VOLCANOES AND EARTHQUAKES EXPLAINED.
BY TRUMBULL WHITE.
=The Theories of Science on Seismic Convulsions--Volcanoes
Likened to Boils on the Human Body through Which the Fires
and Impurities of the Blood Manifest Themselves--Seepage of
Ocean Waters through Crevices in the Rock Reach the Internal
Fires of the Earth--Steam is Generated and an Explosion
Follows--Geysers and Steam Boilers as Illustrations--Views
of the World's Most Eminent Scientists Concerning the Causes
of Eruption of Mount Pelee and La Soufriere.=
The earth, like the human body, is subject to constitutional
derangement. The fires and impurities of the blood manifest themselves
in the shape of boils and eruptions upon the human body. The internal
heat of the earth and the chemical changes which are constantly taking
place in the interior of the globe, manifest themselves outwardly in
the form of earthquakes and volcanoes. In other words, a volcano is a
boil or eruption upon the earth's surface.
Scientists have advanced many theories concerning the primary causes
of volcanoes, and many explanations relating to the igneous matter
discharged from their craters. Like the doctors who disagree in the
diagnosis of a human malady, the geologists and volcanists are equally
unable to agree in all details concerning this form of the earth's
ailment. After all theories relating to the cause of volcanoes have
been considered, the one that is most tenable and is sustained by the
largest number of scientific men is that which traces volcanic effects
back to the old accepted cause of internal fires in the center of the
earth. Only in this way can the molten streams of lava emitted by
volcanoes be accounted for.
The youngest student of familiar science knows that heat generates an
upward and outward force, and like all other forces that it follows
the path of least resistance. This force is always present in the
internal regions of the earth, which for ages upon ages has been
gradually cooling from its poles toward its center. When conditions
occur by which it can outwardly manifest itself, it follows the
natural law and escapes where the crust of the earth is thinnest.
But something more than the mere presence of internal fire is
necessary to account for volcanic action, although it may in a large
degree account for minor seismic convulsions in the form of an
earthquake. The elements which enter into the source of volcanic
eruption are fire and water. The characteristic phenomenon of a
volcanic eruption is the steam which issues from the crater before the
appearance of the molten lava, dust, ashes and scoria. This accepted
theory is plainly illustrated in the eruption of a geyser, which is
merely a small water volcano. The water basin of a geyser is connected
by a natural bore with a region of great internal heat, and as fast as
the heat turns the water into steam, columns of steam and hot water
are thrown up from the crater.
One form of volcanic eruption, and its simplest form, is likewise
illustrated in a boiler explosion. Observations of the most violent
volcanic eruptions show them to be only tremendous boiler explosions
at a great depth beneath the earth's surface, where a great quantity
of water has been temporarily imprisoned and suddenly converted into
steam. In minor eruptions the presence of steam is not noticeable in
such quantities, which is simply because the amount of imprisoned
water was small and the amount of steam generated was only sufficient
to expel the volcanic dust and ashes which formed between the earth's
surface and the internal fires of the volcano. The flow of lava which
follows violent eruptions is expelled by the outward and upward force
of the great internal heat, through the opening made by the steam
which precedes it.
The two lines of volcanoes, one north and south, the other east and
west, which intersect in the neighborhood of the West Indies, follow
the courses where the crust of the earth is thinnest and where great
bodies of water lie on the shallowest parts of the ocean bed.
The terrific heat of the earth's internal fires is sufficient to cause
crevices leading from these bodies of water to the central fires of
the volcano, and the character of the volcanic eruption is determined
largely by the size of the crevices so created and the amount of water
which finds its way through them. The temperature of these internal
fires can only be guessed at, but some idea may be formed of their
intense heat from the streams of lava emitted from the volcano. These
will sometimes run ten or twelve miles in the open air before cooling
sufficiently to solidify. From this it will be seen that the fires are
much hotter than are required merely to reduce the rock to a liquid
form. From this fact, too, may be seen the instantaneous action by
which the water seeping or flowing into the volcano's heart is
converted into steam and a tremendous explosive power generated.
The calamity which befell Martinique and St. Vincent will
unquestionably lead to a fresh discussion of the causes of volcanic
disturbance. Not all of the phenomena involved therein are yet fully
understood, and concerning some of them there are perceptible
differences of opinion among experts. On at least one point, however,
there is general agreement. At a depth of about thirty miles the
internal heat of the earth is probably great enough to melt every
known substance. Confinement may keep in a rigid condition the
material which lies beneath the solid crust, but if an avenue of
escape is once opened the stuff would soften and ooze upward. There is
a growing tendency, moreover, to recognize the importance of
gravitation in producing eruptions. The weight of several miles of
rock is almost inconceivable, and it certainly ought to compel
"potentially plastic" matter to rise through any crevice that might
be newly formed. Russell, Gilbert and some other authorities regard
this as the chief mechanical agent in an eruption, at least when there
is a considerable outpouring of lava.
As to the extent to which water operates there is some lack of harmony
among volcanists. Shaler, Milne and others hold that substance
largely, if not entirely, responsible for the trouble. They point to
the fact that many volcanoes are situated near the coast of continents
or on islands, where leakage from the ocean may possibly occur.
Russell, on the other hand, regards water not as the initial factor,
but as an occasional, though important, reinforcement. He suspects
that when the molten rock has risen to a considerable distance it
encounters that fluid, perhaps in a succession of pockets, and that
steam is then suddenly generated. The explosive effects which ensue
are of two kinds. By the expansion of the moisture which some of the
lava contains the latter is reduced to a state of powder, and thus
originate the enormous clouds of fine dust which are ejected. Shocks
of greater or less violence are also produced. The less severe ones no
doubt sound like the discharge of artillery and give rise to tremors
in the immediate vicinity. In extreme cases enough force is developed
to rend the walls of the volcano itself. Russell attributes the
blowing up of Krakatoa to steam. The culminating episode of the Pelee
eruption, though not resulting so disastrously to the mountain, would
seem to be due to the same immediate cause. To this particular
explosion, too, it seems safe to assign the upheaval which excited a
tidal wave.
The precise manner in which the plastic material inside of the
terrestrial shell gets access to the surface, is not entirely clear.
Nevertheless, it is possible to get some light on the matter. It is
now well known that in many places there are deep cracks, or "faults,"
in the earth's crust. Some of them in the remote past have been wide
and deep enough to admit molten material from below. The Palisades of
the Hudson are believed to have been formed by such an intrusion, the
adjacent rock on the eastern face having since been worn away by the
weather or other agents. It has been observed that many volcanoes are
distributed along similar faults.
The existence of a chain of volcanic islands in the West Indies
suggests the probability that it follows a crack of great antiquity,
though the issue of lava and ashes for several centuries may have been
limited to a few isolated points. Just how these vents have been
reopened is one of the most difficult questions still left for
investigation. Given a line of weakness in the rocks, though, and a
susceptibility to fresh fracture is afforded. Professor McGee suggests
that the overloading of the ocean bed by silt from the Mississippi
river or other sources may have been the immediately exciting cause of
the recent outbreaks. Other geologists have found a similar
explanation acceptable in the case of eruptions elsewhere. The theory
has much to commend it to favor.
The Martinique disaster already has drawn from geologists and
volcanists many expressions of opinion, and explanations of volcanic
phenomena which set forth in detail the causes and effects of volcanic
eruptions, in particular, and seismic convulsions, in general.
Dr. A. R. Crook, a professor in Northwestern University, has made a
special study of volcanoes. He has made an ascent of the two highest
in the world, and has climbed many others for purposes of study. He is
an authority upon volcanography.
"There are two great circles of volcanoes about the earth," said
Professor Crook. "One girdles the earth north and south, extending
through Tierra del Fuego (called 'land of fire' because of its
volcanoes), Mexico, the Aleutian islands and down through Australia;
the other east and west through Hawaii, Mexico, West Indies, Italy
(including Mount Vesuvius) and Asia Minor.
"These two circles intersect at two points. One of these is the West
Indies, which include Martinique, the scene of this terrible disaster;
the other is in the islands of Java, Borneo and Sumatra. On the latter
islands there are extinct volcanoes. On the former is the terrible
Pelee. It is just at these points of intersection of the two volcanic
rings that we expect unusual volcanic activity, and it is there that
we find it.
"There has been more or less theorizing as to volcanic disturbances
moving in cycles, but it cannot be proved. One fact is established,
and that is that a volcano is an explosion caused by water coming in
contact with the molten mass below the surface of the earth. This is
proved by the great clouds of steam that accompany the action.
"The old theory that the very center of the earth is a molten mass,"
he says, "is no longer held." He asserts the latest idea is that the
center of the earth is more rigid than glass, though less rigid than
steel. About this there is more or less molten matter, and over all
the surface crust of the earth. This molten matter causes the surface
of the earth to give, to sag, and form what is called "wrinkling."
When water comes in contact with the heated mass an explosion follows
that finds its outlet through the places where there is least
resistance, and the result is a volcano.
"There is no part of the earth's surface which is exempt from
earthquakes," said Professor Crook, "and there is no regularity in
their appearance. Volcanic eruptions are almost always preceded by
earthquakes somewhere in the circle. Recently there were earthquakes
in the City of Mexico in which many lives were lost. As it is
impossible to predict when the next will take place, it is also
impossible to tell where it will be. It will certainly be somewhere in
the line of the two circles.
"All this is of interest as showing that the earth is still in process
of formation just as much as it was a billion years ago. We see the
same thing in Yellowstone Park. There most decided changes have taken
place even in the last eight years. Old Faithful, which used to play
regularly every sixty minutes, now does so only once in twice the
time."
With reference to contributions to science, which might be expected
from investigations at Martinique, Professor Crook said:
"Even new elements might be discovered, and seismic theories either
confirmed or disproved. A volcano always throws off a great variety of
materials, hydrochloric and sulphuric acids, iron, silica (sand),
sulphur, calcium and magnesium. The lava is of two kinds. That which
is easily fusible flows more rapidly than a horse can trot. A more
viscous kind cools into shapes like ropes. The latter is common in
Hawaii.
"The danger of living in proximity to a volcano is usually well known,
but the iron oxides render the soil extremely fertile. This is seen in
Sicily about AEtna and Vesuvius. It is seen also in Martinique, where
an area of forty miles square was occupied by 160,000 people.
"Owing to the presence of the fumes of chlorine it is probable that
many of the victims in St. Pierre were asphyxiated, and so died
easily. Others doubtless were buried in ashes, like the Roman soldier
in Pompeii, or were caught in some enclosed place which being
surrounded by molten lava resulted in slow roasting. It is indeed a
horrible disaster and one which we may well pray not to see
duplicated. Science, however, has no means of knowing that it may not
occur again."
Professor Robert T. Hill, of the United States Geological Survey, who
visited the French West Indies on a tour of scientific inspection,
says:
"Across the throat of the Caribbean extends a chain of islands which
are really smoldering furnaces, with fires banked up, ever ready to
break forth at some unexpected and inopportune moment. This group,
commencing with Saba, near Porto Rico, and ending with Grenada,
consists of ancient ash heaps, piled up in times past by volcanic
action. For nearly one hundred years there has been not the slightest
sign of explosion and we had grown to class these volcanoes as
extinct.
"Volcanism is still one of the most inexplicable and profound problems
which defy the power of geologists to explain, and one of its most
singular peculiarities is the fact that it sometimes breaks forth
simultaneously in widely distant portions of the earth. A sympathetic
relation of this kind has long been known between Hecla and Vesuvius,
and it is very probable that the Carib volcanoes have some such
sympathetic relation with the volcanoes of Central America and
southern Mexico. At the time of the explosion of St. Vincent other
explosions preceded or followed it in northern South America and
Central America.
"The outburst of Mount Pelee, in Martinique, is apparently the
culmination of a number of recent volcanic disturbances which have
been unusually severe. Colima, in Mexico, was in eruption but a few
months previous, while Chelpancingo, the capital of the State of
Guerrero, was nearly destroyed by earthquakes which followed.
"Only a few days before Mount Pelee erupted, the cities of Guatemala
were shaken down by tremendous earthquakes."
Professor N. S. Shaler, of Harvard University, a world authority on
volcanic disturbances, says:
"Volcanic outbreaks are merely the explosion of steam under high
pressure--steam which is bound in rocks buried underneath the surface
of the earth and there subjected to such tremendous heat that when the
conditions are right its pent up energy breaks forth, and it shatters
its stone prison walls into dust.
"The common belief is that water enters the rocks during the
crystallization period, and that these rocks, through the natural
action of rivers and streams, become deposited in the bottom of the
ocean. Here they lie for many ages, becoming buried deeper and deeper
under masses of like sediment, which are constantly being washed down
upon them from above. This process is called the blanketing process.
"When the first layer has reached a depth of a few thousand feet the
rocks which contain the water of crystallization are subjected to a
terrific heat. This heat generates steam, which is held in a state of
frightful tension in its rocky prison.
"It is at these moments that volcanic eruptions occur. They result
from wrinkling in the outer crust of the earth's surface--wrinklings
caused by the constant shrinking of the earth itself and by the
contraction of the outer surface as it settles on the plastic center
underneath. Fissures are caused by these foldings, and as these
fissures reach down into the earth the pressure is removed from the
rocks and the compressed steam in them and it explodes with tremendous
force.
"The rocks containing the water are blown into dust, which sometimes
is carried so high as to escape the power of the earth's attraction
and float by itself through space. After the explosions have occurred
lava pours forth. This is merely melted rock which overflows like
water from a boiling kettle. But the explosion always precedes the
flow, and one will notice that there is always an outpouring of dust
before the lava comes."
Professor W. J. McGee, of the Smithsonian Institution at Washington,
says: "It may be that a violent earthquake tremor came after the
volcanic eruption, but it does not necessarily follow that the two
travel together. Oftentimes we hear of earth tremors with no apparent
accompaniment. This was true of the Charleston earthquake in 1886.
Earthquakes are caused by mysterious disturbances in the interior of
the earth. The most commonly accepted belief is that massive rock beds
away down in the earth, at a depth of twelve miles or more, become
disturbed from one cause or another, with the result that the
disturbance is felt on the earth's surface, sometimes severely,
sometimes faintly.
"Probably the most violent earthquake in history occurred about ten
years ago at Krakatoa. The explosion could be heard for more than one
thousand miles, and the earth's tremors were felt for thousands of
miles. The air was filled with particles of earth for months
afterward. The air-waves following the explosion are believed to have
passed two and one-half times around the globe. The face of the land
and sea in the vicinity of the eruption was completely changed."
Dr. E. Otis Hovey, professor in the Museum of Natural History, New
York, offers the following explanation of the Martinique disaster:
"A majority of volcanic eruptions are similar in cause and effect to a
boiler explosion. It is now the accepted belief that sudden
introduction of cold water on the great molten mass acts as would the
pouring of water into a red hot boiler. It causes a great volume of
steam, which must have an outlet. You can readily see how water could
get into the crater, located as this one was--on an island, and not
far from the coast. The volcanic chains crossed at that point. Such
crossing would cause a tension of the crust of the earth, which might
cause great fissures. If water were to search out those fissures and
reach the great molten mass below it is not hard to imagine what the
result would be. There are two classes of volcanoes--those which have
explosive eruptions, like Vesuvius and Krakatoa, and this latest one,
and those of no explosive nature, like Mauna Loa and Kilauea, in
Hawaii, which boil up and flow over. It is the explosive eruption
which brings widespread destruction, and it is astonishing to learn of
the tremendous power one of those eruptions unleashes."
Professor John Milne, of London, the highest authority in the world on
volcanic explosions, classifies eruptions into two grades: Those that
build up very slowly. Those that destroy most rapidly.
[Illustration: Copyright 1906, by American-Journal-Examiner. All
rights reserved. Any infractions of this copyright will be prosecuted
to the full extent of the law.
=CRACK IN THE EARTH.=
This photograph shows a crack in the earth in Golden Gate Park, San
Francisco, caused by the earthquake.]
[Illustration: =GHOULISH THIEVES LOOTING THE DEAD.=
This harrowing scene shows the way the dead and injured are frequently
robbed after a disaster.]
"The latter are the most dangerous to human life and the physical face
of a country. Eruptions that build up mountains are periodical
wellings over of molten lava, comparatively harmless. But in this
building up, which may cover a period of centuries, natural
volcanic vents are closed up and gases and blazing fires accumulate
beneath that must eventually find the air. Sooner or later they must
burst forth, and then the terrific disasters of the second class take
place. It is the same cause that makes a boiler burst."
Professor Milne was asked after Krakatoa's performance:
"Is it likely that there are volcanoes in the world at present that
have been quiet for a long time but will one day or another blow their
heads off?"
"It is almost certain there are."
"Some in Europe?"
"Many in Europe."
"Some in the United States?"
"Undoubtedly."
Mount Pelee of Martinique has verified the eminent authority's word.
Professor Angelo Heilprin, of Philadelphia, the eminent geologist and
authority on volcanology, declares there is danger that all the West
Indian reef islands will collapse and sink into the sea from the
effects of the volcanic disturbances now in progress. More than that,
he says, the Nicaraguan canal route is in danger because it is in the
eruption zone.
"In my opinion the volcano eruptions are not the only things to be
feared," he continued. "It is altogether likely that the volcanic
disturbance now going on may result in the collapse of the islands
whose peaks spring into activity. The constant eruptions of rock,
lava, and ashes, you must know, mean that a hole, as it were, is being
made in the bosom of the earth. When this hole reaches a great size,
that which is above will be without support, and then subsidence must
follow. The volcanoes of Martinique and St. Vincent, and of the
neighboring islands of the Caribbean, are situated in a region of
extreme weakness of the earth's crust, which has its parallel in the
Mediterranean basin on the opposite side of the Atlantic. This
American region of weakness extends westward from the Lesser Antilles
across the Gulf of Mexico into Mexico proper, where are located some
of the loftiest volcanoes of the globe, Popocatepetl and Orizaba, both
now in somnolent condition, and including the more westerly volcano of
Colima, which has been almost continuously in eruption for ten years.
"This same region of weakness includes nearly the whole of Central
America. Volcanoes in Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and Guatemala have been
repeatedly active, some almost to the present time, many with
destructive effect, and it should be no surprise to have some of them
burst out with the same vigor and intensity as Mount Pelee or the
Soufriere."
The National Geographic Society sent three geographers to make a
special study of the eruptions in Martinique and St. Vincent:
Professor Robert T. Hill of the United States Geological Survey;
Professor Israel C. Russell of Ann Arbor, Mich., and C. E.
Borchgrevink, the noted Antarctic explorer.
Professor Hovey, after a careful examination of the desolated areas in
Martinique and St. Vincent, related important scientific phases of the
great eruptions. Speaking first of the work of his companions and
himself in St. Vincent, he said:
"Collection of data concerning the eruption of La Soufriere was
immediately begun. The history of the eruption is practically that of
the disturbance of 1851. Earthquakes occurred here about a year ago,
and have occurred at intervals at various places in the West Indies
and adjacent regions ever since. At least one resident of
Kingstown--F. W. Griffiths--several months ago predicted that La
Soufriere would soon break out.
"Finally, on the day of the great eruption, a vast column of volcanic
dust, cinders, blocks of lava and asphyxiating gases rose thousands of
feet into the air, spreading in all directions. A large portion of
this, having reached the upper current, was carried eastward. This,
falling, was again divided, and the cinders and deadly gases were
swept by the lower winds back upon the eastward side of the mountain.
The wrecked houses show this, the windows on the side toward the
crater being unaffected, while those on the farther side were wrecked
by the back draught up the mountain.
"There was no wind on the morning of the great outburst, a fact which
facilitated the devastation of the country. The hot, asphyxiating
gases rolled out of the crater, and many were scorched and suffocated.
Hot mud falling from the cloud above stuck to the flesh of the
unfortunate victims, causing bad wounds. Great blocks of stone were
thrown out of the eastern side of the crater, which could be
distinctly seen at a distance of four miles."
Concerning the eruption of Mount Pelee, Mr. Hovey said: "An increase
in the temperature of the lake in the old crater of Pelee was observed
by visiting geologists as much as two years ago, while hot springs had
long been known to exist near the western base of the mountain and
four miles north of St. Pierre. The residents of Martinique, however,
all considered the volcano extinct in spite of the eruption fifty-one
years ago. The ground around the crater of Pelee was reported in 1901
to consist of hot mud, showing that the increase of temperature
observed eighteen months earlier had continued.
"Soon after the middle of April, this year, manifestations of renewed
activity were more pronounced. Ashes began to fall in St. Pierre and
heavy detonations were heard. The houses of the city shook frequently,
suffocating gases filled the air at intervals, and the warning
phenomena increased until they became very alarming.
"The Guerin sugar factory, on Riviere Blanche, was overwhelmed on May
5 by a stream of liquid mud, which rushed down the west slope of the
mountain with fearful rapidity. The pretty lake which occupied the
crater of 1851, on the southwest slope of the cone, about a mile from
the extreme summit and a thousand feet below it, had disappeared, and
a new crater had formed on its site, spreading death and destruction
on all sides. Three days later the eruption took place and devastated
the city of St. Pierre, wiping out the inhabitants and changing a
garden spot to a desert.
"A vast column of steam and ashes rose to a height of four miles above
the sea, as measured by the French artillerymen at Fort de France.
After this eruption the mountain quieted somewhat, but burst forth
again at 5:15 o'clock on the morning of May 20. This explosion was
more violent than that which destroyed St. Pierre.
"On this occasion the volume of steam and ashes rose to a height of
seven miles, according to measurements made by Lieutenant McCormick.
An examination of the stones which fell at Fort de France showed them
to be of a variety of lava called hornblende and andesite. They were
bits of the old lava forming a part of the cone. There was no pumice
shown to me, but the dust and lapilli all seemed to be composed of
comminuted old rock.
"It is evident that the tornado of suffocating gas which wrecked the
buildings asphyxiated the people, then started fire, completing the
ruin. This accords with the statement which has been made that
asphyxiation of the inhabitants preceded the burning of the city. The
gas being sulphureted hydrogen, was ignited by lightning or the fires
in the city. The same tornado drove the ships in the roadstead to the
bottom of the sea or burned them before they could escape.
"Mud was formed in two ways--by the mixture in the atmosphere of dust
and condensed steam and by cloudbursts on the upper dust-covered
slopes of the cone washing down vast quantities of fine light dust. No
flow of lava apparently has attended the eruption as yet, the purely
explosive eruptions thus far bringing no molten matter to the surface.
The great emission of suffocating gas and the streams of mud are among
the new features which Pelee has added to the scientific knowledge of
volcanoes."
Professor Hill was the first man who set foot in the area of craters,
fissures, and fumaroles, and, because of his high position as a
scientist, his story was valuable. He reported as follows:
"There were three well marked zones: First, a center of annihilation,
in which all life, vegetable and animal, was utterly destroyed--the
greater northern part of St. Pierre was in this zone; second, a zone
of singeing, blistering flame, which also was fatal to all life,
killing all men and animals, burning the leaves on the trees, and
scorching, but not utterly destroying, the trees themselves; third, a
large outer, nondestructive zone of ashes, wherein some vegetation was
injured.
"The focus of annihilation was the new crater midway between the sea
and the peak of Mount Pelee where now exists a new area of active
volcanism, with hundreds of fumaroles or miniature volcanoes. The new
crater is now vomiting black, hot mud, which is falling into the sea.
Both craters, the old and the new, are active.
"The destruction of St. Pierre was due to the new crater. The
explosion had great superficial force, acting in radial directions, as
is evidenced by the dismounting and carrying for yards the guns in the
battery on the hill south of St. Pierre and the statue of the Virgin
in the same locality, and also by the condition of the ruined houses
in St. Pierre. According to the testimony of some persons there was an
accompanying flame. Others think the incandescent cinders and the
force of their ejection were sufficient to cause the destruction. This
must be investigated. I am now following the nature of this."
Professor Hill started on Monday, May 26, to visit the vicinity of
Mount Pelee, and returned to Fort de France Wednesday morning, nearly
exhausted. Professor Hill was near the ruins of St. Pierre on Monday
night during the series of explosions from Mount Pelee, and was able
to describe the volcanic eruption from close observation. Speaking
personally of his expedition he said: "My attempt to examine the
crater of Mount Pelee has been futile. I succeeded, however, in
getting close to Morne Rouge. At seven o'clock on Monday night I
witnessed, from a point near the ruins of St. Pierre, a frightful
explosion from Mount Pelee and noted the accompanying phenomena. While
these eruptions continue, no sane man should attempt to ascend to the
crater of the volcano. Following the salvos of detonations from the
mountain, gigantic mushroom-shaped columns of smoke and cinders
ascended into the clear, starlit sky, and then spread in a vast black
sheet to the south and directly over my head. Through this sheet,
which extended a distance of ten miles from the crater, vivid and
awful lightning-like bolts flashed with alarming frequency. They
followed distinct paths of ignition, but were different from lightning
in that the bolts were horizontal and not perpendicular. This is
indisputable evidence of the explosive oxidation of the gases after
they left the crater. This is a most important observation and
explains in part the awful catastrophe. This phenomenon is entirely
new in volcanic history.
"I took many photographs, but do not hesitate to acknowledge that I
was terrified. But I was not the only person so frightened. Two
newspaper correspondents, who were close to Morne Rouge some hours
before me, became scared, ran three miles down the mountain, and
hastened into Fort de France. The people on the north end of the
island are terrified and are fleeing with their cattle and effects. I
spent Tuesday night in a house at Deux Choux with a crowd of 200
frightened refugees.
"Nearly all the phenomena of these volcanic outbreaks are new to
science, and many of them have not yet been explained. The volcano is
still intensely active, and I cannot make any predictions as to what
it will do."