The gasoline is forced up to the motor by air compression. The exhaust
is under the rear of the car pointing down and is covered with a metal
gauze to prevent flames coming out. The fan which drives the air into
the ballonet is run by the motor, but a dynamo is also provided so
that the fan can always be kept running even if the motor stops. This
is very essential as the pressure must be maintained inside the gas
bag so that the latter will remain rigid and keep its form. There are
five valves in all, part automatic and part both automatic and also
controlled from the car with cords. The valves in the ballonet open
automatically at less pressure than the gas valves, so that when the
gas expands all the air is driven out of the ballonet before there is
any loss of gas. The ballonet valves open at a pressure of about O.78
inches of water, the gas valves at about 2 inches.
_Stability._—Vertical stability is maintained by means of fixed
horizontal planes. One having a surface of 150 square feet is attached
at the rear of the gas bag and due to its distance from the center of
gravity is very efficient. The elliptical frame attached under the gas
bag has an area of 1,055 square feet, but due to its proximity to the
center of gravity, has little effect on the stability. Just behind
the elliptical frame is an arrangement similar to the feathering of
an arrow. It consists of a horizontal plane of 150 square feet, and a
vertical plane of 113 square feet. To maintain horizontal stability,
that is, to enable the air ship to move forward in a straight line
without veering to the sides, fixed vertical planes are used. One runs
from the center to the rear of the elliptical frame and has an area of
108 square feet.
In addition to the vertical surface of 113 square feet at the rear of
the elliptical frame, there is a fixed plane of 150 square feet at the
rear of the gas bag. To fasten the two perpendicular planes at the
rear of this gas bag, cloth flaps are sewed directly on the gas bag.
Nickel-steel tubes are placed in the flaps, which are then laced over
the tubes. With these tubes as a base, a light tube and wire framework
is attached and waterproof cloth laced on this framework. Additional
braces run from one surface to the other and from each surface to the
gas bag. The rudder is at the rear under the gas bag. It has about 150
square feet and is balanced.
A movable horizontal plane near the center of gravity, above the
car, is used to produce rising or descending motion, or to prevent
an involuntary rising or falling of the air ship due to expansion or
contraction of the gas or to other causes. After the adoption of this
movable horizontal plane, the loss of gas and ballast was reduced to a
minimum. Ballast is carried in 10- and 20-pound sandbags. A pipe runs
through the bottom of the car from which the ballast is thrown.
There are two long guide-ropes, one attached at the front of the
elliptical frame and the other on the car. On landing, the one in front
is seized first so as to hold the air ship with the head to the wind.
The motor may then be stopped and the descent made by pulling down on
both guide-ropes. A heavy rope 22 feet long, weighing 110 pounds, is
attached at the end of a 164-foot guide-rope. This can be dropped out
on landing to prevent coming to the ground too rapidly. The equipment
of the car includes a “siren” speaking trumpet, carrier pigeons, iron
pins and a rope for anchoring the air ship, reserve supply of fuel and
water, and fire extinguisher.
After being enlarged in September, 1907, the _Patrie_ made a number of
long trips at an altitude of 2,500 to 3,000 feet. In November, 1907,
she went from Paris to Verdun, near the German frontier, a distance of
about 175 miles, in about 7 hours, carrying four persons. This trip was
made in a light wind blowing from the northeast. Her course was east,
so that the wind was unfavorable. On Friday, November 20, 1907, during
a flight near Verdun, the motor stopped due to difficulty with the
carburetor. The air ship drifted with the wind to a village about 10
miles away, where she was safely landed. The carburetor was repaired on
the 20th. Soon after, a strong wind came up and tore loose some of the
iron pickets with which it was anchored. This allowed the air ship to
swing broadside to the wind; it then tilted over on the side far enough
to let some of the ballast bags fall out. The 150 or 200 soldiers who
were holding the ropes were pulled along the ground until directed by
the officer in charge to let go. After being released, it rose and was
carried by the wind across the north of France, the English Channel
and into the north of Ireland. It struck the earth there, breaking off
one of the propellers, and then drifted to sea.
The _République_
This is the latest of the French military dirigible balloons, and
differs but slightly from its predecessor, the _Patrie_. The volume has
been increased by about 2,000 cubic feet. The length has been reduced
to 200 feet and the maximum diameter increased to 35½ feet. The shape
of the gas bag accounts for the 2,000 additional cubic feet of volume.
The motor and propeller are as in the _Patrie_. The total lifting
capacity is 9,000 pounds, of which 2,700 pounds are available for
passengers, fuel, ballast, instruments, etc. Its best performance was a
125-mile flight made in 6½ hours against an unfavorable wind.
The material for the gas bag of the new air ship was furnished by the
Continental Tire Company. It is made up as follows:
Weight oz. per
square yard.
Outer yellow cotton layer 3.25
Layer of vulcanized rubber 3.25
Layer of cotton cloth 3.25
Inner layer of rubber 0.73
------
Total weight 10.48
It is interesting to note the changes which this type has undergone
since the first one was built. The _Jaune_, constructed in 1902-3, was
pointed at the rear and had no stability plane there; later it was
rounded off at the rear and a fixed horizontal plane attached. Finally
a fixed vertical plane was added. The gas bag has been increased in
capacity from 80,670 cubic feet to about 131,000 cubic feet. The
manufacturers have been able to increase the strength of the material
of which the gas bag is made, without materially increasing the weight.
The rudder has been altered somewhat in form. It was first pivoted on
its front edge, but later on a vertical axis, somewhat to the rear of
this edge. With the increase in size, has come an increase in carrying
capacity and, consequently, a greater speed and more widely extended
field of action.
_Ville de Paris_
This air ship was constructed for Mr. Deutsch de la Meurthe, of
Paris, who has done a great deal to encourage aërial navigation. The
first _Ville de Paris_ was built in 1902, on plans drawn by Tatin,
a French aëronautical engineer. It was not a success. Its successor
was built in 1906, on plans of Surcouf, an aëronautical engineer and
balloon builder. The gas bag was built at his works in Billancourt,
the mechanical part at the Voisin shop, also in Billancourt. The plans
are based on those of Colonel Renard’s air ship, the _France_, built
in 1884, and the _Ville de Paris_ resembles the older air ship in many
particulars. In September, 1907, Mr. Deutsch offered the use of his air
ship to the French Government. The offer was accepted, but delivery was
not to be made except in case of war or emergency. When the _Patrie_
was lost in November, 1907, the military authorities immediately took
over the Deutsch air ship.
_Gas Bag._—The gas bag is 200 feet long for a maximum diameter of 34½
feet, giving a length of about 6 diameters, as in the _France_ and
the _Patrie_. Volume, 112,847 cubic feet; maximum diameter at about
⅜ of the distance from the front, approximately, as in the _Patrie_.
The middle section is cylindrical with conical sections in front
and rear. At the extreme rear is a cylindrical section with eight
smaller cylinders attached to it. The ballonet has a volume of 21,192
cubic feet or about ⅕ of the volume, the same proportion found in
the _Patrie_. The ballonet is divided into three compartments from
front to rear. The division walls are of permeable cloth, and are not
fastened to the bottom so that when the middle compartment fills with
air, and the ballonet rises, the division walls are lifted up from
the bottom of the gas bag, and there is free communication between
the three compartments. The gas bag is made up of a series of strips
of perpendicular to a meridian line. These strips run around the
bag, their ends meeting on the under meridian. This is known as the
“barchistode” method of cutting out the material, and has the advantage
of bringing the seams parallel to the line of greatest tension. They
are therefore more likely to remain tight and not allow the escape
of gas. The disadvantage lies in the fact that there is a loss of
33⅓ per cent of material in cutting. The material was furnished by
the Continental Tire Company, and has approximately the same tensile
strength and weight as that used in the _Patrie_. It differs from the
other in one important feature—it is diagonal thread, that is, the warp
of the outer layer of cotton cloth makes an angle of 45 degrees with
the warp of the inner layer of cotton cloth. The result is to localize
a rip or tear in the material. A tear in the straight thread material
will continue along the warp, or the weave, until it reaches a seam.
_Valves._—There are five in all, made of steel, about fourteen inches
in diameter; one on the top connected to the car by a cord, operated by
hand only; two near the rear underneath. These are automatic but can
be operated by hand from the car. Two ballonet valves directly under
the middle are automatic and are also operated from the car by hand.
The ballonet valves open automatically at a pressure of 2/3 inches of
water; the gas valves open at a higher pressure.
_Suspension._—This air ship has the “long” suspension. That is, the
weight is distributed along practically the entire length of the gas
bag. A doubled band of heavy canvas is sewn with six rows of stitches
along the side of the gas bag. Hemp ropes running into steel cables
transmit most of the weight of the car to these two canvas bands and
thus to the gas bag. On both sides and below these first bands are
two more. Lines run from these to points half way between the gas
bag and the car, then radiate from these points to different points
of attachment on the car. This gives the triangular or nondeformable
system of suspension, which is necessary in order to have the car and
gas bag rigidly attached to each other. With this “long” suspension,
the _Ville de Paris_ does not have the deformation so noticeable in the
gas bag of the _Patrie_.
_The Car._—This is in the form of a trestle. It is built of wood with
aluminum joints and O.12 inch wire tension members. It is 115 feet
long, nearly 7 feet high at the middle and a little over 5½ feet wide
at the middle. It weighs 660 pounds and is considered unnecessarily
large and heavy. The engine and engineer are well to the front, the
aëronaut with steering wheels is about at the center of gravity.
_Motor._—The motor is a 70 to 75-horse-power _Argus_, and is
exceptionally heavy.
_Propeller._—The propeller is placed at the front end of the car. It
thus has the advantage of working in undisturbed air; the disadvantage
is the long transmission and difficulty in attaching the propeller
rigidly. It has two blades and is 19.68 feet long with a pitch of
26.24 feet. The blades are of cedar with a steel arm. The propeller
makes a maximum of 250 turns per minute when the engine is making 900
revolutions. Its great diameter and width compensate for its small
speed.
_Stability._—This is maintained entirely by the cylinders at the rear.
Counting the larger one to which the smaller ones are attached, there
are five, arranged side by side corresponding to the horizontal planes
of the _Patrie_, and five vertical ones corresponding to the _Patrie’s_
vertical planes. The volume of the small cylinders is so calculated
that the gas in them is just sufficient to lift their weight, so they
neither increase nor decrease the ascensional force of the whole. The
horizontal projection of these cylinders is 1,076 square feet. The
center of this projection is 72 feet from the center of gravity of the
gas. The great objection to this method of obtaining stability, is the
air resistance due to these cylinders, and consequent loss of speed.
The stability of the _Ville de Paris_ in a vertical plane is said to be
superior to that of the _Patrie_, due to the fact that the stability
planes of the latter do not always remain rigid. The independent
velocity of the _Ville de Paris_ probably never exceeded 25 miles an
hour.
_The Rudder._—The rudder has a double surface of 150 square feet placed
at the rear end of the car, 72 feet from the center of gravity. It is
not balanced, but is inclined slightly to the rear so that its weight
would make it point directly to the rear if the steering gear should
break. Two pairs of movable horizontal planes, one at the rear of the
car having 43 square feet, and one at the center of gravity (as on the
_Patrie_) having 86 square feet, serve to drive the air ship up or down
without losing gas or ballast.
_Guide-Ropes._—A 400-foot guide-rope is attached at the front end of
the car. A 230-foot guide-rope is attached to the car at the center of
gravity.
About thirty men are required to maneuver the _Ville de Paris_ on the
ground. The pilot has three steering wheels, one for the rudder and
two for the movable horizontal planes. The instruments used are an
aneroid barometer, a registering barometer giving heights up to 1,600
feet, and an ordinary dynamometer, which can be connected either with
the gas bag or ballonet by turning a valve. A double column of water
is also connected to the tube to act as a check on the dynamometer.
Due to the vibration of the car caused by the motor, these instruments
are suspended by rubber attachments. Even with this arrangement, it is
necessary to steady the aneroid barometer with the hand in order to
read it. The vibration prevents the use of the statoscope.
GERMANY
Three different types of air ships are being developed in Germany. The
_Gross_ is the design of Major Von Gross, who commands the Balloon
Battalion at Tegel near Berlin. The _Parseval_ is being developed by
Major Von Parseval, a retired German officer, and the _Zeppelin_ is the
design of Count Zeppelin, also a retired officer of the German Army.
The _Gross_
The first air ship of this type made its first ascension on July 23,
1907. The mechanical part was built at Siemen’s Electrical Works in
Berlin; the gas bag by the Riedinger firm in Augsburg.
_Gas Bag._—The gas bag is made of rubber cloth furnished by the
Continental Tire Company similar to that used in the _Ville de Paris_.
It is diagonal-thread, but there is no inner layer of rubber, as they
do not fear damage from impurities in the hydrogen gas. Length, 131¼
feet; maximum diameter about 39⅓ feet; volume, 63,576 cubic feet; the
elongation is about 3⅓. The form is cylindrical with spherical cones at
the ends, the whole being symmetrical.
_Suspension._—The suspension is practically the same as that of the
_Patrie_. A steel and aluminum frame is attached to the lower part of
the gas bag, and the car is suspended on this by steel cables. The
objection to this system is even more apparent in the _Gross_ than in
the _Patrie_. A marked dip along the upper meridian of the gas bag
shows plainly the deformation.
_The Car._—The car is boat-shaped like that of the _Patrie_. It is
suspended thirteen feet below the gas bag.
_Motor._—The motor is a 20- to 24-horse-power, 4-cylinder
Daimler-Mercedes.
_Propellers._—There are two propellers 8³/₁₀ foot in diameter, each
having two blades. They are placed one on each side, but well up under
the gas bag near the center of resistance. The transmission is by belt.
The propellers make 800 r. p. m.
_Stability._—The same system, with planes, is used in the _Gross_ as
in the _Patrie_, but it is not nearly so well developed. At the rear
of the rigid frame, attached to the gas bag, are two fixed horizontal
planes, one on each side. A fixed vertical plane runs down from between
these horizontal planes, and is terminated at the rear by the rudder.
A fixed horizontal plane is attached on the rear of the bags as in the
_Patrie_. The method of attachment is the same, but the plane is put on
before inflation in the _Gross_ air ship, afterwards in the _Patrie_.
The stability of the _Gross_ air ship in a vertical plane is reported
to be very good, but it is said to veer considerably in attempting to
steer a straight course.
The many points of resemblance between this dirigible and the Lebaudy
type are worthy of notice. The suspension or means of maintaining
stability, and the disposition for driving are in general the same. As
first built, the _Gross_ had a volume of 14,128 cubic feet less than
at present, and there was no horizontal plane at the rear of the gas
bag. Its maximum speed is probably fifteen miles per hour. As a result
of his experiments of 1907, Major Von Gross has this year produced a
perfected air ship, built on the same lines as his first, but with
greatly increased volume and dimensions. The latest one has a volume of
176,000 cubic feet, is driven by two 75-horse-power Daimler motors, and
has a speed of 27 miles per hour.
On September 11th of this year, the _Gross_ air ship left Berlin at
10.25 P.M., carrying four passengers, and returned the next day at
11.30 A.M., having covered 176 miles in the period of a little over 13
hours. This is the longest trip, both in point of time and distance,
ever made by any air ship returning to the starting point.
The _Parseval_
The _Parseval_ air ship is owned and controlled by the Society for the
Study of Motor Balloons. This organization, composed of capitalists,
was formed practically at the command of the emperor, who is very much
interested in aërial navigation. The society has a capital of 1,000,000
marks, owns the _Parseval_ patents and is ready to construct air ships
of the _Von Parseval_ type. The present air ship was constructed by the
Riedinger firm at Augsburg, and is operated from the balloon house of
this society at Tegel, adjoining the military balloon house.
The gas bag is similar in construction to that of the _Drachen_
balloon, used by the army for captive work. Volume, 113,000 cubic
feet; length, 190 feet; maximum diameter, 30½ feet. It is cylindrical
in shape, rounded at the front and pointed at the rear. The material
was furnished by the Continental Tire Company. It is diagonal-thread,
weighing about 11³/₁₀ ounces per square yard and having a strength of
about 940 pounds per running foot. Its inner surface is covered with a
layer of rubber.
_Ballonets._—There are two ballonets, one at each end, each having a
capacity of 10,596 cubic feet. The material in the ballonet weighs
about 8¼ ounces per square yard, the cotton layers being lighter than
in the material for the gas bag. Air is pumped into the rear ballonet
before leaving the ground, so that the air ship operates with the front
end inclined upward. The air striking underneath exerts an upward
pressure, as on an aëroplane, and thus adds to its lifting capacity.
Air is pumped into the ballonets from a fan operated by the motor.
A complex valve, just under the middle of the gas bag, enables the
engineer to drive air into either, or both ballonets. The valves also
act automatically and release air from the ballonets at a pressure of
about 0.9 inches of water.
In the middle of the top of the gas bag is a valve for releasing the
gas. It can be operated from the car, and open automatically at a
pressure of about 2 inches of water. Near the two ends and on opposite
sides are two rip strips controlled from the car by the cords.
_Suspension._—The suspension is one of the characteristics of the air
ships, and is protected by patents. The car has four trolleys, two on
each side, which run on two steel cables. The car can run backwards
and forwards on these cables, thus changing its position with relation
to the gas bag. This is called “loose” suspension. Its object is to
allow the car to take up, automatically, variations in thrust due to
the motor, and variations in resistance due to the air. Ramifications
of hemp rope from these steel cables are sewed onto a canvas strip,
which in turn is sewed onto the gas bag. This part of the suspension is
the same as in the _Drachen_ balloon. The weight is distributed over
the entire length of the gas bag.
_The Car._—The car is 16.4 feet long and is built of steel tubes and
wire. It is large enough to hold the motor and three men, though four
or five may be taken.
_Motor._—The motor is a 110-horse-power Daimler-Mercedes. Sufficient
gasoline is carried for a run of twelve hours.
_Propeller._—The propeller, like the suspension, is peculiar to this
air ship and is protected by patents. It has four cloth blades which
hang limp when not turning. When the motor is running, these blades,
which are carefully weighed with lead at certain points, assume the
proper position due to the various forces acting. The diameter is 13¾
feet. The propeller is placed above the rear of the car near the center
of resistance. Shaft transmission is used. The propeller makes 500
r. p. m. to 1,000 of the motor. There is a space of 6½ feet from the
propeller blades to the gas bag, the bottom of the car being about 30
feet from the gas bag. This propeller has the advantage of being very
light. Its position, so far from the engine, necessarily incurs a great
loss of power in transmission.
The steering wheel at the front of the car has a spring device for
locking it in any position.
The 1908 model No. 1 of this air ship was constructed for the purpose
of selling it to the government. Among other requirements is a 12-hour
flight without landing, and a sufficient speed to maneuver against a
22-mile wind. A third and larger air ship of this type is now under
construction.
UNITED STATES
_Signal Corps Dirigible No. 1_
Due to the lack of funds, the United States Government has not been
able to undertake the construction of an air ship sufficiently large
and powerful to compete with those of European nations. However,
specifications were sent out last January for an air ship not over 120
feet long and capable of making 20 miles per hour. Contract was awarded
to Capt. Thomas S. Baldwin, who delivered an air ship last August to
the Signal Corps, the description of which follows:
_Gas Bag._—The gas bag is spindle shaped, 96 feet long, maximum
diameter, 19 feet 6 inches, with a volume of 20,000 cubic feet. A
ballonet for air is provided inside the gas bag, and has a volume of
2,800 cubic feet. The material for the gas bag is made of two layers of
Japanese silk, with a layer of vulcanized rubber between.
_Car._—The car is made of spruce, and is 66 feet long, 2½ feet wide and
2½ feet high.
_Motor._—The motor is a 20-horse-power water-cooled Curtiss make.
_Propeller._—The propeller is at the front end of the car, and is
connected to the engine by a steel shaft. It is built of spruce, has
a diameter of 10 feet, 8 inches, with a pitch of 11 feet, and turns
at the rate of 450 r. p. m. A fixed vertical surface is provided at
the rear end of the car to minimize veering, and a horizontal surface
attached to the vertical rudder at the rear tends to minimize pitching.
A double horizontal surface controlled by a lever and attached to the
car in front of the engine, serves to control the vertical motion and
also to minimize pitching.
The position of the car very near to the gas bag, is one of the
features of the Government dirigible. This reduces the length and
consequently the resistance of the suspension, and places the propeller
thrust near the center of resistance.
The total lifting power of the air ship is 1,350 pounds of which
500 pounds are available for passengers, ballast, fuel, etc. At its
official trials a speed of 19.61 miles per hour was attained over a
measured course and an endurance run lasting two hours, during which
seventy per cent of the maximum speed was maintained.
_Dirigible No. 1_, as this air ship has been named, has already served
a very important purpose in initiating officers of the Signal Corps
in the construction and operation of a dirigible balloon. With the
experience now acquired, the United States Government is in a position
to proceed with the construction and operation of an air ship worthy of
comparison with any now in existence, but any efforts in this direction
must await the action of Congress in providing the necessary funds.
APPENDIX IV
THE RELATIONS OF WEIGHT, SPEED AND POWER OF FLYERS[82]
_By Wilbur and Orville Wright_
The flyer of 1903 carried a four-cylinder gasoline motor of four-inch
bore and four-inch stroke. Complete with magneto, radiators, tanks,
water, fuel, etc., the motor weighed a little over 200 pounds, and at
1,200 revolutions per minute developed 16 horse power for the first 15
seconds after starting. After a minute or two the power did not exceed
13 or 14 horse power. At 1,020 revolutions per minute—the speed of the
motor in the flights at Kitty Hawk on the 17th of December, 1903—it
developed about 12 horse power.
The flyer of 1904 was equipped with a motor similar to the first, but
of 1/8-inch larger bore. This engine at 1,500 revolutions per minute
developed 24 horse power for the first 15 seconds, but only 16 to 17
horse power after a few minutes run. Complete with water, fuel and
other accessories, it weighed 240 pounds.
The same engine with a few modifications in the oiling device and the
carburetor, was used in all the flights of 1905. A test of its power
made soon after the flights of October, 1905, revealed a gain of 3
horse power over tests made just before mounting it on the flyer
in 1904. This gain is attributed to the increased smoothness of the
cylinders and pistons produced by wear. The small output of these
engines was due to lack of experience in building gasoline motors.
During the past year further improvements have been made, and our
latest engines of four-inch bore and four-inch stroke produce about 25
horse power continuously. The improvement in the reliability of the
motor has been even more marked, so that now flights of long distances
can be attempted without danger of failure on account of the stopping
of the motor.
A comparison of the flyers of 1903, 1904 and 1905 show some interesting
facts. The flyer of 1903 weighed, complete with operator, 745 pounds.
Its longest flight was of 59 seconds duration, with a speed of 30 miles
an hour and an expenditure of 12 horse power. The flyer of 1904 weighed
about 900 pounds, including a load of 70 pounds in iron bars. A speed
of more than 34 miles an hour was maintained for a distance of three
miles with an expenditure of 17 horse power. The flyer of 1905 weighed,
including load, 925 pounds. With an expenditure of 19 to 20 horse power
it traveled over 24 miles at a speed of more than 38 miles an hour. The
flights of 1904 and 1905 would have been slightly faster had they been
made in a straight line, as were those of 1903.
In 1903, 62 pounds per horse power were carried at a speed of 30 miles
an hour; in 1904, 53 pounds, at 34 miles an hour; and in 1905, 46
pounds at 38 miles an hour. It will be noted that the weight carried
per horse power is almost exactly in inverse ratio to the speed, as
theory demands—the higher the speed, the smaller the weight carried per
horse power.
Since flyers can be built with approximately the same dynamic
efficiency for all speeds up to 60 miles an hour, a flyer designed to
carry a total weight of 745 pounds at 20 miles an hour would require
only 8 horse power or two thirds of the power necessary for 30 miles an
hour. At 60 miles 24 horse power would be necessary—twice that required
to carry the same weight at 30 miles an hour. At 120 miles an hour 60
to 75 horse power would probably be necessary, and the weight carried
per horse power would be only 10 or 12 pounds. At such high speed
the resistance of the operator’s body and the engine is a formidable
factor, consuming 64 times as much horse power as at 30 miles an hour.
At speeds below 60 miles an hour this resistance is almost negligible.
It is evident that the limits of speed have not as yet been closely
approached in the flyers already built, and that in the matter of
distance, the possibilities are even more encouraging. Even in the
existing state of the art it is easy to design a practical and durable
flyer that will carry an operator and supplies of fuel for a flight of
over 500 miles at a speed of 50 miles an hour.
APPENDIX V
CURTISS’S EXPERIMENTS IN RISING FROM THE WATER[83]
During the past two years Glenn H. Curtiss, who, more than any other
experimenter, has been given to developing the aëroplane for various
uses, has experimented with floats for his biplane that would enable
it to rise from the surface of the water. Something over a year ago he
succeeded in developing a speed of about twenty miles an hour on the
water, but this was insufficient to rise from the surface.
At the beginning of the new year Mr. Curtiss moved to the Pacific Coast
and set about endeavoring to develop suitable floats which would make
it possible for his machine to rise from the surface of the water.
These experiments have been carried on at San Diego, where Mr. Curtiss
is instructing several naval and military officers in the art of flying.
In his first experiments on the Pacific Coast Mr. Curtiss followed
the successful experiments of this sort made by M. Henri Fabre at
Marseilles, France, about a year ago, as far as the design of his
floats was concerned. He constructed one large float six feet wide,
five feet from front to rear, and one foot thick at its central point,
and placed this under the center of the machine. The bottom of this
float was perfectly flat and arranged at an incline of ten or twelve
degrees. Some distance forward of the main float, at about the position
of the front wheel in the land machine, another float six feet wide,
by one foot from front to rear, and six inches deep, was placed; while
at the extreme front end of the machine, on a special outrigger, was
mounted a small elevating hydroplane six feet wide by eight inches
in a fore-and-aft direction, and one and one-half inches thick. This
hydroplane was fixed at an angle of about twenty-five degrees and was
intended to lift the front part of the machine. A spray shield was
fitted back of it, as shown in the diagram, page 333.
The first experiments were made with these new floats on January 26th
last; and although they made a considerable disturbance in the water,
especially at low speed, the aviator was enabled to get up a speed on
the surface of about forty-five miles an hour. He found that at as low
a rate as ten miles the hydroplanes (which normally were submerged)
rose to the surface, while as the speed increased only the rear edges
of the two main planes were required to support the machine. The
aëroplane readily attained sufficient speed to rise in the air, for
as the speed increased and the floats emerged from the water, the
head resistance of the floats diminished and there was only the skin
friction of the water on a few inches of the rear edge of these floats,
plus the air resistance, to be overcome.
At the first try-out, while traveling over the water at high speed,
Mr. Curtiss found himself suddenly nearing the shore, and to avoid
running aground he turned his horizontal rudder sharply upward, with
the result that the machine rose from the water with perfect ease.
He soon alighted again, and in the second flight he made a circle
and remained in the air a minute and twenty-one seconds. Two other
experimental flights were made the first day, and on January 27th he
made a three-and-one-half-minute flight and stated, upon alighting,
that he found no difficulty in remaining aloft as long as he pleased.
The machine showed a speed of fifty miles an hour in the air as against
forty-five miles an hour when skimming over the surface of the water.
PLATE XXXII.
[Illustration: CURTISS STARTING FROM THE WATER.]
[Illustration: CURTISS BIPLANE FOR LAND AND WATER.]
[Illustration: CURTISS TRIPLANE RISEN FROM THE WATER.]
Not satisfied with the several floats with which he had attained
his first success in rising from the water, Mr. Curtiss immediately
constructed a single float twelve feet long by two feet in width
and twelve inches deep. This float is built of wood and resembles a
flat-bottomed boat or scow, the top being covered with canvas to keep
the water from getting in. Three feet from the front end the bottom
is curved upward forming a bow the full width of the float, while at
the same distance from the rear the float slants downward in a similar
manner.
This single float is placed under the aëroplane in such a position that
the main weight of the machine and aviator is slightly to the rear of
the center of the float, which causes the latter to incline upward
slightly and thus gives the necessary angle for hydroplaning on the
surface of the water. The weight of this new float is but fifty pounds,
or less than half as much as that of the two floats that were used
before.
The paint was barely dry on the new float before Mr. Curtiss had it
fitted to his machine and gave it a trial. This was done on February
1st and the trial was thoroughly successful. The machine ran over the
surface of the water with very much less disturbance than before and
rose in the air readily. A glance at the photographs showing the new
and the old floats in action will give one an excellent idea of the
much less commotion caused by the single scow-shaped float. Besides
being much more compact and creating less disturbance, this float or
scow can be used for carrying articles or a passenger.
In order to keep the aëroplane from tilting to one side or the other,
an inclined stick four feet long and three inches wide, to which is
attached on its upper side an inflated rubber tube, is fastened to the
front edge of the lower plane at each end. By the use of these props
the aëroplane does not tip readily when skimming along the surface,
even though the scow-shaped float used is but two feet in width.
After meeting with success with his new float, Mr. Curtiss, on February
17th, made more flights with the motor and propeller placed at the
front of his biplane and with his seat placed at the rear of the main
planes. The chief of these flights was one which he made from North
Island, where he is experimenting, over San Diego harbor to the cruiser
_Pennsylvania_. He alighted upon the surface close beside the cruiser
and his aëroplane was hauled up beside the warship and placed on her
deck.
After a short visit on the cruiser the aviator was again lowered to the
surface in his machine. A sailor started the engine, and Mr. Curtiss
flew back to his starting point in short order. The naval authorities
were greatly pleased with his demonstration and it is probable that the
Navy Department will purchase one of these machines in the near future
and continue the instruction of its officers.
After increasing the surface of his biplane Mr. Curtiss, on February
24th, took up one of his naval pupils, Lieutenant T. G. Ellyson, as
a passenger. He made a flight of one and one-half miles, rising to a
height of one hundred feet and flying as slowly as twenty-five miles an
hour, or as fast as fifty miles an hour, at will. Lieutenant Ellyson
was seated on the pontoon below the aëroplane. He could look down
in the water and see bottom at a depth of twenty-five feet, and he
believes submarines can be easily located by flying over the water.
The slow speed at which it is possible to fly will make the biplane
especially useful for bomb dropping. As we go to press Mr. Curtiss is
about to try his machine fitted with wheels and floats as well.
INDEX
Abbe, Cleveland, 200, 437.
Acosta, 10.
Ader, C. F., 222-226.
Aërial Experiment Association, 264-267, 305.
Aëro Club of America, 243, 244, 322, 323.
of France, 106, 256, 258, 259, 301.
of Great Britain, 287.
Aëro Corporation Limited, 322.
Aërodrome, 111, 194, 240, 292.
Aëronat, 126.
Aëronautic meteorology, 347 _et seq._
Aëronautic Society of New York, 284.
_Aëronautical Annual_, 215, 227, 427.
_Aëronautics_, 252.
_Aërophile_, 130, 166, 340.
Aëroplanes, Ader’s, 222-226.
advances in, in 1909, 283, 284.
Aërial Experiment Association’s, 264-267.
_Antoinette_, 288, 289, 320, 324.
Blériot’s, 267-270, 286, 287, 290-292, 299, 300, 309.
Bréguet’s, 313.
Chanute and Herring’s, 218-221.
Cody’s, 305.
competitive flying of, 283 _et seq._
cost of, 342.
Curtiss’, 264-266, 284-286, 294-300, 316, 317, 322, 333.
Delagrange’s flights with, 261-263.
_Demoiselle_, 324.
Deperdussin’s, 399.
earliest public flight of, 257.
Esnault-Pélterie’s, 304, 314, 337.
Etrich’s, 335, 336.
Fabre’s, 332, 335.
Farman’s, Henri, 259-264, 298, 303, 305, 321.
Farman’s, Maurice, 305, 311.
first tour in, 268-270.
first town-to-town flight in, 264.
Grade’s, 304.
Hanriot’s, 339.
Herring’s compressed air, 221, 222.
impossibility of, 12.
Langley’s, 239-243.
launching of, 202.
Le Bris’, 203-205.
Lilienthal’s, 207-209.
Mattullath’s, 235-239.
Maxim’s, 226-228.
model, 173 _et seq._
Montgomery’s, 251-255, 282.
Mouillard’s, 207-209.
Nieuport’s, 339.
nineteenth century, 202 _et seq._
Paulhan’s, 324, 325.
Pilcher’s, 216-218.
public flying, 256 _et seq._
reliability of, 341.
Santos-Dumont’s, 256-258, 303, 324.
stability of, 232-234.
stable and powerful, 235 _et seq._
Tellier’s, 312.
utility of, 341.
Voisin’s, 259, 267, 313.
Wright brothers’, 245-249, 270-282, 309, 324, 326, 329.
Zahm’s system of control of, 229-231.
Aërostal, 22.
Æschylus, 29.
Agobard, 22.
Ailerons, 286.
Air bag, 83.
Air friction, 238, 239.
Airscout, 11, 12.
Allen, Gen. James, 271.
Alps, Chavez’s flight across, 318, 319.
Altitude records, 307-309.
_American Engineer and Railway Journal_, 229.
American military dirigible, 138.
_Antoinette_ monoplane, 288, 289, 309, 320, 324, 340.
Archdeacon, Ernest, 256.
Archibald, Douglass, 77.
Archytas of Tarentum, 198.
Arlandes, Marquis de, 38-42.
Ascending trend of wind, 211.
Assman, Professor, 72.
Astra Society, 120, 123, 124.
Atmosphere, composition of, 348-350.
cyclones, tornadoes, waterspouts, 394 _et seq._
general circulation of, 376-380.
general properties of, 347 _et seq._
permanent and periodic winds, 376 _et seq._
temperature and pressure, 363 _et seq._
thunderstorms, windgusts, 422 _et seq._
Aubrun, Emile, 331.
Audemars, 324.
Automobile Club of France, 321.
Bacon, Roger, 20.
Balance, complete dynamical, 234.
Baldwin, F. W., 264, 266.
Thomas S., 138.
Ballonets, 95.
_Ballons sondes_, 72.
Balloon, dirigible:
Baumgarten and Wölfert’s, 99.
_Belgique_, 129.
Blanchard’s, 79, 80.
British and American, 130, 131.
_Clément-Bayard I_, 123.
_Clément-Bayard II_, 131, 132, 133.
combined with aëroplane, 123.
_Colonel Renard_, 124, 126.
development of rigid, 145 _et seq._
Dupuy de Lome’s, 19, 92, 93.
early experiments with Zeppelin, 147-150.
early gasoline driven, 10 _et seq._
electric, 92-97.
_España_, 124, 126, 127.
first designs for, 78-86.
general design of _Zeppelin_, 146, 147.
German aërial fleet, 141, 142.
German nonrigid, 138.
Giffard’s, 90, 91, 98.
Gross type of, 138, 139, 140, 471-473.
Hänlein’s, 98.
Hopkinson’s suggestion for, 84.
Italian, 130.
_Jaune_, 115, 116.
Jefferson’s suggestion for, 84.
Jullien’s model, 88.
_Lebaudy_, 116, 117.
Lebaudy’s, 115-120, 134-137.
_Liberté_, 120.
maneuvers at Cologne, 143, 144.
Meusnier’s designs for, 85, 86.
Miolan and Janinet’s, 81.
_Morning Post_, 134.
muscular driven, 80, 82, 85, 92.
Parseval type of, 138, 139, 140-143, 473-476.
_Patrie_, 115, 118, 119.
Porter’s, 86, 87.
practical development of nonrigid, 115 _et seq._
practical speed of, 101.
Renard and Krebs’, 93-97.
_Republique_, 115, 118, 119, 466.
Robert’s, 81, 82, 83.
_Russie_, 120.
Santos-Dumont’s, 102-114.
Schwartz’s, 99, 100.
steam, 87, 89.
successful military, 456.
two systems of, 101.
types of, 122.
_U. S. Military I_, 138, 476, 477.
_Ville de Nancy_, 124, 125.
_Ville de Paris_, 120-123, 467-471.
voyage of across English channel, 132, 136, 137.
in _Zeppelin_, 153-156.
_Zeppelin IV_, explosion, 157, 158.
_Zeppelin_ passenger service, 167-169.
_Zeppelin_ type of, 145-169.
_Zodiac_ type of, 127, 128, 129.
passive:
cabinet for lofty ascents in, 71, 72.
Charles’ passenger, 42, 43.
cruise of, from London to Weilburg, 54.
dragon fire-inflated, 20.
earliest conceptions of, 18, 29.
earliest experiments with, 30, 31, 32.
early history of, 29 _et seq._
first coal gas, 54.
first human passengers in, 38.
first hydrogen, 35.
first passengers in, 37.
first scientific ascension in, 44, 45.
Glashier’s observations in, 64-70.
highest ascent of, 69, 70, 71, 72.
instruments and adjuncts to, 76, 77.
largest hot air, 48-50.
largest gas, 70, 71.
longest voyage of, 74.
modern spherical, 75.
Nadar’s _Geant_, 60, 61.
practical development of, 54 _et seq_.
principle of, 18.
public inauguration of, 33, 34.
recent improvements in, 76, 77.
ripping panel of, 74, 75.
sounding and pilot, 72.
voyage across the Atlantic in, 74, 75.
across the English channel in, 50, 52.
Paris to Meaux in, 61, 62.
Paris to Nienburg in, 62, 63.
Balsan, 74.
Baltimore aviation meet, 319.
_Baltimore Sun_, 319.
Barometric pressure, 363 _et seq._
distribution of, 370-374.
gradient of, 370.
high and low areas of, 372.
hygrometric features of, 373.
mechanical features of, 373, 374.
modifying conditions of, 371, 373.
surfaces and lines of equal, 370, 371.
Basenach, 138.
Baumgarten, 99.
_Belgique_, the, 129.
Bell, A. G., 194, 244, 264-267.
Bell, Mrs. A. G., 264.
Belmont Park, 310, 322.
Bennett international contests, 75, 292-301, 325, 326.
Berson, Professor, 70.
Betheny Plain, 292.
Bielovucic, Jean, 313.
Bigelow, Professor, 412, 413.
Biplane, 174, 220.
Birds, armed against airships, 11.
as men carriers, 10, 11, 12.
major limit of, 11, 12.
Bishop, Cortlandt Field, 285.
Black, 29.
Blanchard, 15, 16, 18, 50, 79, 80.
Blériot, Louis, 267-270, 286, 287, 290-292, 299-300, 380-382.
Bréguet, Louis, 313.
Brookins, Walter, 309, 326.
Brown, D. S., 193.
Bubbles, soap and varnish, 30.
Calm belts, 381.
Cammerman, Lieutenant, 314.
Cardan, 10.
Catapult, 240, 338.
Cavallo, 30, 31.
Cavendish, 29.
Cayley, Sir George, 181, 182.
Chanute, Octave, 15, 181, 218-221, 245, 250, 256, 260.
Charles, 35.
_Charlière_, 42.
_Chauvière_, 125, 136, 331, 339.
Chavez, George, 318, 319.
_Circuit de l’Est_, 339, 331.
_Clément-Bayard_, the, 123, 131-133, 456-459.
Cody, S. F., 305.
_Colonel Renard_, the, 124, 126.
_Compagnie General Transaerienne_, 124.
Control, three rudder system of, 229-331.
Coulomb, 17, 18.
_Country Life_, 321.
Coxwell, 64-70.
Critical temperature and pressure, 351.
Cross-country records, 311-314.
Curtiss, Glenn H., 138, 264-266, 282, 284-286, 294-300, 316, 317,
322, 323, 481 _et seq._
Cyclone, frequency of, 403, 404.
motions and pressures in, 395, 400.
motive power of, 395.
nature of, 394.
progression of, 401-403.
stationary, 403.
Daedalus, 3, 4, 5, 6.
_Daily Mail_, London, 314.
Daimler engine, 99, 150.
Dante, J. B., 13, 14.
Dauberck, Dr. W., 403.
Da Vinci, 8, 9.
De Bacqueville, 13, 14.
Delagrange, Leon, 261-263.
Delcourt, Dupuis, 100.
De Laland, 16, 18.
De Lesseps, Count, 327, 328.
De Lome, Dupuis, 91, 92, 93.
_Demoiselle_ monoplanes, 324.
Déperdussin, 339.
Deutsche de la Meurthe, 120 259.
Dew point, 358.
Dientsbach, Carl, vii, 164.
Distance records, 311-314.
Doldrums, 381.
Doubleday, Page & Co., 478.
Drift, defined, 186.
Dubonnet, 312.
Du Cros, Arthur, 131.
Dutrieu, Helene, 321.
Dynamic flyers, 174.
Endurance records, 311-314.
Engine, Daimler, 99, 150, 163.
Gnome, 312.
Körting, 139.
Mercedes, 140.
Panhard-Levassor, 136.
Rénault, 311.
Vivinus, 129.
_Engineering News_, 435.
English Channel flights, 50-53, 56, 137, 289-292.
English military dirigibles, 130-137.
_Eole_, 223.
Equator of balloon, 76.
Equilibrium, of angels, 7, 8.
Esnault-Pélterie, Robert, 304, 314, 337, 340.
_España_, the, 124, 126, 127.
Espy, 419, 420.
Etrich, Igo, 335, 336.
Fabre, 332-335.
Farman, Henri, 259-264, 298, 303, 305, 321.
Maurice, 305, 311.
Federation Aëronautique International, 322, 323.
Fequant, Lieutenant, 312.
Ferber, Captain, 256.
Ferrel, W., 356, 376-379, 397, 413, 436.
Fin, 229.
_Flesselle_, the, 48, 49, 50.
Flexible balloons, 122, 123.
Fluctuating winds, 427-439.
cause of, 436-438.
impact of, 435, 436.
Flying machine, impossibility of, 12, 17.
Flying machine models, 173 _et seq._
Abbe’s proposed, 200.
Cayley’s aërial glider, 181, 182.
Da Vinci’s helicopter, 175.
Da Vinci’s parachute, 177, 178.
Forlanini’s helicopter, 200.
Garnerin’s parachute, 179.
Hargrave’s, 190, 191.
Helicopter, 198-201.
Henson’s aëroplane, 182-184.
Henson and Stringfellow’s, 184, 185, 187.
Langley’s, 192-197.
Launoy and Bienvenu’s, 198, 199.
Lenormand’s parachute, 177, 178.
Paper traveling parachutes, 180, 181.
Penaud’s toy, 188.
Phillips’ aëroplane, 191, 192.
Phillips’ helicopter, 199.
Tatin’s aëroplane, 189.
Veranzio’s parachute, 177, 178.
Wenham’s aëroplane, 185, 186.
Zanonia Macrocarpa, 180.
Forbes, A. Holland, 6.
Forlanini, Professor, 200.
Fort Myer flights, 138, 272, 275-281.
Foulois, Lieutenant Benjamin, 278.
_France_, the, 93-97.
Franklin, Benjamin, 48, 446.
Free air, composition of, 349.
conditions of precipitation in, 351, 352.
critical points of constituents of, 351.
dynamical properties of dry, 353, 356.
friction of, 239.
humidity and density of, 358-361.
kinds of expansion of, 361, 362.
properties of moist, 357, 361.
French Academy, 17, 35.
French dirigibles, 88-129.
Garnerin, Jacques, 179.
Garros, 324.
Gasnier, Réné, 340.
German Airship Society, 166, 167.
German dirigibles, 138-169.
Giffard, Henri, 71, 88, 89, 90, 91.
Glaisher, James, 68-70.
Gliding machines, 203-221, 245-248.
Gnome engine, 312, 331, 340.
Godard, 62, 74, 129.
Gold-beater skin balloons, 30, 88.
Grade, 314.
Grahame-White, Claude, 315, 316, 319, 325, 327, 328.
Gravitational stability, 233.
Green, Charles, 54.
Gross, Major von, 138.
Gross dirigibles, 138, 139, 140.
Guide rope, or drag rope, 56, 76, 111, 114.
Hailstorms and hailstones, 415-419.
Hamilton, C. K., 313.
Hammer, W. J., vii.
Hangar, 126.
Hänlein, 98, 99.
Hann, 365.
Hanriot, 339.
Hargrave, Lawrence, 190, 191, 250, 260, 339.
Harmon, Clifford B., 321.
Hawley, A. R., 75.
Hazen, Prof. H. A., 435.
Hearne, 131, 228.
Helicopters, 198-201.
Helmholtz, Prof. Ludvig von, 436-438.
Henson, 182-184.
Herring, A. M., 218-222, 245, 271.
Holland, Robert, 54.
Hopkinson, Francis, 84.
Horner, 414.
Hoxsey, Arch, 309, 324.
Huffaker, E. C., 247.
Hull, best forms of, 88, 97, 98, 113.
stiffening of, by internal pressure, 83, 86.
Humidity, absolute, 359.
percentage of, 358.
Humphreys, Dr. W. J., vii, 349, 370.
Hydro-aëroplanes, 332-334, 481 _et seq._
Hydrogen balloon, invention of, 29-31, 35.
first ascent of, 36.
Hydrogen bubbles, 29.
Icarus, 3, 4, 5.
Ice, launching from, 265.
Indian seed parachute, 180.
Inherent stability, 229.
Insolation, effect on density of air, 364.
quantity of, received, 364-366.
Isobaric lines and surfaces, 371.
Isothermal lines, surfaces, 366, 367.
Isothermal layer, 370.
Italian Aviation Society, 318.
Italian military dirigibles, 130.
_Jaune_, the, 115, 116.
Jefferson, Thomas, 84.
Jeffries, 50.
Johnstone, Ralph, 309, 324, 329.
Jullien, 88.
Julliot, Henri, 115, 134, 136.
_June Bug_, the, 266, 267.
Kai Kaoos, 8, 9, 10.
Kapferer, H., 120, 294.
Keel surface, 120.
Kinet, Daniel, 312.
Kinetic stability, 233.
Kite balloon, 77.
Körting, 139.
Krebs, Captain, 93-97.
Kress, Wilhelm, 214.
_La Belgique_, 129.
_La España_, 124, 126, 127.
_La Flesselle_, 48, 49, 50.
_La France_, 93-97.
Lahm, Lieutenant Frank P., 272, 277.
_La Liberté_, 120.
Lambert, Count de, 273, 302.
Lana, 23, 24.
_La Nature_, 312.
Land-and-sea breezes, 392.
Landelle, G. de la, 203.
Langley, S. P., 187, 192-197, 211, 231, 232, 239-245, 251, 427,
433, 434, 439.
_La Patrie_, 115, 118, 119, 459-465.
_La République_, 115, 118, 119.
_La Russie_, 120.
Latent heat of condensation, 364.
Lateral balance of aëroplane, 229-231.
Latham, Hubert, 283, 288-290, 291, 319, 320, 324.
Launching an aëroplane, 202, 230, 256, 258, 259, 265.
Launching methods, 202, 240, 258, 259, 265.
Launoy and Bienvenu, 198, 199.
Laurens, 314.
_La Ville de Paris_, 120-123.
_Lebaudy_, the, 116, 117.
Le Blanc, Alfred, 273, 290, 310, 313, 326, 331.
_Le Clément-Bayard_, 123, 131-133, 456-459.
_Le Colonel Renard_, 124, 126.
Lefebvre, 293.
Leganeaux, U. G., 311, 319.
Lenormand, Sebastien, 177, 178.
Levino, A. S., vii.
Lift, defined, 186.
Lilienthal, Otto, 210-216, 250.
_London Daily Mail_, 289.
Loomis, 402, 414.
Lord Rayleigh, 6, 427.
McCurdy, J. A. D., 264.
MacMechen, 164.
Madison, James, 84.
Malecot, 123.
Maloney, D., 251-255.
Manley, Charles M., 242, 245, 251, 285.
Marconnet, Captain, 312.
Marey, Professor, 427.
Marvin, Prof. C. F., 435.
Mason, Monck, 55.
Mattullath, Hugo, 231, 235-239.
Maxim, Sir Hiram S., 226-228, 245.
Mendoza, 19.
Mercedes, 140.
_Meteorological Journal_, 435.
Meusnier, General, 85, 86.
Michelin prize, 273, 303, 311, 314, 321.
Milton, 7.
Moisant, John, 31, 328.
Monaco, Prince of, 111.
Monge, Marey, 100.
Monoplane, 174.
Monsoons, 385-391.
Montgolfier, 29, 37, 50.
_Montgolfière_, 42.
Montgomery, Prof. J. J., 251-255, 282, 339.
Moore, Willis L., 349, 405, 422.
Morane, 310.
_Morning Post_, 131, 134-137.
Motors, 340.
Antoinette, 254, 258.
Clément-Bayard, 458.
Daimler, 99, 150, 163.
Electrical, 92, 95.
Gnome, 312.
Körting, 139.
Mercedes, 140.
Panhard-Levassor, 136.
Rénault, 311.
steam, 228, 234.
Vivinus, 129.
Mouillard, L. P., 206-209.
Mountain-and-valley winds, 293.
Munn & Co., 481.
Muscular flight, 3-7.
Nadar’s balloon, the _Geant_, 60.
_Nassau, Great Balloon of_, 55.
_Nature_, 217, 427.
Nieuport, 339.
Northcliffe, Lord, 305.
Olieslaegers, Jan, 311.
Orthopters, 174.
Ovid, 3.
Panhard-Levassor, 136.
Parachutes, 176-81.
Parseval dirigibles, 138, 140-143.
Parseval, Major von, 77, 138.
Passive fliers, 174.
_Patrie_, the, 115, 118, 119, 459-465.
Paulhan, Louis, 284, 293-296, 305, 311, 315, 316, 317, 324, 325.
Peltier, H., 456.
Pénaud, A., 188.
Pendular stability, 233.
_Philadelphia Ledger_, the, 313.
Phillips, Horatio, 191, 192, 199.
Picardie military maneuvers, 131.
Pilcher, 216-218, 246.
Polignac, Marquis de, 301.
Porter, Rufus, 86, 87.
Post, Augustus, 6, 75.
Power expended in flight, 6, 7.
Power flyers, 174.
Pressure, critical, 351.
atmospheric, 370-374.
_Preussen_, the, 70.
Projectile stability, 232.
Propeller, Chauvière, 125, 136.
Puy de Dome, 314.
Pylons, 292.
Rayleigh, Lord, 6, 427.
Records, aëroplane,
altitude, 307-309.
cross-country, 311-314.
distance, 311.
duration, 311-314.
load, 311-314.
speed, 310-311.
_Red Wing_, 265, 266.
Relative humidity, 358.
Renard, Captain, 93-97, 210.
_République_, the, 115, 118, 119.
Reye, Dr., 414.
Rheims aviation contests, 292-301.
Riedinger, August, 140.
Rigid balloons, 122.
Robert, 42, 45, 81, 82, 83.
Roc, 11.
Rolls, Hon. C. S., 321.
Romain, 52.
Rotch, A. Lawrence, 380-382.
Rougier, 302.
Rozier, Pilâtre de, 38, 52.
Rudders, aëroplane, 245, 246.
three-torque, 229-231, 247, 248.
Ruskin, John, 7.
_Russie_, the, 120.
Ryan, Allan A., 327.
Thomas F., 327.
Sabathier, 131, 132.
Saddle bird, 8.
Saint-Marcq, Com. Le Clément, 438.
Sandt, Emile, 153.
Santos-Dumont, Alberto, 102-114, 303, 324, 356-359.
Saturation, 358.
Scaliger, 10.
Schottus, 19.
Schwartz, 99, 100.
_Scientific American_, 86, 153, 443, 481.
Screw, da Vinci’s, 176.
metal, 340.
radial-arm, 129, 242, 340.
wooden, 339.
Selfridge, Lieutenant T., 264, 265.
_Signal Corps Dirigible No. 1_, 138, 476, 477.
Signal Corps, U. S., vi, 271, 272, 276-281.
Signal Service, U. S., 417-419.
Sigsfeld, Captain von, 77.
_Silver Dart_, 305.
Skin-friction, 238, 239.
Soaring, early attempts at, 13.
winds helpful to, 303, 393, 403, 431, 425-459.
Society for the Study of Motor Air Ships, 138.
Sommer, Roger, 284, 293.
Sopwith, Thomas, 314.
Speed records, 310, 311.
Spratt, G. A., 247.
Squier, Major George Owen, 279, 459.
St. Louis tornado, 412, 413.
Stabilizing planes, 86.
Stability and steadiness, artificial, 229-231.
automatic, 218, 220, 229.
three-axial, 229, 234.
Statoscope, 76.
Statue of Liberty Prize, 325.
Stringfellow, 184, 185, 187.
Surcouf, 115.
Süring, Dr., 70.
Tabuteau, Maurice, 311.
Tasso, 3.
Tatin, Victor, 189.
Tellier monoplane, 312.
Temperature, critical, 351.
distribution of, 366-370.
gradient, 367.
vertical gradient, 367-369.
Temperature of the air, 363 _et seq._
Teisserenc de Bort, 380-382.
_The New York Times_, 313.
Three-rudder principle, 229-232.
Thunderstorms, genesis and propagation of, 423, 424.
nature of, 422 _et seq._
Tidswell, Ella, 216.
Tissandier, Gaston, 273, 283, 293.
Tornadoes, bursting of, 419-420 _et seq._
destructive power of, 409, 410.
dry, 420, 421.
dynamics of, 406-409.
genesis of, 405-406.
hail and snow, 415-419.
misty, 411 _et seq._
nature of, 404.
sections of, 409-417.
Tractional balance, 254.
Trade-winds and antitrade, 380-383.
Transatlantic voyages, 74, 75, 381, 383.
Triplanes, 175.
Types of flyers, 174.
balloons, 122.
United States Signal Corps, vi, 271, 272, 276-281.
United States War Department, 138, 196, 271, 272, 275-281.
United States Weather Bureau, iv.
Vacuum balloon, 18, 24, 25, 443-445.
Van der Born, 312.
Varnish bubbles, 30.
Vaulx, Count de la, 74, 127, 129.
Veranzio, Fauste, 177.
_Ville de Nancy_, the, 124, 125.
_Ville de Paris_, the, 120-123.
Vivinus, 129.
Voisin, 259, 267, 313.
Von Bezold, 424.
Waterspouts, analysis of St. Louis, 412, 413.
nature of, 411 _et seq._
Weiller prize, 314.
Wellman, Walter, 25, 75, 383.
Wenham, 185, 186, 245.
Weyman, 314, 331.
_White Wing_, the, 266.
Wilkins, 10.
Winans, Ross, 320.
Wind gusts, distribution of, 425, 426.
energy of, 435, 436.
instrumental study of, 427-459.
nature of, 425 _et seq._
soaring value of, 426, 427, 439.
sustaining force of, 426.
Winds, ascending trend of, 211.
cause of periodic, 383.
cyclonic, 394 _et seq._
diurnal, 392-393.
dry whirl, 420, 421.
fluctuations of, 427-439.
general cause of, 363, 364.
kinds of permanent, 380.
kinds of periodic, 383.
monsoon, 385, 391.
nonperiodic, 394 _et seq._
nonvortical, 422 _et seq._
permanent and periodic, 376 _et seq._
prevailing westerlies, 380, 382, 383.
trade-winds and antitrade, 380, 381.
useful for voyages, 381, 383.
in soaring, 303, 393, 403, 421, 425-439.
Wise, John, 73, 74, 383, 415, 416.
Wölfert, 99.
_World_, the New York, 313, 316.
Wright brothers, 245-251, 270-282, 309, 324, 326, 329, 338, 478.
Wynmalen, Henri, 321.
Zahm, 30, 97, 113, 221, 229-231, 239, 245, 334, 427-432, 443.
Zanonia Macrocarpa, 180.
Zeppelin, Count Ferdinand von, 102.
Zeppelin Airship Construction Co., 158, 161.
Zeppelin dirigibles, 145, 169.
Zodiac balloons, 127, 128, 129.
+----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| |
| FOOTNOTES: |
| |
| [1] With apologies to the California professor who will ride on |
| wings worked by muscular force alone. |
| |
| [2] Mr. A. Holland Forbes and Mr. Augustus Post, in the |
| international balloon race of 1908, used a balloon having too |
| long a neck, thus causing such pressure at its top as to burst |
| the bag. A dreadful plunge ensued, landing them on a house, but |
| without injury, as the netting and collapsed bag dampened their |
| speed of fall. It is reported that they crashed through the |
| skylight, and that the lady of the house regretted not being |
| there to receive them. |
| |
| [3] _Mechanical Principles of Flight._ |
| |
| [4] The reader may like to know that the basis of so much confidence |
| was that ancient Euclidean theorem connecting the surfaces and |
| volumes of similar figures with certain powers of their |
| homologous linear dimensions. |
| |
| [5] The writer has made hydrogen-inflated varnish bubbles a foot |
| in diameter which ascended swiftly to the ceiling; also, |
| air-inflated varnish bubbles a foot and a half in diameter |
| which lasted an hour. These, if suitably heated, may be made |
| to ascend; but this experiment is more difficult. |
| |
| [6] Both had studied science in college. Stephen was an |
| accomplished architect; Joseph, the author of many important |
| inventions, among others the common lamp chimney, the |
| hydraulic press, etc. |
| |
| [7] A long patch on the balloon that can be ripped open for the |
| sudden release of gas. |
| |
| [8] The equator of such a balloon is its horizontal great circle. |
| |
| [9] A similar suggestion was made by Thomas Jefferson in a letter |
| to Prof. James Madison, and dated from Paris in 1785: “I went |
| some time ago to see a machine which offers something new. A |
| man had applied to a light boat a very large screw, the thread |
| of which was a thin plate, two feet broad, applied by its edge |
| spirally around a small axis. It somewhat resembled a bottle |
| brush, if you will suppose the hairs of the bottle brush |
| joining together, and forming a spiral plane. This, turned on |
| its axis in the air, carried the vessel across the Seine. It |
| is, in fact a screw which takes hold of the air and draws |
| itself along by it; losing, indeed, much of its effort by the |
| yielding nature of the body it lays hold of to pull itself on |
| by. I think it may be applied in the water with much greater |
| effect and to very useful purposes. Perhaps it may be used |
| also for the balloon.” |
| |
| [10] _La Navigation Aerienne_, Gaston Tissandier. |
| |
| [11] The motive power equals the product of the speed and |
| resistance. But in the assumed case, the speed is doubled and |
| the resistance quadrupled; hence, the power required is |
| eightfold. |
| |
| [12] Santos-Dumont, _My Airships_. |
| |
| [13] m^3 signifies cubic meters. One cubic meter equals 35.3166 |
| cubic feet. |
| |
| [14] Hangar, an airship harbor, or garage. |
| |
| [15] Aëronat, an airship of the lighter-than-air kind. |
| |
| [16] Hearne, _Airships in Peace and War_. |
| |
| [17] _Over Sea by Air-Ship_, MacMechen and Dienstbach, _The |
| Century_, May, 1910. |
| |
| [18] A mathematical argument against this device is presented in |
| Appendix I. |
| |
| [19] It is commonly reported by navigators that the albatross |
| “sports in the tempest” on unbeating pinions; but it may be |
| questioned whether any bird can make headway against the |
| swiftest winds. |
| |
| [20] The “drift” and “lift” are the components of surface |
| wind-pressure respectively in the direction of flight and at |
| right angles to it. |
| |
| [21] The tandem monoplane, or two lifting planes arranged in |
| tandem, was invented by D. S. Brown and exhibited to the |
| Aëronautical Society of Great Britain in 1873. |
| |
| [22] This gasoline aëroplane model was previously tested in |
| private many times, both with single surface wings, and with |
| superposed surfaces. |
| |
| [23] Abbe, _Helicopters for Aërial Research_, _Aëronautics_, Feb. |
| 1909. |
| |
| [24] _L’Empire de l’Air._ |
| |
| [25] _Progress in Flying Machines_, Chanute. |
| |
| [26] The air rises with increased temperature, hence with |
| increased volume displacement, thus causing the wind in |
| general to have a slightly ascending trend. |
| |
| [27] _Aëronautical Annual, 1897._ |
| |
| [28] Ella Tidswell, _The Aëronautical Journal_, July, 1909. |
| |
| [29] W. J. S. Lockyer, _Nature_, August 12, 1897. |
| |
| [30] Wenham used superposed planes, Stringfellow superposed |
| planes trussed by vertical rods and diagonal wires, Phillips, |
| Lilienthal and Hargrave superposed arched surfaces. |
| |
| [31] See _Aëronautic Annual_, 1896. |
| |
| [32] _Aërial Warfare_, Hearne, p. 77. |
| |
| [33] Published by the _American Engineer and Railway Journal._ |
| |
| [34] This kind of automatic stability may be called inherent |
| stability. |
| |
| [35] Models embodying the above devices had been made and flown |
| by the writer some years previously; but aside from these it |
| is obvious that a Phillips’s aëroplane and other kinds can |
| be effectively controlled in flight by the above-proposed |
| three-torque system. |
| |
| [36] This idea was later materialized in Langley’s gasoline |
| biplane. |
| |
| [37] The means for balancing here suggested in italics was |
| claimed some years later in Mr. Hugo Mattullath’s patent |
| application in which the inventor had the assistance of the |
| present writer. |
| |
| [38] A nearly equivalent vertical surface was used in Dr. |
| Langley’s large “aërodrome.” It was a wind-vane rudder placed |
| well below and to the rear of the centroid, to be used in |
| turning corners. The pressure on this rudder would tilt the |
| aëroplane toward the center of curvature of the path, and turn |
| it about the vertical axis, but would conspire with the |
| centrifugal force. If placed above and forward, it would give |
| the desired moments, but oppose the centrifugal force. |
| |
| [39] He died of apoplexy, January 31, 1902. |
| |
| [40] The first flights were to be made from the water. |
| |
| [41] It can be shown that the angle of flight requiring the least |
| motive power is that which makes the wing resistance, or |
| drift, three fourths of the entire resistance to progression. |
| |
| [42] _Atmospheric Resistance on Even Surfaces_, by A. F. Zahm, |
| _Phil. Soc. Washington_. |
| |
| [43] The term “aërodrome” is now commonly applied to an aviation |
| field. |
| |
| [44] On August 25, 1909, Louis Paulhan, in the aviation contest |
| at Rheims, flew 82 miles in 2 hours, 43 minutes and 24 |
| seconds, preserving his lateral balance without the aid of |
| torsion-wing mechanism and in a turbulent atmosphere. |
| |
| [45] _Aërial Locomotion_, A. G. Bell, Washington Academy of |
| Science, March 4, 1907. |
| |
| [46] The Wrights in 1910 adopted the rear horizontal and vertical |
| rudder, thus returning to the design of their predecessors. |
| |
| [47] On July 18, 1905. |
| |
| [48] These glides were abandoned as too dangerous and roundabout, |
| in favor of direct tentative flights with a motor. |
| |
| [49] Falling weights pulling a cord that accelerates the |
| aëroplane at starting. |
| |
| [50] _Present Status of Military Aëronautics_, _Journal of the |
| American Society of American Engineers_, December, 1908. |
| |
| [51] On September 18, 1906, Montgomery received a U. S. patent on |
| an aëroplane having curved wings and three-rudder control, the |
| Wright brothers having on May 22, 1906, received a patent on |
| an aëroplane having normally flat wings and three-rudder |
| control. |
| |
| [52] The daring aviator escaped without a scratch, but his |
| propeller and running gear were damaged slightly. |
| |
| [53] This was an official record, but Brookins had flown 4939 |
| feet high, at Indianapolis, on June 17th. |
| |
| [54] This record was made with an uncalibrated barograph, and |
| hence was unofficial and unaccepted as a world’s record. |
| |
| [55] The present writer, in his paper quoted on page 229, pointed |
| out the equilibrative and steadying quality of torsionally |
| elastic wings, and some years previously had proved this by |
| gliding models having sustainers with flexible rear margins. |
| |
| [56] The whole water vapor in the atmosphere of our latitude in |
| summer is equivalent to about one inch of rainfall. |
| |
| [57] Computed by W. J. Humphreys for Moore’s _Descriptive |
| Meteorology_. |
| |
| [58] Ferrel, _Popular Treatise on Winds_. |
| |
| [59] Solar radiation received by the earth. |
| |
| [60] W. J. Humphreys, _Astro. Phys. Journ._, January, 1909. |
| |
| [61] An isobar is a line of intersection of an isobaric surface |
| with a water level surface at any altitude. |
| |
| [62] _A Popular Treatise on the Winds._ |
| |
| [63] _The Conquest of the Air._ |
| |
| [64] By this current John Wise, in 1870, and Walter Wellman, in |
| 1910, proposed to voyage across the Atlantic; Wise in a free |
| balloon, Wellman in a motor balloon with drag rope. See pp. |
| 74, 75. |
| |
| [65] It is reported that once during the month of August the |
| rainfall totaled thirty-two feet; and it is believed that the |
| annual fall exceeds fifty feet. |
| |
| [66] The “eye” is most noticeable at sea, where the cyclones are |
| more symmetrical, and particularly in lower latitudes, where |
| they are more concentrated. |
| |
| [67] The destructive one that visited Galveston in 1900 is a |
| well-known example. |
| |
| [68] _Contributions to Meteorology._ |
| |
| [69] Dr. W. Dauberck, _Met. Zeitschrift_, April, 1866. |
| |
| [70] Moore’s _Meteorology_, p. 164. |
| |
| [71] Von Bezold, on the _Thermodynamics of the Atmosphere_. |
| |
| [72] Chanute, _Aeronautical Annual_, 1897, p. 101. |
| |
| [73] _Nature_, April 5, 1883. |
| |
| [74] _Vol des Oiseaux._ |
| |
| [75] _Internal Work of the Wind._ |
| |
| [76] _Engineering News_, December 13, 1890. |
| |
| [77] _Meteorological Journal_, November, 1891. |
| |
| [78] On _Atmospheric Movements_ (Abbe’s translation). |
| |
| [79] From _Scientific American_, March 13, 1909, by permission of |
| Munn & Co. |
| |
| [80] For a fuller account of this fine airship see H. Peltier’s |
| article in _L’Aérophile_, December 1, 1910. |
| |
| [81] This description and the following are from _Present Status |
| of Military Aëronautics_, by Major G. O. Squier. |
| |
| [82] From _Navigating the Air_, by permission of Doubleday, Page |
| & Co. |
| |
| [83] From _Scientific American_ of March 4, 1911, by permission |
| of Munn & Co. |
| |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------+
Transcriber’s Notes:
- Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
- Redundant title page has been removed.
- Blank pages have been removed.
- Silently corrected typographical errors.
End of Project Gutenberg's Aërial Navigation, by Albert Francis Zahm