; but the Patricians well knew that the
Deputies would be of their order, and each of these could appoint
four members of his own family; and as almost from the first the
meetings of the Council were held with closed doors, it soon became
anything but a democratic body.
Having thus largely extinguished the power of the people, the
Patricians proceeded to limit that of the Doge. The Council of Two
was replaced by one with six members, who were to advise his Serenity
on all matters, and without their approval no act of his could be
legal. These Privy Councillors retained their office through the
entire Dogate to which they were elected. From the four hundred and
eighty members of the Grand Council, sixty {30} Senators were
annually elected to attend to many matters which did not require to
be brought before the whole council, and to overlook the machinery of
the government.
All this being done, a new Doge was elected in an entirely novel
manner. Thirty-four of the Grand Council were appointed to choose
eleven from their number as an Electoral Conclave; these eleven were
bound by a solemn oath to impartiality, and any candidate who
received nine of their votes was declared to be the Doge.
On Jan. 11, 1173, the eleven met in San Marco with open doors, and in
the presence of a vast conclave elected Orio Malipiero, one of their
own number. But he diffidently declined the office, and begged
permission to nominate Sebastiano Ziani, as better qualified for this
exalted station.
This nomination was accepted, and from the high altar of San Marco
the Procurator announced to the people, using the new formula, "This
is your Doge, if it pleases you" (_Questo e vostro doge, se m
piacera_), and the people responded with shouts and acclamations.
That all this was not as spontaneous as it appeared, was soon
demonstrated; for when Ziani was carried around the Piazza in a
wooden chair by some workmen from the Arsenal, he distributed
liberally to the people money stamped with his own name, which had
been expressly prepared for the purpose. This unusual liberality
alarmed the jealous Patricians, and at once a law was made that only
a newly elected doge should be permitted to distribute largesse, and
he not less than one hundred nor more than one hundred and fifty
ducats. This money was called Oselle, and was specially coined for
the purpose.
Returning to the cathedral, Ziani was solemnly invested with the
crown and sceptre. Thus began his important reign, which lasted but
five years and a quarter, and ended in his voluntary abdication. The
enormous wealth of {31} his family was said to have been founded by
the good fortune of an ancestor who found in the ruins of Altino a
golden cow which had been dedicated to the service of Juno. However
it may have been, this tradition gave rise to the saying, "He has the
cow of Ziani," when speaking of a wealthy man.
By the advice of Ziani, the Bank of Venice was established, and was
the first institution of its kind in Europe. During his reign Venice
bore her part in the siege of Ancona, which so alarmed the Greek
Emperor that he, so to speak, bought back his former ally by a treaty
which bound him to pay Venice _one thousand and five hundred solid
pounds of gold_; but his most important political acts were those
already recounted in the reconciliation of Alexander III. and
Frederick Barbarossa.
Ziani did much for the improvement of the Piazza, and extended it by
removing buildings which were falling into ruin. He embellished the
whole city by the construction of elegant bridges; but tradition
teaches that his greatest architectural achievement was the taking
down of the Church of San Geminiano, in order to enlarge San Marco,
which he did at his own cost.
Before demolishing the sanctuary, Ziani applied to the Pope for his
sanction of the act. The Pope answered that he could not authorize a
sacrilege, but he could be very indulgent after it had been
committed. The church soon disappeared, and its destruction gave
rise to a curious custom. For many succeeding years, on an appointed
day, the Doge, attended by a brilliant retinue, repaired to the
Piazza, where he was met by the curé of the parish with his clergy.
The curé asked, "When will your Serenity be pleased to restore my
church on its former site?"
"Next year," the Doge annually replied, and broke the promise as
often.
{32}
ENRICO DANDOLO.
From the abdication of Ziani to the election of Dandolo, in 1193,
there were no incidents in the story of Venice that do not fade
before the tremendous achievements of the fiery old man, eighty-six
years old when elected, who for twelve years labored to exalt Venice
and humble the Greeks, and, finally dying at Constantinople, which he
had twice conquered, was buried in St. Sophia, far from his beloved
San Marco, and the city for which he gave his life.
The oath taken by Dandolo at his institution in the Dogate is the
first _promissione_ which has been preserved. By it he was bound, by
all possible pledges, faithfully to execute the laws of the Republic,
to submit his private affairs to the common courts, to write no
personal letters to the Pope nor any ruler, and to maintain at his
own cost two ships of war. To such lengths had the jealousy of the
Patricians already reached that the Doge was little more than the
figure-head of the Republic.
The reign of Dandolo opened with the usual conflicts with the Pisans,
Dalmatians, and any other neighbors who were troublesome to the
Venetians at that time, none being of unusual importance. But when,
in 1195, Innocent III. ascended the papal throne, he initiated the
preaching of a Crusade destined to result in the glory of Dandolo and
Venice, but not in the conquest of the Saracens nor the possession of
Palestine.
Innocent, but thirty-six years old, ambitious and energetic, soon
brought to his allegiance all the powers of Europe except the
Republics of Pisa and Venice. Dandolo, with his bravery and
inflexibility of purpose, was a formidable opponent, and when at last
his concurrence was sought, he was asked to aid the Crusade for gain
and not as a subject of the Pope.
{33}
In France the preaching of Foulkes of Neuilly attracted thousands to
his standard. Hazlitt says:--
"The streets of Paris, the banks of the Marne, and the plains of
Champagne were deserted. Doctors left their patients; lovers forsook
their mistresses. The usurer crept from his hoard; the thief emerged
from his hiding-place. All joined the holy phalanx. The joust and
the tourney, the love of ladies, the guerdon of valor, were alike
forgotten in the excitement, the tilters taking the vow and assuming
the emblem of sanctity; in a short time the flower of French
chivalry, from Boulogne to the Pyrenees, was assembled under the
banners of Theobald, Count of Champagne, and his cousin Louis, Count
of Blois and Chartres."
Remembering the terrible disasters that had attended the former
Crusades in reaching the Holy Land, these leaders resolved to invite
the Venetians to furnish shipping to transport soldiers and horses to
Palestine.
An embassy of six French noblemen was sent to Venice, which city they
reached on Feb. 15, 1201. Among them was one gratefully remembered
by us for his record of events which tells us much that the Venetian
writers quite ignored; in fact, some of them make no pretence of
regarding the whole affair as anything but an opportunity to increase
the glory of the Venetians.
The French ambassadors did not attempt to ignore the vast power of
the Venetians to aid or hinder them in the prosecution of the
Crusade. Men and money they had in plenty, but with prayers and
tears they entreated Venice to furnish them with ships. Indeed,
according to Villehardouin, the Crusaders were accomplished in
weeping, and shed tears copiously on all occasions of joy, sorrow, or
devotion.
There were repeated assemblies of the various councils, and after
each of these Dandolo required some days for {34} reflection; but at
length it was agreed that the Crusaders should assemble at Venice on
the 22d of June in the following year, when they should be provided
with transports for thirty-five thousand men and forty-five hundred
horses; it was also promised that these men and horses should be
supplied with provisions for a year, and be taken wheresoever the
service of God required. Then, with true Venetian magnificence, the
armament was to be increased by fifty galleys at the expense of the
Republic. For all this the French promised to pay eighty-five
thousand marks (£170,000) in four instalments.
These conditions being settled, a grand convocation was called in San
Marco, where ten thousand of the people, after the Mass, were humbly
entreated to assent to the wishes of the ambassadors,--a harmless
deceit of these so-called Republicans. Villehardouin made a moving
appeal, watered with tears, and declared that the ambassadors would
not rise from their knees until they had obtained consent to their
wishes.
"With this the six ambassadors knelt down, weeping. The Doge and the
people then cried out with one voice, 'We grant it, we grant it!'
And so great was the sound that nothing ever equalled it. The good
Doge of Venice, who was most wise and brave, then ascended the pulpit
and spoke to the people. 'Signori,' he said, 'you see the honor
which God has done you, that the greatest nation on earth has left
all other peoples in order to ask your company, that you should share
with them this great undertaking, which is the conquest of
Jerusalem.'"
Let us for a moment picture this scene, one of the most unusual in
history. It was a winter afternoon, when the choir and altars alone
could have light enough to relieve the gloom of the cathedral, filled
by an excited crowd, each man of which felt the responsibility (we
know with how little reason) of the "Yes" or "No" he was to speak.
{35} There was no humility here, such as the foreign nobles were
accustomed to; these sea-faring, weather-beaten men looked on them as
equals.
Before the high altar, where the silvery hair and ducal robes of
Dandolo were glistening in the light, knelt these splendidly attired
nobles, weeping and begging for what these poor vassals believed that
they could grant or withhold. We cannot imagine the varied and
overpowering emotions that ascended with that shout of "Concediamo,"
nor the echoes of the great dome that hung so gloomily over all.
The treaty, written on parchment, and strengthened with oaths and
seals, was despatched to Innocent for his approval, and all Venice
began to hum with the unusual preparations for the expedition. The
small coins were found insufficient to pay the necessary workmen at
the arsenal; and a new silver coin, stamped with the effigy of
Dandolo, was issued for their payment.
Besides the many ships to be built, there was armor to be furnished
for a host; catapults and battering-rams must be made ready; the
Venetian galleys were to be provided with lofty towers to be used in
attacking fortresses on the seashore; while an enormous amount of
grain, food, wine, swords, daggers, and battle-axes, thousands of
bows and tens of thousands of arrows with metal tips, as well as
supplies of cordage, oars, sails, anchors, and chains, and many other
things, must be made ready to load one hundred and ten large
store-ships. And for all this but sixteen months of hand labor!
The vast amount of stores always kept in Venice were insufficient,
and men and ships must be spared to go in search of materials. The
laborers were divided and subdivided, and employed both day and
night. The whole work went on as if by magic. As soon as a
transport or galley was completed, it was launched, and another rose
in {36} its place; Venice bustled with labor and bristled with its
results, and seemed a vast Babel for noise.
At San Niccolo and elsewhere on the Lido, barracks for troops,
stables, and storehouses were built, provisions were abundantly
supplied; and the skilful and generous manner in which Venice
fulfilled her great contract would have made her famous, had this not
been eclipsed by greater deeds.
As it became known in all Europe that Venice had undertaken the
transport of the Crusaders, adventurers began to pour into the city.
They came singly and in bands, until early in 1202 fifteen thousand
had gathered; and this number was nearly doubled by June. These
strangers added greatly to the gayety of life in Venice; for, bent
upon dangerous adventures, they were determined to amuse themselves
while they could. They explored the lagoons in the fascinating
barchette by day, and by night told stories of love and war, and woke
the echoes to the unusual sound of the national airs of many nations
and tribes, all more or less martial and inspiriting as heard from
one island to another.
But alas! as month followed month and the expedition did not move,
when it began to be whispered that the barons could not fulfil their
engagements, these harmless amusements changed to drinking and
gambling and such other license of behavior as often led to fatal
quarrels.
The leaders who had come at the appointed time were shocked by the
absence of numbers of those who should have brought their share of
men and money. There had been great discouragements; young Thibault
of Champagne, their chosen leader, had died; and in the long time
that had elapsed since the treaty was made, many impatient spirits
had embarked from other ports and taken various routes to Palestine.
Boniface, Marquis of Monteferrato, was now the leader {37} of the
Crusade; and he and the other nobles, after stripping themselves of
money, jewels, and other valuables, were still unable to pay the last
thirty-two thousand marks of their debt. The situation was
deplorable; the crowded barracks were full of disease, and many were
dying daily, and no one could see any prospect of relief. Even
Dandolo was touched by the troubles and the devotion of the barons;
and now came his temptation,--for it is not probable, as some authors
seem to believe, that he could have seen the end from the beginning;
but his patriotism, which we must allow to have been a refined sort
of selfishness, suggested to him a compromise which was finally made.
Dandolo proposed that in consideration of the debt still due, the
Crusaders should join with the Venetians in subduing Zara, that
ever-turbulent and ever-rebelling city. The larger part of the
Crusaders made no objection to this plan; a smaller number thought it
wrong for soldiers of the cross to turn their arms against
Christians, and feared the disapproval of the Pope. No telegraphs
nor submarine cables existed; to consult his Holiness would require
months, and meantime the debt could be paid by taking Zara, and they
might be landed in Palestine. The condition of the idle soldiers
became more and more alarming; and when the Venetians answered the
objections of the Cardinal-legate, Peter of Capua, in abrupt fashion,
and he left the Crusaders to their fate, the bargain was soon closed
and all arrangements completed.
But one thing remained to be settled,--the choice of a commander of
the fleet; and this was accomplished on a Sunday, in San Marco. The
importance of the occasion drew all the inhabitants, and indeed, all
strangers who could find a place, to the Cathedral and the Piazza.
Patricians, barons, statesmen, soldiers, and the people, all were
there, as well as ladies in rich brocades, with necklaces of pearls
and precious stones and priceless jewels in their hair.
{38}
The crimson, scarlet, and purple robes of the statesmen with their
diamond or gold buttons, the full armor of the barons and knights,
almost as brilliant as jewels, the helmets and shields held by the
pages, all served to render it a scene of dazzling brilliancy; while
the splendid hangings and decorations of San Marco, the costly
vessels of gold upon its altars, and the gorgeous vestments of the
priests served to impress the strangers with the dignity and wealth
of the Republic.
The silks ceased to rustle, and the swords and battle-axes to clink,
as the acolytes took their places; and the service seemed about to
begin, when suddenly the Doge arose and majestically ascended the
pulpit. He was ninety-five years old, and erect as in youth; his
ruddy face and large blue eyes, which did not show their dimness of
sight, spoke not half his age; the furrows across his brow alone
indicated the experiences and the years that he had passed through,
and the ducal crown was never worn with more majestic dignity. Every
sound was hushed, and in the farthest corner of San Marco could his
words be heard:
"'Signori, you are associated with the greatest nation in the world
in the most important matter which can be undertaken by men. I am
old and weak, and need rest, having many troubles in the body; but I
perceive that none can so well guide and govern you as I who am your
lord. If you will consent that I should take the sign of the cross
to care for you and direct you, and that my son should, in my stead,
regulate the affairs of the city, I will go to live and die with you
and the pilgrims.'
"When they heard this, they cried with one voice, 'Yes, we pray you,
in the name of God, take it and come with us.'
"Then the people of the country and the pilgrims were greatly moved
and shed many tears, because this heroic man had so many reasons for
remaining at home, being old. But he was strong and of a great
heart. He then descended from the pulpit, and knelt before the altar
weeping; and the cross was sewn upon the front of his great cap, so
that all might see it. And the Venetians that day in great numbers
took the cross."
{39}
THE CRUSADERS AND DANDOLO AT ZARA.
All preliminaries being settled, and Raniero Dandolo made Vice-Doge
during his father's absence, the embarkation of the army was begun.
This furnished one of those spectacles so frequent in mediæval
Venice, and was watched for days by all the city.
As yet no restraint had been put upon the luxury of dress and display
of wealth which the Venetians loved; and the guilds of the city, each
in its appropriate costume, presented a brilliant and picturesque
assembly whenever the pageants of which they were so fond brought
them together in large numbers. And where do the conditions afford
so beautiful a setting to artistic display as in this wonderful city
of the sea? Where else would silks and velvets, precious stones, and
gold and silver work seem so suitable as in this "Queen of the
Adriatic," rising from its many-tinted waters sparkling beneath a
southern sun?
The noble war-horses of the Frenchmen, led unwillingly upon the
vessels, were an astonishing spectacle to the Venetians, and would be
so still, since recently a single horse at San Lazaro was mentioned
as one of the sights of Venice by our landlord!
To the French, German, and Flemish Crusaders the Venetian war-ships,
huge in size, with deck upon deck and above all great towers, were
equally marvellous. So heavy were they that in addition to sails
each one required fifty oars with four men to each oar. The finest
of these, called "The World," was venerated by the Venetians; for not
only was it the largest ship afloat, but it had proved invincible in
former battles.
As the four hundred and eighty vessels were filled, one by one they
proceeded down the Grand Canal and anchored off the Castle, until the
galleys, transports, and long boats extended for miles on the
Venetian waters. The excitement {40} can scarcely be described.
"Bound for Palestine! To deliver Jerusalem! To exterminate the
Infidels!" These cries aroused the people to the greatest
enthusiasm, and helped the Venetian women, though not without tears
and anguish, to bid God-speed to those they held most dear.
A part of the vessels were sent off in advance; and a week later, on
a brilliant October day, the remaining fleet departed. From the
masts fluttered the standards of Venice and of all the chief
countries of Europe, as well as the rich gonfalons and banners of the
nobles; while above every mast arose the sacred cross. The ships
were filled to their summits with soldiers, their armor glistening in
the sun; while the sides of the principal vessels were hung with the
emblazoned shields of the nobles they carried.
Early in the morning the Doge and the barons heard Mass in San Marco,
and from there, in grand procession, marched to the quay to the music
of silver trumpets and cymbals. Barges were waiting to convey them
to the ships; and as they embarked, hundreds of barchette and other
small boats filled with ladies and children surrounded them, and
followed to witness the departure of the fleet, and wave their final
farewells to husbands and fathers, sons and lovers.
Each noble had his own ship, and an attendant transport for horses.
Dandolo's galley was vermilion-colored, as if he were an imperial
potentate, and his pavilion when on shore was of the same royal hue.
The signal for sailing was given by a hundred trumpets, and in the
castles at the crosstrees of the ships the priests and monks chanted
the "Veni Creator Spiritus."
As ship after ship left its moorings, as sail after sail swelled
before the wind, and the rowers bent to their oars, it seemed as if
the whole sea were covered; and the hearts {41} of those who were
left behind were comforted by the feeling that no power could
withstand so goodly and brave a host. The fleet was watched with
straining eyes until but a few white specks could be discerned in the
dim distance, and the people returned to their beloved Venezia,
seeming now like a vast house of mourning upon which the silence of
the tomb had fallen.
In the Ducal Palace the Marquis of Monteferrato, the
commander-in-chief of the army, lay ill, or made a pretence of being
so. He was attended by the Baron de Montmorency and other nobles,
all strict churchmen, of whom it was more than suspected that their
delay was caused by fear of the disapproval of the Pope. Two months
passed before they joined the Crusade; and as they moved about the
city and sailed on the lagoons, they seemed like the last link
between Venice and all that had gone from her.
The lovely weather which attended the fleet brought it, in spite of
some delays, before the fortress of Zara on Saint Martin's eve
(November 10). No stronghold in the dominions of Venice could
compare with this for strength, and a girdle of lofty watch-towers
secured it against surprise. It was garrisoned by Hungarian soldiers
under fine discipline, and the Zaratines were a brave people.
Seventeen years had elapsed since they had expelled the last Venetian
Podestà from their territory, and they had full faith in their
ability to repulse an enemy.
But the Zaratines had not counted on such a force as now besieged
them, and on the second day offers of surrender were made to Dandolo,
on condition that the lives of the people were spared. The Doge left
the emissaries in order to consult with the barons, and returning to
his pavilion found the Zaratines gone, and in their stead the Pope's
envoy, Abbot Guy of Vaux-Cernay, who advanced with an open letter in
his hand, exclaiming, "Sir, I {42} prohibit you, in the name of the
Apostle, from attacking this city; for it belongs to Christians, and
you are a pilgrim!"
Dandolo was furious, and none the less so when he learned that Abbot
Guy had persuaded the Zaratines not to surrender to the Venetians.
But a council was called, and the barons agreed with the Doge to
resume the siege at once. The abbot had led the Zaratines to believe
that under no circumstances would their lives be spared, and the
second siege was fiercely contested. On the sixth day the city fell,
and was given up to pillage. Fierce quarrels ensued between the
French and the Venetians over the division of the spoil; and this
uproar was scarcely calmed before an emissary from his Holiness
arrived, calling the Crusaders to account for their present
occupation and commanding them to retain no booty.
The French nobles were greatly disturbed, while the old Doge and his
councillors were indifferent to the curses or blessings of the
Pontiff, who had directed the barons to hold no intercourse with the
Venetians, "except by necessity, and then with bitterness of heart."
Innocent expected the Crusaders to proceed at once to Constantinople,
and suggested that if the Emperor, to whom he had already written,
did not supply them generously with provisions, they might, "in the
name and for the sake of the Redeemer," seize such things as they
needed, wherever they could be had. He concluded by commanding them
to proceed at once to Palestine, "turning neither to the right nor to
the left." This in no wise affected the Venetians. They were
excommunicated; but what of that? They had demanded their pound of
flesh from the Crusaders, which was the taking of Zara, to which the
barons had agreed; and Dandolo, by his addition to the fleet and the
army, at his own cost or that of Venice, had left them little cause
of complaint of their bargain, since without him they could not even
start for Palestine. Whatever future {43} causes of dissatisfaction
might arise against him, thus far it had been purely a business
transaction between the Doge and the barons. Of the present
condition Gibbon says:--
"The conquest of Zara had scattered the seeds of discord and scandal;
the arms of the allies had been stained in their outset with the
blood, not of infidels, but of Christians; the King of Hungary and
his new subjects were themselves enlisted under the banner of the
cross; and the scruples of the devout were magnified by the fear or
lassitude of the reluctant pilgrims. The Pope had excommunicated the
false Crusaders who had pillaged and massacred their brethren, and
only the Marquis Boniface and Simon of Montfort escaped these
spiritual thunders,--the one by his absence from the siege, the other
by his final departure from the camp."
The soldiers became so turbulent as to give constant anxiety to the
barons; and the Zaratines were happy at the enmities among the
invaders, and encouraged by the Pope's care for their interests.
The Crusaders sent humble apologies to the Pontiff, so depicting to
him the uncontrollable circumstances which had surrounded them, as in
a net, that the heart of Innocent was touched, and he sent to
Monteferrato his blessing and pardon for himself and the Crusaders.
But Dandolo told the Nuncio that in the affairs of Venice the Pope
could scarcely be interested, since his Holiness had no concern in
them, and he neither asked nor desired any communication with the
Holy See.
Dandolo now displayed his remarkable power as a leader. He proposed
to the Crusaders that with the Venetians they should winter at Zara.
But they, just when they hoped at once to proceed to Palestine, would
hear nothing of such a plan, and insisted on their duty to obey
literally the commands of the Pope.
But Dandolo reminded them that in Zara they had {44} spacious
barracks and stables; that they were going to a hostile land where no
provision had been made for them; that the winter voyage was
dangerous, and, in a word, that it would be madness to leave Zara
before the spring. There was much angry altercation, but the calm
determination of the Doge prevailed. Indeed, without his consent,
how could they go? and the army was ordered into winter quarters.
Dandolo, Monteferrato, and the barons were all sumptuously lodged;
and the Doge set about measures to insure the permanency of his
conquest of Zara.
The barons were dreading the tedium of an inactive winter, when a new
excitement was afforded by the appearance at Zara of ambassadors from
Philip, Emperor of Suabia. There is reason to believe that Dandolo
and the Marquis Boniface (of Monteferrato) had already agreed with
Philip that these ambassadors should be sent, and that all which
follows and depends upon the proposals of the Emperor had been
arranged to gratify the selfish ends of the Emperor, the Marquis, and
the Doge before they left Venice at all; and was to be done at the
expense of the Crusaders, and in direct opposition to the desire of
Innocent and to the interests of the Church.
But since the wisest and most erudite of the historians have not
discovered the whole truth about this and various other matters of
this great crusade,--which certainly might with great aptness be
called a war of the Venetians against their enemies and for their own
aggrandizement,--we cannot be expected to do it.
The ambassadors brought letters setting forth the misfortunes of the
young Alexius, brother-in-law of Philip, and legitimate heir to the
Greek Empire. His father, Isaac, had been blinded and thrown into
prison by his own brother, who now usurped the throne. The young
prince had wandered over Europe, seeking aid; and hearing of the
great number of Crusaders who had congregated {45} at Venice, he had
come to entreat them for the restoration of his father. Alexius
hastily followed the ambassadors; and Monteferrato, who was his near
kinsman, proposed to receive him in accordance with his rank. The
troops turned out, the silver trumpets of the Doge sounded a welcome;
and leaders, monks, and soldiers alike waited to hear Alexius plead
his own cause.
He had much to tell of his griefs and sufferings, and after
rehearsing these he made such royal promises concerning the return he
would make for their aid as appealed to the Venetians, the barons,
the priests, and to the soldiers and sailors as well. He would pay
the four hundred thousand pounds which the Greeks had long owed the
Republic; he would go himself, or send ten thousand men to join the
Crusade for one year, and during his life maintain five hundred
knights for the defence of Jerusalem; he would pay large bounties to
the rank and file of the expedition; and finally, he would renounce
the Greek heresy and secure the submission of the Eastern Church to
the authority of Rome. This last eased the consciences of those who
heard him, and even seemed sufficient to satisfy the demands of
Innocent III.
Philip had sent to the Crusaders his own stipulations, which accorded
with the offers of Alexius, and it remained for the assembled forces
to decide for their acceptance or rejection. The barons felt that
the conquest of Constantinople was a legitimate object for the
Crusaders, as she had been an insurmountable hindrance to the
subjection of Palestine. Dandolo straightway perceived the enormous
advantages that would accrue to Venice if her chief market-place and
source of wealth could be ruled by a Western power, and we must
believe that the pleas for humanity and justice found an echo in all
hearts.
We cannot exaggerate the pitch of excitement to which the debates
were now carried. The opposers were those {46} who feared the Pope,
and were comparatively few. Weary of all these long delays, they
wished only to stand at once on the holy soil they sought to conquer
in the name of God and of his Son. Most of these withdrew from the
camp, which was far less harmful to the expedition than to have
discontents in their midst.
At length the Republic of Venice, eight barons of France, and the
Counts of Flanders, Blois, and St. Pol confirmed by oaths and seals a
treaty of alliance, offensive and defensive, which was despatched to
Philip for his signature. The advantage to the Venetians seemed all
the greater since the Republic had long tried in vain to induce the
Greeks to pay their debt; and it is more than probable that had not
the Crusaders sought his aid, Dandolo would have endeavored to obtain
by the sword what he had failed to get by repeated embassies and
urgent solicitations.
The winter ended at last; and late in April, 1203, the expedition
again set sail. The Zaratines at once revolted in celebration of the
event; but the younger Dandolo had little difficulty in
re-subjugating them, after which he made such a treaty as ended the
rebellions of this turbulent people.
The Crusaders made their first landing at Corfu, and awaited the
young Alexius, who had gone to Durazzo to receive the allegiance of
the governor. The people of Corfu received him as their lawful
sovereign, while the Doge and Boniface treated him with the
consideration due an emperor. Serious difficulties now arose among
the allies. Those who disapproved of going to Constantinople
organized a parliament by themselves. Twelve powerful chiefs were
openly of this party, and others had promised to join them; they were
likely to control more than half of the army. The Doge and Boniface,
as well as their adherents, were greatly alarmed by this sedition;
{47} and they, with all the leaders who adhered to the Venetians,
proceeded to the parliament, taking the young Alexius with them.
According to Villehardouin, the opposition leaders were on horseback
when the Doge and his friends arrived. They dismounted and went to
meet their visitors. The Barons then fell at their feet, weeping
copiously, and declared, that they would not rise from their knees
until the others had promised not to leave the army. Dandolo,
Boniface, and all of them wept; never was there a greater flood of
tears, and in the end the malcontents agreed to remain with the army
until Michaelmas Day, the leaders of the other party swearing on
relics, that after that day, at a fortnight's notice, they would
provide a fleet for all who wished to go to Syria.
All Europe was watching the expedition with breathless interest; and
as we trace its history, after nearly seven centuries have rolled
beyond it, it is full of romantic fascination. Twice have I followed
its course over the same waters at the same exquisite season, and no
words can exaggerate the loveliness of those summer seas. How much
more impressive must it have been when bearing an army with banners,
who in their delight sang songs of joy and made the air resound with
trumpet tones!
"The lovely islands, the tranquil waters, the golden shores, filled
those Northmen with enthusiasm,--nothing so beautiful, so luxuriant,
so wealthy and fair had ever been seen. Where was the coward who
would not dare to strike a blow for such a land?" It was a sort of
triumphant procession in advance, for all the islands received
Alexius as Corfu had done. At Abydos the harvest was ripe, and the
soldiers gladly laid aside their arms to wield the scythe and sickle,
replenishing their ships with the new grain. After eight days they
were again under way; and when, on June 24, the fleet passed close to
Constantinople, all hearts were brave and confident of victory.
{48}